文体学复习

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初中语文文体知识总复习

初中语文文体知识总复习

初中语文文体知识总复习记叙文知识1.特点以记叙为主要表达方式,综合其它表达方式;以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容;通过描述人物、事件及状物、写景来表达一定的中心。

2. 要素: 时间、地点、人物、事件(起因、经过、结果),有时六要素不一定都出现,某些要素是可以省略的。

3.顺序A顺叙:以事情发展的时间先后顺序记叙,如《一面》。

以事物或观察的空间顺序记叙,如《从百草原到三味书屋》。

作用:脉络清楚,条理分明。

B倒叙:先写结局,再追述顺序叙述事情经过,回忆性文章多用这种顺序(注意与插叙的区别)C 插叙:暂时中断中心事件的叙述,插入相关的另一事情的叙述,如《驿路梨花》。

作用:对缘由做补充,对人物做介绍。

4识别叙述表达方式的方法 :叙述是对事情原委、始末作直接的介绍、说明和交待,是最基本的表达方式5识别描写表达方式的方法;:描写是对人、事、物、景作具体、形象的刻画 .人物描写分为: 肖象描写语言描写动作描写心理描写景物描写作用: 交待环境烘托气氛表现心理抒发感情细节描写的作用: 具体生动6识别抒情表达方式的方法:对感受和感情的抒发、表达。

直接抒情,直接抒发歌人或作者的思想感情;间接抒情,通过记叙、描写、或议论来抒发感情。

说明文知识1.特点以说明为主要表达方式,兼用叙述、描写、议论。

以解说或介绍事物的形状、性质、成因、构造、功用、类别等或物理的含义、特点、演变等为主要内容。

以客观、准确为基本要求,一般不表示作者的感情倾向。

2;分类按说明对象分:①事物说明文:解释、介绍实体性事物,如《中国石拱桥》。

. ②事理说明文:解释、说明抽象性事物,如《死海不死》。

3.说明方法A下定义:用判断句对事物的本质特征作简明、概括的说明B举例子:列举实例对事物作具体的说明C分类别:按照一定标准、角度对较复杂的事物进行分类,再逐一说明D打比方:运用比喻方法,对事物或势力进行形象化的说明E作比较:将此事物与彼事物进行比较,说明此事物的特征,作比较有横向比较(类比对比)和纵向比较两种F作引用:引用经典、文献、名言、诗词、歌谣、传说等进行说明G列数字:确数,用准确的数字资料加以说明。

文体学复习材料汇总

文体学复习材料汇总

文体学复习材料汇总Part 1 Stylistics: Definitions―Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of Style.―Simply defined, Stylistics is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used: it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.‖―The stylistics we are discussing here is Modern Stylistics, a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use.‖General stylistics concentrates solely on the general features of various types of language use. It studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering the functional varieties from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors of discourse (different addresser-addressee relationships), and the spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). ?Meanwhile, general stylistics covers the various genres of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study. But it focuses on the interpretation of the overall characteristics of respective genres, with selected extracts of literary texts as samples. Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. (考点)Part 2: Views on Language/doc/7411926710.html,nguage as a social activity. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution, whereby people communicate and interact with each other.2.The philosophical view of Language or A language is related to the actual occurrence of language in society –what are called language activities. All utterances (whether a word, a sentence, or several sentences) can be thought of as goal-directed actions. (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) Such actions as carried out through language are Speech Acts. Social activities in which language (either spoken or written) plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc., are Speech Events.‖/doc/7411926710.html,nguage is often compared to a Code, a system of signals or symbols used for sending a Message, a piece of information. In any act of verbal communication (both spoken and written, primarily spoken), language has been regarded as a system for translating meanings in the Addresser‘s (the speaker‘s / writer‘s) mind into sounds / letters, i.e., Encoding (meaning-to-sound/letter), or conversely, for translating sounds/letters into meanings in the Addressee‘s (the hear‘s / reader‘s mind, ie Decoding.(sound / letter-to-meaning), with lexis and grammar as the formal code mediating between meanin g and sound / letter.‖―But we must keep in mind that, unlike other signaling codes, language code does not operate in a fixed way – it is open-ended in that it permits generation of new meanings and new forms (such as metaphorical meanings, and neologisms); ie it is in a way creatively extendibl e.‖―Text, then, is verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.‖Part 3: Text―A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length,that forms a unified whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statute, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate).‖A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.‖材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is. B: I‘m in pyjamas. A: OK.Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B‘s remar k to A‘s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. ―I‘m in pyjamas‖ implies an excuse for not complying with A‘s command (= ―No, I can‘t, because I‘m in pyjamas.‖) A‘s second remark implies that he accepts B‘s excuse and undertakes to do himself w hat he originally asked B to do (= OK. I‘ll go myself and see.‖ Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.Part 4: Aspects of the Speech Event―Language is transmitted, patterned, and embedded in the human social experience. So it is both possible and useful to discern three crucial aspects of a speech event: the substantial, the formal, and the situational.‖Contextual factors that are socially, regionally or situa-tionally relevant to the production and interpretation of texts fall into the two following categories:1) Characteristics of the User of language: a. Age; b. Sex; c.Socio-regional or ethnic background; d. Education2) Characteristics of the Use of language in situation: a. Medium of communication –speech or writing; b. Setting –private or public; c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee – the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance;d. Purpose for which language is used,e.g. to inform, to command, to express feelings, to establish social relations, etc.; e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance.Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan‘s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won‘t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I‘m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)Alan: Oh won‘t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as ―Mr. Marlow‖.Part 5: Language varieties and function1.影响文体变化的因素多种多样,主要可以归为三个方面:第一方面是讲话内容(field of discourse),第二是讲话方式(mode of discourse), 第三是讲话人和听话人的地位关系(tenor of discourse)2.The Ideational / Referential function serves for expressing the speaker‘s/writer‘s experience of thereal world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness.The Interpersonal or Expressive/Social function serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another.The Textual function provides means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation.Part 6: StyleDefinition:*Style may refer to a person‘s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use.*Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use.To be exact, we shall regard Style as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation.Part 8: The Concern of Stylistic StudyStylistics: It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language.Stylistic study concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties (both literary and non-literary) of a language – here, of the Modern English language.*The Need for Stylistic Study1) Style is an integral part of meaning.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What‘s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I‘m a physician.Poli ceman: What‘s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.The word ?boy‘ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ?Dr. So-and-so‘ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ?boy‘, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.2) Stylistics may help us to acquire a ?sense of style‘.3) Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature.Session 5 Varieties of Language5.1 Two kinds of varieties: Dialectal varieties, Diatypic varieties (语言变体或语域) DIALECTAL VARIETIES, commonly called DIALECTs, are language varieties that areassociated with different users of the language. As users in a society can be defined in terms of their individual, temporal, regional, and social affiliations, and their range of intelligibility, there are individual, temporal, regional, social and standard varieties respectively. These are relatively permanent features of the language user in a speech event.DIATYPIC VARIETIES, commonly called REGISTERs, are language variations that are associated with the different use to which they are put. Such varieties do not depend on the people who use the language, but on the occasion when it is used.Different types of language are selected as appropriate to different types of occasion. The choice is determined by the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use. The occasions can be classified along three dimensions, each presenting an aspect of the situation and the part played by the language in them. In this way, registers may be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenor of discourse.Temporal Dialect: A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language.Social Dialect: A variety associated with certain social group.1) Socioeconomic status varieties 2) Ethnic varieties3) Gender varieties 4) Age varieties 5) Standard Dialect5.3 Registers语域1) Field of Discourse语场is the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of the language user, --the type of social activity the language user is engaged in doing in the situation in which the text has occurred.a. Some roles are non-specialist in nature and relate to non-specialist fields such as 'establishing personal contact' or 'phatic communion'. They are likely to have related topics: weather, health, news, etc.b. Field of discourse can be more or less restricted in language.c. The language of legal documents and the language of religious observance are also highly situation-tied.d. Technical fields have their own special vocabulary and favorite grammatical patterns.e. More radical grammatical differences are found in thelanguage of legal documents.2) Mode of Discourse 语式is the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication.3) Tenor of Discourse 语旨is the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader—called personal tenor, and of what the user is trying to do with language for/to his or her addressee (s) -- called functional tenor.*Personal tenor is concerned with the degrees of formality of the language used.*Functional tenor is concerned with the intention of the user in using the language.4) The Notion of RegisterThe concurrence of instances of contextual categories: field, mode, tenors of discourse-produces text varieties called registers, which can be defined in terms of phonological, lexical, and grammatical features.Registers are distinctive varieties of language used in different types of situation.5.5 The Social Meaning of Language Varietiesl) the period of development of the language in which the speaker/ writer spoke or wrote it (temporal dialect);2) the geographical area he or she is from (regional dialect);3) the social group he or she belongs to (social dialect);4) the range of intelligibility of his or her language (standard or non-standard dialect);5) the activity he or she is engaged in (field);6) the medium he or she is using (mode);7) the social relationship existing between him or her and hisor her addressee (s) (personal tenor);8) the intention in his or her mind in conveying the message (functional tenor);9) the distinctive language habits he or she has shown (idiolect).Session 6 Linguistic Description* The level of lexis and grammar1) Morphology and syntaxGrammar studies the sentence structures in a language, and the way they function in sequences. Traditionally, grammar consists of two parts: morphology (the internal structure of words and word-formation rules) and syntax (external relationships of words in a sentence).2) Lexicology studies the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings.* The levels of semanticsSemantics (here) studies the overall meaning of a text, the meaning derived not from the formal properties of words and structures but from the way sentences / utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used / uttered.6.4 Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show howthey form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser‘s intention of using the langua ge.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.*an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal. 9.4 Martin Joos‘ classi fication (Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for thatparticular event.The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), andparticipants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and givea significant amount of background material.In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen styleof (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.Session 10 Spoken vs Written Language10.1 Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer *Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitness*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal backgroundknowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) Preparedness*Writing is on the whole more ?careful‘ than speaking.*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.10.2 Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spokenas if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).10.5 Mode, field, and tenors●The mode of discourse is primarily related to the textual function of language. Yet it has some relations with the ideational function of language by way of field of discourse: some fields such as legal statutes and dictionaries tend to occur in the written mode; some fields such as telephone conversation and spontaneous speech tend to occur in the spoken mode.●Mode also has relations with the interpersonal function of language by way of personal and functional tenors of discourse: the written texts tend to be formal and the spoken tend to be informal; the phatic function is common in the spoken as is the descriptive function in the written.。

语文总复习文体知识归类

语文总复习文体知识归类

语文总复习文体知识归类1 记叙文文体知识要点(1) 以记叙文为主要表达方式的文章叫记叙文.语言特点,生动,形象.(2) 作品中所反映的生活和作者对生活的看法,就是记叙文的中心,也叫中心思想.中心思想是依靠人,事,景,物这些材料来表的.因而记叙文的材料必须为中心思想服务,做到中心明确,集中.(3) 记叙文的顺序主要有几种:顺叙,倒叙,插叙.顺叙:按事件的发生,发展结局的过程记叙.倒叙:把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提到文章的开头写,然后再按时间顺序写事件的经过.插叙:在记叙过程中,有时需要插入另一些有关的情节,然后再按着记叙原来的事情.(4) 记叙文中的详略安排应该是能突出中心的材料应该详写;与中心有关系,但是不很重要的材料,应该略写;与中心无关的材料应该舍弃.这样,才能使记叙的中心集中,鲜明,突出.(5) 记叙文的样式常见有:对现实生活中典型人物和事迹作具体报道的通讯.用文字语言和文学手法描述真人真事的特写.记叙山川景物,旅途见闻为主的游记. 追忆本人或生活经历和社会活动的回忆录,传记,访问记等.它们共同特点是:所写内容必须真实,不容许随意夸大或缩小事实,更不能编造虚构,即要有真实性;对所写的内容又要求作必要的加工.力求文章中心突出,形象鲜明,构思精巧(6) 特写是报告文学的一种样式,它截取人物或事件的某个片断,细致地加以描述.(7) 传记一般分两类:一类记叙自己的生平;一类记叙他人的生平.传记的主要特点是实录,要求实事求是,不允许虚构夸张.传记在表达上以记叙为主,也可以适当插入议论,描写.传记记叙的顺序一般以时间为序. 人物和人物故事的区别在于人物故事只要具体写出人物的某个事件或某几件事就行了.小传则要求写出人物的出生地,出生年月,主要经历等.人物自传的繁简区别在于自传可以根据需要采用不同写法,可以写自己全部经历,也可以写自己某个时期的经历.2 说明文文体知识要点(1)以说明为主要表达方式,按一定的要求解说事物或事理的文章称为说明文.说明文的语言特点:准确,平实,简洁.(2)说明事物的前提是抓住事物的特征.所谓特征就是事物间相互区别的标志.(3)说明文的说明顺序有:空间顺序,时间顺序,逻辑顺序,(有总说后分说,先主要后次要,先原因后结果,由现象到本质,由性能到功用等)(4)常用的说明方法有:分类别,作解释,举例子,打比方,作比较,用数字,列图表.(5)说明文按说明对象和内容分有:说明实体事物和说明抽象事理两大类.说明文按写作方法和表达方式分有:平实性说明文和文艺性说明文.(6)平实性说明文和文艺性说明文的区别在于:平实性说明文纯用说明的表达方式,语言朴实简明,内容具体,切实使人读了就能明白.如自然科学的各类教科书.科技信息资料,实验报告,说明书等.文艺性说明文以说明为主,辅以叙述,描写,抒情等多种表达方式,并常用借助一些修辞方法,形象化地介绍事物或阐述事理,使读者在获得知识的同时,还能得到艺术的享受,这类说明文通常称知识小品或科学小品.(7)说明文的描写和记叙文中的描写区别:a 目的不同:记叙文中的描写是为了“使人有所感,”;说明文的描写是为了“使人有所知”.b 记叙文可以根据中心思想的需要,使用各种描写方法起到多方面的作用.说明文的描写则只能在说明事物的过程中,借助某钟形象化的手法,对事物的特征作一些必要的描绘,主要是起到使说明的事物特征更具体,更形象.c 记叙文中的描写可以发挥艺术想象,可以夸张,渲染,而说明文中的描写在务真求实的前提下进行语言加工,做到既形象生动,又真实可信.3 议论文文体的知识要点(1)生活中少不了议论,讲道理,发表意见就是议论.以议论为主要表达方式的文章就是议论文.(2)议论总要提出看法或主张,这种看法或主张就是论点,用来证明论点的材料就为论据,用论据来证明论点的过程即为论证过程.(3)用以证明论点的材料有两大类:事实材料(事实论据)即确凿的事例;史实;统计数字等.理论材料(道理论据)即名人名言;警句;格言;科学原理;自然定律;马列毛泽东思想.(4)议论文的基本结构:提出问题;分析问题;解决问题.议论文的基本论证方法:摆事实,讲道理.论证方式:立论,驳论.所谓立论就是正面阐述自己的观点.驳论就是批驳错误的观点. (5)一事一议议论文的写作特点:借事发表议论,就事说明道理.而从“事”到议.又必须理出并把握两者的联系点,才可顺理成章地展开议论,这事“一事一议”的关键.(6)议论文常见的有几种样式:社论,评论,学术论文,专题讨论,杂感,随笔以及侧重1于议论性的讲演词,书信等.在以上样式中,有理论性较强的,有文艺性较强的.4 小说散文戏剧诗歌的知识要点(1)就文章的样式(体裁)分,有小说,散文,戏剧,诗歌并列的四种文学样式.(2)小说以塑造人物现象为中心,通过具体的故事情节,环境描写来反映社会生活.人物,故事情节,环境称为小说的三要素.(3)小说中描写人物的方法多种多样,主要有:外貌,行动,语言,心理描写.(4)小说中的“我”并非作者自己,一般是由作者虚构的.并经过艺术加工而成的人物现象.(5)小说中的环境描写分自然环境和社会环境.环境描写的作用是小说不可缺少的组成部分,在烘托人物性格,交代作品的时代背景,推动情节方面有重要的作用.、(6)由人物的相互关系而产生的生活事件的发展过程,构成小说的情节,而连贯这一过程就是小说的线索.(7)小说中的情节线索对生活矛盾的揭示,对人物性格的形成,起着积极作用.(8)诗歌的语言特点:凝练.所谓凝练,就是用精练而优美的语言,表现尽可能丰富的思想感情.(9)诗歌的押韵,韵脚:诗句的末一个字的韵母相同或相近,就为押韵;句末押韵的字就称为韵脚.(10)词是古代韵文的一种形式,每一种词牌都有固定的格式和调子,可以唱;词的句式有长有短,因而又叫长短句.词有上下阕之分.(11)散文的特征;形散而神不散.散文的形式不拘一格,可以记人,叙事,也可以写景,状物.散文中无论抒情还是议论,都必须以所记叙或描写的人,事,景,物为依托.记叙,描写是抒情议论的基础,抒情,议论的记叙,描写的深化.散文中记叙,描写,抒情,议论几种表达方式常常是综合运用的.(12)戏剧是一种以表演艺术为中心的综合艺术,它借助文学,音乐,舞蹈,美术等艺术手段塑造人物形象,揭示社会矛盾,反映现实生活.戏剧包括话剧,歌剧,舞剧等.(13)供演出用的剧本,即戏剧作品.主要特点:有尖锐的矛盾冲突,在矛盾冲突中推动剧情发展,展示人物性格;人物,场景,情节高度集中,矛盾冲突要在短暂的时间内,不多的场次中反映出来;人物语言要求个性化,行动化,口语化.(14)剧本是舞台演出的依据和基础,是戏剧的重要组成部分,直接决定着戏剧的思想性和艺术性.由于演出的需要,剧本里有一些说明性的文字,叫做“舞台说明”又称“舞台提示”,内容包括人物表,时间,地点,服装,道具,布景以及人物的表情,动作,上下场等.舞台说明有助于人物性格的刻画,故事情节的展开.5 童话寓言民间故事神话知识要点(1)童话寓言都通过丰富的想象,采用夸张,拟人等表现手法,塑造种种具有象征意义的形象,反映多姿多彩的社会生活.两者不同点是童话更富于幻想,故事大都神奇曲折,语言生动浅显,富有儿童情趣.寓言则把深刻的道理寄托在简短的故事里面,语言简朴明快,借此喻彼,借小喻大,一般都含有讽刺或劝戒的教育意义.(2)民间故事是一种立足于现实而又富有幻想的口头文学作品.由于它反映劳动人民的要求和愿望,所以就广泛地流传在人民群众之中.民间故事一般有完整的故事情节,鲜明的人物性格,语言口语化,富有浓郁的生活气息和地方色彩.(3)神话反映古代人们对世界起源.自然现象和社会生活的原始理解.并通过超自然的形象和幻想的形式来表现的故事和传说,它借助想象来表达古代人民征服自然力的理想和追求.6 新闻通讯的知识要点(1)新闻和通信都是报道最近发生的新鲜而重要的信息,要求真实,及时.不同点:新闻比较简短,通信比较详尽.新闻以记叙为主,让事实本身说话,一般不作描写,议论,抒情等.通信具有一定的文学性,往往综和运用记叙,描写议论,抒情等表达方式;新闻的语言简明扼要,一般不展开情节,通信则要求具体生动,它往往根据表达的需要,对人,事作多方面的或全过程的具体报道.(2)新闻的结构包括标题,导语,主体三部分.标题通常是新闻内容的提要.导语是事件或事件中心的概述.主体则是介绍有关情况或进一步突出中心.(3)新闻一般应交代有关的时间,地点,人物,事件的起因经过结果,(符号记叙文的六要素)(4)新闻的标题有时不只一个,有正题(展示主要事实和中心思想);引题(交代情况,烘托气氛);副题(对正题作补充说明)7 书信有关知识要点(1)日常书信一般有六个部分:称谓,问候,正文,祝颂,具名,日期.(2)称谓应顶格写,单独一行,后面加上冒号.问候语是礼貌用语,应在称谓的下一行,空两格. (3)祝颂语分两截,前一截连接正文,或另起一行,空两格写;后一截必须另起一行,顶格写,以示尊重.(4)具名的位置,应在祝颂语后一截的下一行接近末尾的地方.日期在具名的下一行靠右一点.日期最好写全,即年、月、日.(5)专用书信,指的是生活书信以外的各种社交书信.这类书信除少数有特定的格式外,与生活书信大致相仿,只是不同的专用书信,有不同的习惯用语.专用书信的语言风格一般都比较庄重.(6)商务信函由事由、函号、受文者、正文、落款五部分组成.(7)申请书应有标题、称呼、正文、祝颂语、署名、日期几部分组成.8 广告的知识要点广告是向公众介绍商品,报道服务内容或文体节目的一种宣传方式.广告总是要宣传商品的优点和长处,但要注意实事求是.广告写作的结构,包括标题,正文、结尾三部分.标题是广告的眼睛,必须精心提炼.正文是提供商品信息细节的部分.目前常见并且宣传效果较好的广告文字有正书体、陈述体、问答体、证书体,幽默体.广告的结尾又叫落款,主要是交代厂商名称、地址、电话、电报挂号等,便于顾客购货或联系.9 计划和总结知识要点计划是一种应用文体.计划的种类很多,按内容分,有生产计划、工作计划、科研计划、学习计划等;按范围分,有国家计划、部门计划、单位计划、个人计划等;按性质分,有综和性计划、专门性计划等;按时限分,有年度计划、季度计划、月份计划等.另外,还有“短期计划”和“长期规划”:一般说来,凡适用时间较短、内容比较详细具体的称作“计划”;凡适用时间较长、范围较广、内容较概括的称作“规划”,如三年规划、五年规划、十年规划等.但不何种计划或规划,都必须具备以下三个要素:目标,措施,步骤.计划没有固定的格式,详细的计划多用条文形式,简要的计划多用表格形式,即按印的表格逐项填写,也可以两者合一,既有条文又有表格.用条文形式写成的计划,一般由标题、正文、结尾三部分组成.标题就是计划的名称,应写在第一行正中.内容包括计划种类的名称、计划的期限等,有的还写明订计划的单位名称.正文就是计划的具体内容,包括总的目标、具体的项目和指标、实施的步骤和措施等.结尾包括计划的制定单位的名称(或个人姓名)和制定日期两项,写在正文的右下方.总结的种类很多.按内容分,有生产总结、工作总结、学习总结、思想总结;按时间分,有年度总结、季度总结、月份总结、学期总结、阶段总结等;按范围分,有地区总结、部门总结、单位总结、个人总结等;按性质分,有全面总结和专题总结.小结也属于总结一类,只是在范围大小、时间长短和内容详略等方面和总结有所不同罢了.总结没有固定的格式,一般由标题、正文、署名和日期三部分组成.。

文体知识复习

文体知识复习

议论文中的表达方式
• 1、议论文中的记叙,往往概括性很强,作 用:用事实证明某一观点或主张。 • 2、议论文中时而有生动形象的描写,作用: 更鲜明生动地证明了某一观点。 • 3、议论中的抒情,会使议论更有感染力, 更深入人心。
议论文开篇事例的作用
• 1、引出下文论述(引出下文论点) • 2、作为事实论据证明……观点 • 3、激发读者的阅读兴趣
记叙顺序
• • • • 顺叙、倒叙、插叙 插叙作用: 1、内容上:交代了……的来历 2、结构上:为下文情节的展开做铺垫
修辞手法分类及作用
• (1)比喻:把××比作××,形象生动地写出了事物的××特 点,表达了作者…… • (2) 拟人:使事物具有人的神态、动作、语言、心理等,形象 生动地写出了事物的××特点,表达了作者…… • (3)夸张:揭示事物的××本质,烘托××气氛,加强渲染力, 引起读者的强烈共鸣。 • (4)排比:可增强语言的气势。可把感情抒发得淋漓尽致。 • (5)对偶:使语言简练工整。形式上音节整齐匀称、节奏感强, 具有音律美;内容上凝练集中,概括力强。 • (6)引用:既增强了说服力,又使文章充满诗情画意,趣味盎 然。 • (7)设问:强调问题,引起人们注意,启发人们思考。用在一 段的开头或结尾处,除引起思考外,还有承上启下的过渡作用。 • (8)反问——起强调作用,增强肯定(否定)语气。 • (9)借代:以简代繁,以实代虚,以奇代凡,以事代情,能起 到突出形象,使之具体、生动的效果。
说明文语言
• 某个词能否去掉,为什么?
• 步骤:不能删去,× ×表示什么(表示限 制、频率、估计、猜测、程度……) ,为 什么用这个词,去掉与原意不符,体现说 明文语言的准确性。
说明文段落作用
• 1、开头引用事例: • (引出下文说明对象,增加读者阅读兴趣) • 2、结尾有时会作补充说明,使说明更完整、 更严密、更科学。

文体学复习资料

文体学复习资料

复习资料英语专业《文体学》(本科)1. 根据重音的不同, 写出下列词组的意思.(8分)(1)一家工厂(2)一种玩具(3)教英语的老师(4)一位英国籍老师(5)白宫(6)白色的房子(7)一个黑色的鸟巢(8)黑鸟的巢2. 试从押韵和用词的角度来分析这首诗是如何把人, 生活及生命密切联系在一起的.(5分)作者用down与town押韵,hold与cold押韵。

选用了一些中性词和具体名词,都与人,生活及生命密切联系,如face, hand, spoon, soup, die等,作者还连用三个no与left 一起表达了二十万人的生命从地球上消失这一可怕的事实,而这一切就在日常生活喝汤的几秒钟之间发生。

3. 选出下列委婉语所表达的意思。

(12分)(1) b (2) a (3) d (4) e (5) b (6) c(7) f (8) b (9) d (10) I (11) h (12) g5. 写出下列词,词组和句子的涵义。

(9分)(1)罗宾汉(绿林好汉)(2)乌托邦(理想社会)(3)汤姆叔叔(逆来顺受的人)(4)香格里拉(理想乐园)(5)阿克琉斯的脚后跟(致命的弱点)(6)麦加(向往的地方)(7)潘多拉的盒子(灾难之源)(8)言过其实(9)达摩克利斯之剑(随时可能发生的灾难)6. 试分析下面一节诗所用的句子结构形式及达到的艺术效果。

(5分)在这一节诗里,倒装句用得十分巧妙,诗人首先在环境上加以渲染,造成一种悬念气氛:“从天空中、从云层中、在树林上、在田庄上,”“静静地、轻轻地、悠悠地”,而把主要概念保留到最后一行,最后一词,读者对诗的主题才恍然大悟,因此收到极佳的艺术效果。

7. 指出下列句子所用的句法上的修辞手段,并把字母填入相应的括号内。

(12分)(1) A (2) E (3) B (4) BC (5) BD8. 分析下列诗句。

(14分)抑扬格,五音步这几行的有规律的节奏似乎模拟了傍晚的钟声和疲倦的脚步声。

成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义

成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义

成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义1、议论文议论文是指以议论说理为主的文章,包括论点、论据、论证三要素。

论点是作者的观点或主张;论据是证明论点的根据,可分为事实论据和理论论据;论证是用论据证明论点的过程,一般分为立论和驳论两大类型。

论证的方法有归纳论证(例证论证)、演绎论证、比较论证(类比论证、对比证论)、比喻论证等。

驳论的方法有驳论点、驳论据、驳论证等。

2、记叙文记叙文是指记人、叙事、写景、状物的文章。

它以叙述为主,往往间用描写、抒情、议论等多种手法。

3、诗、词、曲、赋诗、词、曲都属于诗歌的范畴。

诗歌以丰富的情感反映生活;对生活作高度集中的概括;语言凝练而富有形象性;富于节奏感和韵律美。

中国古代诗歌分为古体诗和近体诗。

词有词牌,写词必须受词调的限制,句式以长短句为主,押韵比较灵活。

曲可分为散曲和剧曲。

散曲有小令和套数之分。

散曲句句押韵,一韵到底。

赋是汉代形成的特殊文体,讲究铺叙、文采、对仗和韵律,一般采用主客问答、抑客伸主的结构方式。

4、小说小说一般具有三要素:人物、情节、环境。

小说要塑造典型环境中的典型人物。

小说的情节一般包括开端、发展、高潮和结局。

小说的环境包括自然环境、社会环境、人物活动的特定环境。

成考语文写作知识点1、主题和题材主题即文章的思想观点,要求正确、深刻、鲜明、集中。

题材即用于写作的材料,要求真实、典型、新颖。

2、结构结构即文章内部的组织构造,包括层次、段落、过渡、照应、开头、结尾等。

文章的结构要求完整、清晰、严谨。

3、表达方式(1)叙述叙述的方式有顺叙、倒叙、插叙、平叙和补叙。

叙述要线索清楚,详略得当,有变化,有波澜。

(2)描写描写大体可归纳为人物描写和环境描写两大类。

人物描写包括肖像描写、行为描写、语言描写、心理描写和细节描写等。

环境描写包括自然风光描写和社会环境描写等。

描写要有的放矢,突出特征,富于情感。

(3)抒情抒情的方式有直接抒情和间接抒情两大类。

各种文体复习知识点

各种文体复习知识点

• 记叙文中的“叙”与议论文中的“叙” • 记叙文是以记叙表达方式为主的文章,使用事实 材料,目的是要通过对事件、人物的详细叙述,让 读者了解人物、时间、地点、事件的过程和前因后 果等,认识事件的意义和影响、人物的道德精神品 质,从这个意义上讲,记叙文叙事越详越好,让记 叙的表达方式得到充分体现,议论抒情比例不须多, 只起到画龙点睛的作用就行了。而议论文写作中, 对事实论据的叙写要求正好相反。因为议论文中使 用事实论据的目的是用来论证论点的正确性的,不 是让读者了解这个事件的具体情况的,所以叙事必 须高度概括,语言精炼,有些事实材料甚至用一句 话点到为止就可以了,尽量减少记叙成分,增加说 理成分,保证议论文以议论为主,做到以理服人, 让议论文一定姓“议”不能姓“记”。
• 文天祥被俘后,面对元朝统治者,他既不 屈服于酷刑拷打,更不被高官厚禄所诱惑, 而是以一首《正气歌》表明自己的坚定立 场,最终慷慨赴义。
多人多事的论据补充可这样来补充和分析: “文天祥拒绝高官厚禄慷慨赴义;邓世昌 怒撞敌舰视死如归;裴多菲捍卫‘自由’ 生命爱情皆可抛;孙天帅维护国格、人格 誓不屈膝……无论是古代现代,无论是中国 外国,只要国家的利益,民族的尊严被侵 犯、被践踏;只要真理被扭曲、被玷污; 只要国格、人格受到侮辱,他们无不毅然 舍弃生命或小利,捍卫正义和真理”。这 样运用排比句来举例简洁明确,语言更有 气势,而且能够同时列举多人事例对论点 进行论证,使论点更明确,论证更充分。
熟悉题型,了解考点
内容:形象的感知和理解 情感:情感的分析和把握 技巧:技巧的探索和欣赏 语言:语言的研读和品味
议论文段的作用——议论文开头的作用
• 一般的回答: 吸引读者,激发读者的阅读兴趣;引 出本文的论点(或者:引出本文论题);为论点作 论据(或者:作论据证明了作者的观点) • 具体来说:开门见山,提出中心论点;针对现实中 某种现象(或事例或观点)进行分析,然后提出论 点(或提出论题),具有很强的针对性;引用名言 提出论点或论题,同时,名言又是证明论点的论据; 由某个故事或事例引出论点或论题,同时,故事和 事例又是证明论点的论据;摆出错误的论点和论据, 为下文的批驳树立靶子;用生动的比喻或故事(如 寓言)引出论点,既能激发读者的阅读兴趣,又能 把抽象的道理形象化,便于读者接受。

文体写作学复习提纲

文体写作学复习提纲

文体写作学一、写作(1)写作的概念写作是运用语言文字符号表达思想和情感的创造性脑力劳动的活动过程。

(2)写作过程四个环节:社会、作品、作者、读者。

两个转化:内化(社会到作者)、外化(作者到作品)(3)写作主体的基本能力观察力、感受力、思维力、想象力(4)写作的两种逻辑诗性逻辑(感性思维):比喻的、情感的、诗意的实证逻辑(科学理性思维):概念的、判断的、自然科学实证逻辑(5)文体意识即人们在读写过程中对问题的适用范围、写作目的、社会功能、逻辑范畴、语体风格、表达方式等六要素的自觉认识与运用二、写作活动中思维能力的培养(1)写作活动中的语言与思维语言(包括文字):各种表达符号思维:人的大脑对客观事物的反应语言是思维的物质外衣(2)思维的方法①形象思维运用具体可感的形象进行思维的能力。

例:火烧云②抽象思维(理性思维)对客观事物抽象的间接的概括的反映,是运用概念、判断、推理来得出结论的。

包括形式逻辑思维,如二元对立的善恶;辩证逻辑思维。

③灵感思维不受某种固定的逻辑规则约束,直接领悟事物真理的思维活动。

例:作家的神来之笔。

灵感的特征:长久思考的目的性,不期而至的随机性,稍纵即逝的瞬间性,存在某种诱发因素的激活作用。

(3)多种思维形式的优化和综合——创造①创造性思维在写作过程中,创造性思维引发的创造性活动。

特点:一次性完成、不可重复性、发前人所未发。

②创造性思维的方法·发散思维联想:由一事物想到另一事物。

想象:在原有的感性形象的基础上创造出新形象。

·聚合思维·逆向思维·纵深思维三、公文概述(1)公务文书概念广义上,公务文书是指一切公务活动中形成并使用的各类应用文狭义上,公务文书特指法定公文。

《党政机关公文处理条例》中明确规定的15个文种:决议、决定、命令、意见、公报、公告、通告、通知、通报、报告、请示、批复、议案、涵、纪要。

(2)特点政治性、特定性、权威性、实用性、规范性(3)种类·根据行文方向分:上行文、下行文、平行文·根据机密程度分:公布公文、机密公文、内部公文(4)公文的构成及格式①版头部分·份号:6位3号阿拉伯数字,顶格编排在版心左上角第一行·密级和保密期限:3号黑体字,顶格编排在版心左上角第二行;保密期限中的数字用阿拉伯数字标注,密级和保密期限用★隔开·紧急程度:一般用3号黑体字,顶格编排在版心左上角,在份号、密级和保密期限下一行·发文机关标志:由发文机关全称或规范简称加文件二字,居中,上边缘距版心上边缘35mm,小标宋体字,红色·发文序号:发文机关代字、年份和序号组成;发文机关标识下空2行,用3号仿宋体字,居中,年份应标全称,用六角括号﹝﹞扩入。

文体知识复习

文体知识复习

文体知识复习二.议论文:1.复习几种表达方式在不同文体中的作用:(1)常见的五种表达方式有、、、、。

(2)学习各种表达方式在不同文体中的作用:3.学习议论文的文体知识(1)什么是议论文:定义:议论文是以议论为主要表达方式,通过证明或反驳直接阐明道理,表明作者一定见解或主张的应用文体。

(2)议论文的三要素:议论文三要素是:论点、论据、论证。

(3)论点:A.定义:论点是作者对论述的问题所持的见解和主张。

B.论点和论题的关系:论题是作者在一篇议论文中所要论述的问题;论点是作者对论述的问题所持的见解和主张。

所以论题不等于论点。

C.中心论点和分论点的关系:中心论点只有一个,分论点围绕中心论点展开,用以补充和证明中心论点,可以有多个。

D.中心论点的位置:一般在文章的开头、中间、结尾,有时文章的题目就是中心论点。

(4)论据:A.定义:论据是作者阐述或论证论点的依据。

B.分类:a.事实论据:包括有代表性的确凿的事例或史实,以及统计数字等。

(可以是具体的也可以是概括的)b.道理论据:经过实践检验的,包括马列主义、毛泽东思想的精辟理论,名言、警句格言、民间谚语,以及人们公认的事理等;自然科学的原理、定律、公式等也可以作为道理论据。

C.论点与论据的关系是:被证明与证明的关系。

(5)论证:A.什么是论证:论证是运用论据来证明论点的过程,是论点与论据间的逻辑联系纽带,直接影响着议论问的说服力。

论证方法B.论证包括论证方式论证语言论证结构等多种方法(6)论证方法及其作用:论证方法就是在论证过程中为了是文章说理透彻,说服力强所运用的各种方法,初中阶段我们主要学习以下四种方法:A.例证法(举例论证):以事例为依据证明论点的方法。

要求所举的事例简明概括,真实可信,具有典型性、代表性。

作用:举出典型确凿的事实使观念得到有利证明,事实胜于雄辩。

B.引证法(引用论证):是用经典作家的言论,用众所承认的道理,用古语、谚语、俗语等来证明论点的方法。

文体知识复习共16页PPT资料

文体知识复习共16页PPT资料

文章开头的内容可否删去?有何作用?
交代通讯社(或报社)名称、发 电地点和时间,有时还写出记者 的姓名,电头表示消息来源可靠、 材料真实、报道及时。
“电头”
二、说明文?
说明文是以说明为主要表达方式的文章,是对事物 客观说明的一种文体.
说明文阅读的主要内容有: 说明文的说明对象、方法、顺序、结构和 语言等.
3、说明方法及其作用
下定义 分类别 列数字 举例子 打比方 作比较
准确、简明科学地说明事物的本质
按照一定标准对事物分类说明,有条 理、更清楚地说明事物的几种情况 用真实数据更准确、更具体地说明事 物的特征 用真实、具体、典型的例子生动、 具体有力地说明事物特征
形象、生动地说明事物的特征
通过比较突出强调某一事物 的特征
通讯比消息更具体,对所报道事物作全方位、多角度、多侧面的描述报道,并 表现出典型事件、典型人物; • (3)从表达上看,消息多用叙述,语言简洁明快;通讯虽也以叙述为主,可以 灵活运用描写及抒情、议论,并可使用比喻、拟人、排比、反问等修辞手法, 提高语言表现力; • (4)语言上看,消息多概括性语言,通讯语言更详尽、具体、生动、形象,更 具感染力。 • (5)篇幅来看,通讯较长,消息则较短。
的 • 何因?(Why?)--事情发生的原
六因
个 • 何事?(What?)-事情发生的经过

• 如何?(How?)--事情发生的结 果

新闻六要素,阅读新闻是心里要自觉地 问这六个问题,就不难解决了。6个“W”
标题 导语 主体 背景 结语
新闻结构的五个部分
必 – 标题 引标、主标、副标
不 可
新闻开头的第一段或第一句话,它
结构
生动、形象

高考语文复习:文体知识课件

高考语文复习:文体知识课件

1.举例子:晕能预示天气。比如,在新疆地区, 出现晕就代表将要下雨。
(根据大的范围列举相应的例子) 2.列数字:鳕鱼一次产卵竟达千万粒, 真正能变成幼鱼的卵可能还不到1%。 (列举数字进行说明) 3.作比较: 春天的雨细腻柔媚,夏天的雨粗犷热烈。
4.打比方:天上的星星像一颗颗宝石。 5.分类别:通常情况下,我们将云分为预示晴朗 的
一事、一物为线索
c\关于环境描写: 1、语言上判断修辞方法; 2、分析渲染的气氛; 3、烘托人物的心情(或性情特征); 4、结构上起到了引起下文的作用。 答题思路: 本段文字在语言上运用了------的修辞方法,描 写景物……的特点。渲染了------的气氛;烘托 人物------的心情(或性情特征);同时在结构 上起到了引起下文的作用。(或为下文作好铺垫。
(八)、谈谈对句子或文章中心的理解和感悟。 1、结合文章中心谈理解(把体现中心的句子用 自己的话说出来); 2、结合人生谈拥有此种情感(或精神)的意义。 答题思路: 我的理解是------;我的感悟是------。 (十一)、写作手法:对照、烘托。 1对照、烘托作用: 通过写------的------,反衬出----的------。 2、借景抒情(或托物言志)3、欲扬先抑 5、象征6、夸张、想像、联想 (十二)、小说的主题思想: 1、要从人物、情节、环境的分析中深入理解;
1 前后呼应作用;前文交代--------------,后文 用-------交代,与之呼应,使文章结构严谨, 同时表达----------情感。
2 欲扬先抑 作用 1写出-------的情感变化过 程,突出------(“扬 ”)2使文章波涛起伏, 形成鲜明的对照。
四、修辞手法:
1.比喻:把 比作
文体知识

中考语文复习文体知识识记

中考语文复习文体知识识记

基本文体知识识记一、识记基本文体常识1、按文学样式一般分为小说、散文、诗歌、戏剧;按表达方式可分为,记叙文、说明文、议论文。

2、常见的修辞手法;比喻、拟人、排比、对偶、夸张、反问、设问、互文、反语、反复、顶真、对比、引用。

3、常见的表现手法(写作手法):象征、衬托、对比、借景抒情、借物喻人、运用典故、先(后)抑后(先)扬。

象征通过某一特点的具体形象,表达某种人和某种社会现象的本质特点。

例:《白杨礼赞》白杨树的伟岸、正直、朴质,不缺少温和而又坚强挺拔的内在风格不但“象征了北方农民,尤其象征了今天我们民族斗争中所不可缺的朴质、坚强、力求上进的精神”。

衬托以他体从正面、反面两个角度陪衬本体,突出本体的主要特征。

例:《白杨礼赞》开头描写白杨树的生长环境---西北高原的雄壮,衬托出白杨树傲然挺立的高大形象。

对比把两种相反的事物或一种事物相对立的两个方面作比较,鲜明的突出主要事物或事物的主要方面的特征。

借景抒情通过描写具体生动的自然景象或生活场景,表达作者真挚的思想感情。

例:《从百草园到三味书屋》文章从不同角度不同层次淋漓尽致的描摹百草园声色趣俱全的景观和三味书屋枯燥乏味的生活场景,表现作者热爱大自然,喜欢自由快乐生活和不满束缚儿童身心发展的封建教育的思想感情。

借物喻人描写事物,突出其特点,并以此设喻,表现作者高尚的思想情操。

例:《白杨礼赞》以白杨树比喻北方军民,以白杨树正直、朴质、严肃、挺拔、力争上游的特点比喻北方军民为我国的解放事业而抗争、战斗的顽强精神。

运用典故借用历史故事或民间传说中的相关事实或词句,简练叙述内容,集中表现作者情感。

先抑后扬先否定或贬低事物形象,尔后深入挖掘事物特点及内在意义,再对事物予以肯定、褒扬,更突出地强调事物的特征。

4、标点符号的作用:弓I号:(1)表引用(2)反语,表讽刺否定(3)表强调(4)特指破折号:(1)表解释说明(2)表意思的递进或转折(3)表声音延长(4)表插说或中断。

基础知识文学文体复习题

基础知识文学文体复习题

补充练习题(基础知识,文学文体)一、常识题1.写作的综合性特点是指:它是作者的生活、思想、技巧及思维活动、心理活动、审美活动的综合。

2.对于“中国人失掉自信力了”的论调,鲁迅先生曾批驳道:“我们从古以来,就有埋头苦干的人,有拼命硬干的人,有为民请命的人,有舍身求法的人……这一类的人们,就是现在又何尝少呢?他们有确信,不自欺,他们在前仆后继的战斗,……说中国人失掉了自信力,用以指一部分人则可,若加于全体,那简直是诬蔑。

”这里所运用的驳论方法是反驳论证3.悬念是结构情节的艺术手段。

4.写作是一项综合性的精神劳动,自成一个复杂系统。

其"综合性"是指:它是由生活、思想、技巧;思维活动、心理活动、审美活动等因素构成的综合活动。

5.描写从方法或技巧上分,可划分为以下诸种类型:正面和侧面描写,动态和静态描写,细描和白描。

6.李季《王贵与李香香》中有这样的诗句:“千里雷声千里的闪,陕北红了半个天”。

这里运用的表现手法叫作兴。

7.用美学的尺度去衡量作品,具体地说须考察以下问题,即1.形象的真实性、主动性。

2.典型化程度。

3.形式的完善性。

4.作品的美感效果。

8.散文构思的总体要求是:化景物为情思,形散而神凝。

9.文章深刻,是指主题的深刻。

10.把若干同类的个别性材料加以归纳,综合而形成的材料是综合性材料。

11.描写从描写者与描写对象的关系来分,可分为主观描写和客观描写。

12.“幸福的家庭都是相似的,不幸的家庭各有各的不幸。

”这句话用的表达方式是议论。

13.“不拘一格,手法多样”是体现报告文学.文学性的重要特征之一。

14.杂文不同于一般议论文的特点是.更具文学性。

15.在生活中随时随地、不自觉地进行的观察,属于无意观察。

16.从总体上安排文章思想内容的次序,展开文章的步骤,叫做层次。

17.最基本、最常见的论证方法是引证法。

18.“天空的彩霞映照得场上格外通红”。

这句话中多余和词语是天空。

19.文章草稿写出后,放一段时间能更好地看出文章的问题。

文体学复习

文体学复习

StylisticsDefinitionStylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of STYLE. It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups. The stylistics analysis of a text involves the description of a writer’s/speaker’s verbal choices which can be abstracted as style. A stylistician would usually proceed to discuss the relevance of the analysis to interpretation, the possible meaning or effect evoked by the adoption of a certain style.Language is viewed as a system of different types for linguistic organization.A language of a particular society is part of the society’s culture. The language of a participant in a social activity reflects his social characteristics (such as his status, ethnic group, age and sex). It also reflects his awareness of the various factors of a social situation in which he finds himself. He should adjust his language in accordance with the medium of communication (speech of writing), the setting, the relationship with the addressee (in terms of the degree of intimacy or social distance), the subject matter, and the purpose. Appropriate use of language is considered the key to effective communication.Concepts of Style·”Style” may refer to some or all the language habits of one person. E,g. Shakespeare’s style ·The word may refer to some or all of the language habits shared by a group of people at one time, or over a period of time. E.g. the style of legal documents.·The word may be used in an evaluative sense.·Partly overlapping with the three senses above, the word may refer solely to literary language.Style gives us additional information about the speaker’s/writer’s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the hearer/reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes.“Style” in this book refers to the characteristic variation in language use. The term can be applied to both spoken and written, both literary and non-literary varieties of a language.Procedure of AnalysisThe concept of textA text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.The concept of ContextThe discussion of “text” naturally leads to the discussion of “context”, because an understanding of the meaning of a linguistic unit or a text depends upon a knowledge of the context in which the unit or text occurs.Context may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as CO_TEXT, which refers to the linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning.·Characteristic of the USER of languageAgeSexSocio-regional or ethnic backgroundEducation·Characteristics of the USE of language in situationMedium of communication: speech or writingSetting: private or publicRole-relationship between addresser and addressee: the degree of intimacy: the degree of social distance.Linguists have emphasized the role of contexts of situation as determinants of style. There is an observable match between linguistic features and contextual factors.Levels of linguistic descriptionIn order to capture the stylistic characteristics of a text, we have to describe the text’s verbal properties in a rigorous way.PHONOLOGY is defined as the system of speech sounds in a language. GRAPHOLOGY refers to the writing system of a language. The lexicogrammatical system consists of vocabulary and syntactic structuresThe matching of a text with its context is termed as the PLACING OF A TEXT or CONTEXTUALIZATION.In the first place, linguistic features of a given text should be compared with a set of relative norms of language in use. By “relative norms” we mean the ranges of linguistic appropriateness to various contexts of situation.A text should be further be contextualized in terms of its genre, its historical period or cultural background.Potential style markers: markers in phonology and graphology Languages features are classified into four categories: phonology,graphology, lexis and grammar.Potential style markers in phonology.Ellision: refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech.Sound patterning: refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words.CVC: AlliterationCVC: AssonanceCVC: ConsonanceCVC: Reverse RhymeCVC: PararhymeCVC: RhymeSound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis, establishing relationship between the patterned words.Onomatopoeia: used to produce sound images.Potential style markers in graphologyPunctuation:an essential part of the properly constructed English sentence, reflection pauses, intonation, patterns of the spoken language.The use of exclamation marks:a.to represent urgent warning or command. e.g. ”Nicholas!” said his uncle sharply.b.Ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory or urgent force of a command. E.g.,shut the door!c.The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies the writer’s doubt or surpriseabout certain language items. e.g. He said that I was his best(?!) friend.d.Excessive use of exclamation marks is often considered as a sign of frivolous or immaturewriting; the use of more than one exclamation mark is a feature of very informal writing.E.g. Number 7 stands empty!!The use of dashesa.Dash is considered a mark of informal writing. It may indicate a sudden break or interruptionin speech. E.g. ”No he didn’t, Aunt Mollie. It wasn’t Mr Edmond. Mr Edmond didn’t--”b.Dashes can be used to mark off a parenthesis. E.g.”…when he had bent his head-I saw him!–over my mother’s little glove.”The use of quotation marksa.To indicate the authenticity of the quoted words. E.g. Tom Lincoln used to say Abe was goingto have “ a real eddication,” explaining,”You air a-goin’ to larn readin’ writin’, and cipherin’”b.To direct the reader’s attention to the quoted words. E.g. A fourth of USA schools are“shoddy”c.To enclose words used in special senses or borrowed from other contexts. E.g. I do not knowthat it is to see into the heart of a friend through that “window of the soul”, the eye.d.To enclose words that the writer considers inappropriate or untrue. E.g.The use of capitals and italicsa.Capitals are used to dignify or personify a lexical item. Initial capitals for key word are typicalfeatures of legal language.b.Italics in print, small capitals, or capitals are often used for emphasis, indicating sometimesphonological prominence. E.g. You are my FRIEND/friend.ParagraphingParagraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs (consisting of one or more sentences). It is a device of revealing the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.Potential style markers in lexciogrammartical levelPotential style markers in syntaxThe basic clause structure and the classification of clause types:Basic clause structure: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOCClassification of clause types:1.In terms of clause constituents: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOC2.In terms of the structure of the verb phrase in a clause: finite clauses, non-finite clauseand verbless clauses.e.g. Mrs Marlow’s health has been improving ever since she quit smoking.(finite clause)e.g. Inhaling the smoke of others is thought to be harmful(Non-finite:-ing nominalclause)e.g. A born-again Christian, she has married.(verbless clause)Verbless clauses are clauses which contain no verb element. They are regarded as clauses because they function in the similar way as finite or non-finite clauses.3.In terms of function in a sentence, clauses can be classified into dependent andindependent clauses.Subordinate clauses are those which constitute part of another clause and function as its clause elements or as constituents of a phrase within a clause.Subordinate clauses can be further divided into:a.Nominal clauses: that-clauses. wh-clauses, to-infinitive clauses and –ing clausesb.Relative clauses, functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.parative clauses, resembling adjectives and adverbs in their modifyingfunctions.d.Adverbial clauses, denoting time, place, reason, purpose, conditions, etc. Potential style markers in lexical choiceThe examination of lexical choice is mainly an analysis of content words, involving the following aspects: Are the words simple or complex? Formal or informal? General or specific?Anglo-Saxon or Latinate wordsGenerally speaking, words of Latin, French origin (Latinate) are words of science, religion and official communication; they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance. The percentage of Latinate words in a text is only one among many markers indicating the degree of formality of a text. In most cases, it becomes significant only when combined with other markers. Besides, quite a number of Latinate words have passed into the basic vocabulary of a native speaker of EnglishWords of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people’s basic vocabulary. The percentage of Anglo-Saxon words runs very high-usually between 70 and 90 percent. Therefore a high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual and informal style.General or specific wordsGeneral terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of s pecific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images.Conceptual or Associative meaningThe lexical meaning of a word or phrase is said to be a complex of various interrelated components. Some components constitute conceptual meaning and some associative. Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word or phrase.Associative meaning refers to the meanings that a word has beyond or in addition to its conceptual meaning. These meanings may: Show people’s emotions, attitudes towards what the word refers to/ reflect the social circumstances of its use/ evoke in the reader/hearer certain associations of what the word refers to.Associative meanings may be private, varying from person to person as the result of individual experience; Associative meanings are often shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex or age.In scientific and technical varieties of English, where precise information is of primary importance, words without much emotive/evaluative overtone will be preferred.In order to avoid using words with undesirable associations people turn to euphemisms:Senior citizen: old man/ womanNewly single: divorcedMemorial park: graveyardFuneral director: undertakerSanitation collector: garbage collectorIndustrial action: strikeTo eliminate: to kill or to murderDomestic helper: servantHair stylist: barberAirhostess: waitress aboard a planeKnowledge-based nonpossessor: idiotThe South, or the developing countries: countries that have little industrialization and low standard of living.Two freedom fighters took the oppressor’s life away: the general was murdered by two terrorists.Verbal Repetition and ReiterationBoth verbal repetition and reiteration can be regarded as text-forming devices which manifest the relation of meaning within the text. Moreover, they are often used for rhetorical purposes. Verbal repetition refers to the repetition of a linguistic unit (morpheme, lexical item, phrase, etc.) which has already occurred in the preceding context. Repetition is sometimes deliberate; it is used for emotive intensification. In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device; it helps to direct the reader’s attention to the interpretation of its significance.Varieties of Contemporary EnglishLanguage varieties are classified according to the following factors: characteristics or USER, and USE, interference and historical period. Dialect is a variety which a person habitually speaks, determined by regional and social background and adopted as a speaker’s permanent from. Register is a variety determined by what he is doing in a social activity and adopted to suit a specific occasion. The match (correlation) between contextual factors and language features is fairly systematic.Varieties according to region and social group·Regional and Social DialectsVarieties according to the characteristics of language user are commonly termed DIALECTS. A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialect differs from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.Social dialects refer to the language variation according to education, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, and even age and sex. The higher the social status or education, the fewer the regional features in speech.·Standard and non- standard EnglishStandard English refers to the particular socially-favored variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. Standard English is primarily used for public communication: It is the language used in schools, taught to non-native learners of the language. Dialect forms are used to indicate one’s regional or class loyalty.The dialectal English which differs from Standard English in grammar and vocabulary is termed Non-Standard. Standard English has higher status and enjoys more prestige than any other English dialect.·The use of non-standard EnglishWhile the Standard English is an important medium for public communication, education, and official writing, non-standard varieties are characteristically used in informal speech for personal (or local) needs.·Markers Indicating Non-Standard Speech in LiteratureNon-Standard language features are found in dialogues and first-person narrations. They serve to indicate the speech style of a character or a narrator. The representation of non-standardlanguage in literature is generally occasional rather than constant,approximate rather than accurate.Grammatical markers:a.Double/multiple negation“Nobody don’t go there no more”b.Double comparatives/superlativesMore beautifuller, nicerer, woreser, leastest.ck of subject-verb agreement“I walks to work everyday”“He walk to work”·Standard American and British EnglishSee examplesVarieties according to medium (mode of discourse)As far as linguistic communication is concerned, MEDIUM refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or speech sounds (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to another. Comparing spoken language and written language, linguists notice that the following aspects condition the variations in speech and writing.a.Channel limitationb.Spontaneity of the messagec.Audience interactiond.Publicity of the situationChannel limitation and linguistic explicitnessChannel refers to the route in which a message is conveyed from the addresser (speaker/writer) to the addressee (hearer/reader). “Channel limitation”means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only- visual or auditory. Spoken language, in most case, has no channel limitation. If the transmission of a message has no channel-limitation, the verbal message is often inexplicit.Linguistic inexplicitness (caused by the use of exophoric words) is one of the characteristics of spoken language, when both speaker and hearer understand tacitly the references within the shared situation.Spontaneity and linguistic characteristicsSpontaneously spoken language differs from (formal) written language in the following aspects:a.Fluencyb.Sentence structureSpontaneously spoken language is often characterized bya.The lack of clear sentence boundariesb.Syntactic incompletenessc.The use of minor sentencesd.The preference for paratactic structurement clauses in end-positionA formal written text is in general “well-prepared”. It is a finished product created by thewriter after a good deal of thinking, planning, revising, proofreading, and polishing. The following are some features, typical of written formal sytle;a.Syntactic completeness and complexityb.Heavily premodified noun phrasesc.Cleft sentencesd.The use of personal pronouns in a subordinate clause, preceding the main clause. Audience interaction and linguistic manifestationTo engage in a MONOLOGUE is to speak in such a way as to exclude the possibility of interruption by the audience. To engage in a DIALOGUE is to speak in such a way as to invite the participation of the audience.In a dialogic situation the communication normally proceeds through the cooperation of speaker and audience. The speaker is continually monitoring his message to keep the channel of communication open by using MONITORING signals. The speaker also uses questions, tag-questions, imperatives to invite the active participation of the hearer.In a monologue situation the audience is denied the opportunity or the right to participate, and the interaction features are fewer in evidence.However, monitoring features may occur in a monologue, indicating that the speaker is aware of the audience’s presence and reactions.A written text can be compared to a written monologue because it is addressed to animagined audience that is not physically present.Publicity of situation and formality in languageThe language of a speaker/writer is often conditioned byA.The size of the audienceB.The relationship between the addresser and the audienceFeatures of spoken style in fictional dialoguesFeatures of spoken style can be found I the first person narration, interior monologue and dialogue in a novelVarieties according to attitude (tenor of discourse)The language we use varies according to our attitudes towards the addressee. Such attitudes are related to the ROLE RELATIONSHIPS in various situations. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent. The addresser’s attitude towards the addressee influences language choice at every level. Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: FORMALITY, POLITENESS, IMPERSONALITY, and ACCESSIBILITY.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of formalityThe degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, church service, cocktail party, and so on. Thus formal English, typically in written form, is found primarily in official documents, regulations, business letters or ceremonial speeches. Informal English is found typically in private conversations or personal letters. It is also used nowadays in advertisements and popular newspapers.a.Phonological markers.E.g. He dunno. Elision and assimilation. He doesn’t knowWhatcna want is assimilation What you want isI wanna come elision I want to comeGimme the bottle elision Give me the bottleI gonna do it elision I’m going to do itLemme think a minute elision Let me think a minuteA cuppa tea elision A cup of teab.Graphological markers·Certain punctuation marks(e.g. the dash and the exclamation mark) are more informal than others (e.g. the semincolon and the colon)·It is considered informal to write figures instead of words as part of a sentence.c.Syntactic Markers·Contracted forms of auxiliary verbs occur frequently in spoken and informal English.E.g. What’ll you have?·In informal English, for indefinite reference you is used instead of one·In informal English the pronoun in the objective case is used when it is notionally the subject of the omitted verb.E.g. She can drive as well as him.·When a that-clause is object or complement of the postponed subject, that is frequently omitted in informal use.E.g. I knew he would come.·In informal English, the preposition may be placed at the end of a relative clause, a wh- question, or an exclamation.E.g. what a difficult situation he’s in!·In informal speech elliptical questions and abbreviated clauses are often used.E.g. What for? Where to? Who with?·Pronoun they is often used informally in co-reference with the in-definite pronouns everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody,e.g. Everyone thinks they have the answer.Has anybody brought their camera?The use of they is a convenient means of avoiding the traditional formal use of he or the recent use of the cumbersome he or she when the sex is not stated.·In subjunctive clauses, the ordinary past tense was can replace were in informal style.e.g. He treated me as if I was a small boy.·The use of participial and verbless clauses is characteristic of formal written English, as they are rarely encountered in spoken language.d.Lexical markers·Shortened Latinate words·Many Phrasal and prepositional verbs are characteristic of informal styles·The use of slang and colloquialism characterizes informal styles·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of politenessIn terms of politeness, language varies according to:a.The degree of intimacy between the addresser and addressee.b.The degree of social distance separating the addresser from the addresseePoliteness tends to increase to the extent that the addressee is more senior in status and less intimate.Politeness can be separated from formality within language.·pohonological markersIntonation patterns often indicate degrees of politeness.·syntactic markersThe use of syntactic markers is determined by three levels: the cost-benefit scale, option-nonoption scale, and indirect-direct scale.a.The use of exclamatory questions for emotive emphasis is typical of familiar styles.e.g. Am I hungry!b. When the speaker wants to be polite and tactful he usually uses the will+progressive construction instead of the simple will constructione.g. When you will be visiting us again?c. Could and might are considered more polite alternatives to can and may in first-person requests and would to will in second and third-person requests.d. In order to tone down a command people usually add please or the tag question won’t you, why don’t you, will you. In dealing with one’s inferiors and children, the simple imerative is very much more frequent.e. In familiar use, this may introduce something new in a narrative.·Lexical markersa.Sometimes, members of the same social or regional group may resort to the use ofdialectal forms to reinforce group identification, to show the intimacy among themselves.b.The degree of politeness can be manifested in the choice of forms of greetings andleave-takings.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonalityImpersonal style is chiefly in written form: the text is regarded as having validity independent of the person who writes or reads it. Thus impersonal style has a distancing effect and is typical of scientific, legal and official writing. Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonality include;A.The passive voiceB.Introductory it as the subject of a sentenceC.Third person nouns such as the student, a claimant, etc.D.Abstract nouns formed from verbs and adjectives·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of accessibilityACCESSIBILITY means whether a piece of language is easy to understand for the addressee. As the language becomes more formal, more impersonal, more specialized in certain subject matter. It tends to become less accessible to the ordinary reader or listener.Features indicating accessibility often overlap with features indicating formality: Latinate words are usually less accessible than Anglo-Saxon words; and long, multiple sentences are more difficult to understand than short simple sentences.Bureaucratic writings are often referred to as ”gobbledygook”, because they are written in anobscure and complex style, which to some extent may help to impress, to mislead or deceive the public.Varieties according to field of discourseField of discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part. Style is the choice made among the alternative linguistic expressions referring to the same thing in a given text. Varieties according to field are often classified according to the dominant function of language in a given social activity.·The language of news reportingA newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion. The chief characteristic of newspaper is:a. A headline that has dramatic eye-catching effectb.An article within a limited spacec. A material which is most readable and attractiveGraphological DevicesGraphological devices are employed to facilitate reading and highlight what the editor considers important in the report.a.In any newspaper we can find different sizes or shapes of type used for the main headlines,the subheadings, and sometimes even in the body of the article itself.b.Another important device is paragraphing.c.Frequent use is made of inverted commas to·Spotlight particular terms·Mark out direct quotations·Distance the writer from the reported fact or opiniond.Frequent use of dashes instead of commas to mark off a parenthetic phrase, to linkexpansions of thought or afterthoughts with the main part of the sentence.Syntactic Markersa.The need for clarity and readability underlies the choice of different sentence structures in areportb.Very short news items often consist of one or two sentences, location, character, event,mode, time, cause.c.Long adverbial phrases are used to introduce sentencesd.Responsibility for a piece of information is sometimes dodged by the reporter through theuse of the following structurese.Reversed word orderf.Reporters are fond of pilling up modifiers in order to pack in as much information as possibleeven though the information is sometimes not very relevantg.The simple present is used instead of the present perfective and the past tensesh.In headlines, to-infinitive construction is used for future-time referencei.In headlines, the use of the present participle without the auxiliary to refer to an action inpassive voice.j.Verbless sentences are common in headlinesk.Articles and other function words are often omitted or reduced to a minimum in headlines Lexical devicesboring-saving clichésb.Neologism or foreign words and giving new meanings to old wordsc.Evaluative and emotive wordsd.Anglo-Saxon words are preferred to polysyllabic Latinate wordse of initials, acronyms and clipped forms is common, especially in headlines.f.Sound patterning, punning and use of allusions·The language of press advertisementAds help manufacturers and corporations to increase profits, manipulate social values and attitudes, and shapes people’s life style. It influences the policies and appearances of the media, interacts with and affects other forms of communication-literature, art and even language itself. The primary function of the advertising language remains the same-CONATIVE.Linguistic Characteristics of Press Advertisementsa.Deliberate misspelling of words, particularly in brand-naming.b.Abundant use of exclamation marksc.Instead of commas, punctuation marks of greater separative force are used for emphasis andeffectSyntactic Devicese of direct imperative to prompt actione of present tense to imply a universal timelessnesse of superlative or unqualified comparative adjectives to commend the product, whileavoiding the violation of the Code of Advertising Practice.e of heavy premodifers to specify the qualities of a product.e of minor sentences to make the massage more striking.e of questions to arouse curiosityLexical DevicesThe study of vocabulary is mainly focused on the exploitation of the associative meanings of words, which may induce the public to be favorably disposed towards a product or a service.A.The choice of a brand name which may produce favorable associations.e of emotive/evaluative adjectives or adjectival phrases.e of technical terms and scientific-sounding words to impress the audience.D.In order to stress the uniqueness or novelty of a product advertisers resort to neologism, andimprovised adjectival structures.e of all, very, always, etc. to indicate that the reference is universal.e of no, none, nothing, never ,etc., for unqualified exclusion.Rhetorical Devicesa.Punningb.Various types of sound patterning and syntactic parallelism.。

文体常识和文学常识汇总复习_写作技巧

文体常识和文学常识汇总复习_写作技巧

文体常识和文学常识汇总复习一、知识要点复习:内容涉及面较广泛。

一是文体知识:记叙文(要素、人称、顺序、中心、详略),说明文(对象、特征、顺序、方法),议论文(论点、论据、论证),应用文(书信、电报、规则、计划、总结)等常识。

二是文学常识:基本课文涉及的重要作家和作品,还有小说、、诗歌、戏剧的常识,还有教材中交代的主要文化知识,日常生活经常用到的一些文化常识。

(一)小说散文诗歌戏剧常识1、小说:是一种通过人物,情节和环境的具体描写来反映现实升活的文学体裁。

小说三要素:人物:典型的艺术形象情节:(序幕) 开端发展高潮结局 (尾声) 环境:自然环境,社会环境2、散文的含义和特征散文有广义和狭义之分。

广义的散文通常指除诗歌、小说、戏剧、曲艺等以外的其他所有文章。

狭义的散文是指同诗歌、小说、戏剧相并列的一种文章体裁。

近年来,杂文、报告文学、回忆录等已从散文中分离出来,成为新的文学体裁,散文这一概念的外延逐步缩小。

这里所说的散文就是狭义范围内的散文。

根据散文的表现内容和表达方式,散文一般可以分为三类:记叙性散文、抒情性散文和议论性散文,当然也有将记叙、抒情和议论融为一体的。

散文作为一种独立的文体样式,有以下特征:(1)取材广泛散文的题材包罗万象,大千世界中具有认识意义、思想价值、美学意蕴的人、事、物、景,都能成为散文的题材范围。

散文的这一特点使它能够迅速地表达作者的生活感受。

(2)形散神聚形散神聚又叫形散神不散,是大多数散文的基本的特征。

形散指取材广泛、形式自由、手法灵活、思路开阔,从内容到形式要散得开。

神聚指文章整体结构严谨,材料层次井然,有统一的主题。

散文贵散,但要散而不乱,思路清晰,首尾一贯,做到撒得开,收得拢。

(3)形式自由散文无定体,笔法无定格,凡写人、叙事、议论、抒情,兴之所至,挥洒自如,涉笔成趣。

这使得散文形式自由灵活,多种多样,随笔、游记、札记、访问记都是散文家族的成员。

只要能很好地表现内容,在形式上是不受任何限制的。

议论文文体知识复习

议论文文体知识复习
1、针对文章中某一观点提出自己的看法.
答题要把握三点:文章内容、实际生活、自己感受,三者缺一不可。 答题格式:找出中心论点或感受最深的一句话+生活中(实例或现象)+我认为(谈自己的看法)+我要怎么做
2、结合材料或生活实际谈谈获得的启示或表述自己的看法。
开放性试题:
【复习建议】
*
*
掌握议论文文体知识(在头脑中建构起议论文的知识框架(论点、中心论点、分论点、论题、论据、论证方法,论证思路、议论文结构、论证语言等)
1、举例论证:通过举具体的事例加以论证,从而使论证更具体、更有说服力。 答题格式: 使用了举例论证的论证方法, 举…… (概括事例) 证明了…… (如有分论点,则写出它证明的分论点,否则写中心论点),从而使论证更具体、更有有说服力。 2、道理论证:通过讲道理的方式证明论点,使论证更概括更深入。 答题格式:使用了道理论证的论证方法,论证了……了观点,从而使论证更概括更入。 注:如果引用名人名言、格言警句、权威数据,可以增强论证的说服力和权威 性;引用名人佚事、奇闻趣事,可以增强论证的趣味性,吸引读者。 答题格式:使用了引用论证的论证方法,通过引用……证明……的观 点,使论证更有说 服力和权威性(或更有趣味性,吸引读者)。 3、对比论证。作用就是突出强调。 答题格式:使用了对比论证的论证方法,将……和……加以比较,突出强调了……的观点。 4、比喻论证:可把道理讲得通俗易懂,容易被人接受,使论证更加生动形象,浅显易懂。 答题格式:使用了比喻论证的论证方法,将……比作……,证明了……的观点,从而把抽象深奥的道理阐述得生动形象、浅显易懂。
⑴引出论题⑵引起读者的阅读兴趣。
深化中心论点,提出……的结论;
强调……的中心论点;
发出……的号召或希望人们……;
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StylisticsDefinitionStylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of STYLE. It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups. The stylistics analysis of a text involves the description of a writer’s/speaker’s verbal choices which can be abstracted as style. A stylistician would usually proceed to discuss the relevance of the analysis to interpretation, the possible meaning or effect evoked by the adoption of a certain style. Language is viewed as a system of different types for linguistic organization. A language of a particular society is part of the society’s culture. The language of a participant in a social activity reflects his social characteristics (such as his status, ethnic group, age and sex). It also reflects his awareness of the various factors of a social situation in which he finds himself. He should adjust his language in accordance with the medium of communication (speech of writing), the setting, the relationship with the addressee (in terms of the degree of intimacy or social distance), the subject matter, and the purpose. Appropriate use oflanguage is considered the key to effective communication. Concepts of Style·”Style”may refer to some or all the language habits of one person. E,g. Shakespeare’s style·The word may refer to some or all of the language habits shared by a group of people at one time, or over a period of time. . the style of legal documents.·The word may be used in an evaluative sense.·Partly overlapping with the three senses above, the word may refer solely to literary language.Style gives us additional information about the speaker’s/writer’s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the hearer/reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes.“Style” in this book refers to the characteristic variation in language use. The term can be applied to both spoken and written, both literary and non-literary varieties of a language.Procedure of AnalysisThe concept of textA text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, thatforms a unified whole. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.The concept of ContextThe discussion of “text” naturally leads to the discussion of “context”, because an understanding of the meaning of a linguistic unit or a text depends upon a knowledge of the context in which the unit or text occurs.Context may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as CO_TEXT, which refers to the linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning.·Characteristic of the USER of languageAgeSexSocio-regional or ethnic backgroundEducation·Characteristics of the USE of language in situationMedium of communication: speech or writingSetting: private or publicRole-relationship between addresser and addressee: the degree of intimacy: the degree of social distance.Linguists have emphasized the role of contexts of situation as determinants of style. There is an observable match between linguistic features and contextual factors.Levels of linguistic descriptionIn order to capture the stylistic characteristics of a text, we have to describe the text’s verbal properties in a rigorous way. PHONOLOGY is defined as the system of speech sounds in a language. GRAPHOLOGY refers to the writing system of a language. The lexicogrammatical system consists of vocabulary and syntactic structuresThe matching of a text with its context is termed as the PLACING OF A TEXT or CONTEXTUALIZATION.In the first place, linguistic features of a given text should be compared with a set of relative norms of language in use. By “relative norms”we mean the ranges of linguistic appropriateness to various contexts of situation.A text should be further be contextualized in terms of its genre, its historical period or cultural background.Potential style markers: markers in phonology and graphology Languages features are classified into four categories: phonology, graphology, lexis and grammar.Potential style markers in phonology.Ellision: refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech. Sound patterning: refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words.CVC: AlliterationCVC: AssonanceCVC: ConsonanceCVC: Reverse RhymeCVC: PararhymeCVC: RhymeSound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis, establishing relationship between the patterned words.Onomatopoeia: used to produce sound images.Potential style markers in graphologyPunctuation:an essential part of the properly constructed English sentence, reflection pauses, intonation, patterns of the spokenlanguage.The use of exclamation marks:a.to represent urgent warning or command. . ”Nicholas!” saidhis uncle sharply.b.Ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory or urgentforce of a command. ., shut the door!c.The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies thewriter’s doubt or surprise about certain language items. . He said that I was his best(!) friend.d.Excessive use of exclamation marks is often considered as a signof frivolous or immature writing; the use of more than one exclamation mark is a feature of very informal writing. . Number7 stands empty!!The use of dashesa.Dash is considered a mark of informal writing. It may indicatea sudden break or interruption in speech. . ”No he didn’t,Aunt Mollie. It wasn’t Mr Edmond. Mr Edmond didn’t--”b.Dashes can be used to mark off a parenthesis. .”…when he hadbent his head-I saw him! –over my mother’s little glove.”The use of quotation marksa.To indicate the authenticity of the quoted words. . Tom Lincolnused to say Abe was going to have “ a real eddication,”explaining,”You air a-goin’ to larn readin’ writin’, and cipherin’”b.To direct the reader’s attention to the quoted words. . A fourthof USA schools are “shoddy”c.To enclose words used in special senses or borrowed from othercontexts. . I do not know that it is to see into the heart ofa friend through that “window of the soul”, the eye.d.To enclose words that the writer considers inappropriate oruntrue. .The use of capitals and italicsa.Capitals are used to dignify or personify a lexical item.Initial capitals for key word are typical features of legal language.b.Italics in print, small capitals, or capitals are often usedfor emphasis,indicating sometimes phonological prominence. .You are my FRIEND/friend.ParagraphingParagraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs (consisting of one or more sentences). It is a device of revealing the relational structure in a text, the organizationof the content.Potential style markers in lexciogrammartical levelPotential style markers in syntaxThe basic clause structure and the classification of clause types: Basic clause structure: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOC Classification of clause types:1.In terms of clause constituents: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOC2.In terms of the structure of the verb phrase in a clause:finite clauses, non-finite clause and verbless clauses.. Mrs Marlow’s health has been improving ever since she quit smoking.(finite clause). Inhaling the smoke of others is thought to be harmful(Non-finite:-ing nominal clause). A born-again Christian, she has married.(verbless clause)Verbless clauses are clauses which contain no verb element.They are regarded as clauses because they function in the similar way as finite or non-finite clauses.3.In terms of function in a sentence, clauses can be classifiedinto dependent and independent clauses.Subordinate clauses are those which constitute part of another clause and function as its clause elements or as constituents of a phrase within a clause.Subordinate clauses can be further divided into:a.Nominal clauses: that-clauses. wh-clauses, to-infinitiveclauses and –ing clausesb.Relative clauses, functioning as post modifiers of a nounphrase.parative clauses, resembling adjectives and adverbs intheir modifying functions.d.Adverbial clauses, denoting time, place, reason, purpose,conditions, etc.Potential style markers in lexical choiceThe examination of lexical choice is mainly an analysis of content words, involving the following aspects: Are the words simple or complex Formal or informal General or specificAnglo-Saxon or Latinate wordsGenerally speaking, words of Latin, French origin (Latinate) are words of science, religion and official communication; they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance. The percentage of Latinate words in a text is only one among many markers indicating the degree of formality of a text. In most cases, it becomes significant only when combined with other markers. Besides, quite a number of Latinate words have passed into the basic vocabulary of a native speaker of EnglishWords of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people’s basic vocabulary. The percentage of Anglo-Saxon words runs very high-usually between 70 and 90 percent. Therefore a high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual and informal style.General or specific wordsGeneral terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of s pecific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images.Conceptual or Associative meaningThe lexical meaning of a word or phrase is said to be a complex of various interrelated components. Some components constitute conceptual meaning and some associative. Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word or phrase.Associative meaning refers to the meanings that a word has beyond or in addition to its conceptual meaning. These meanings may: Show people’s emotions, attitudes towards what the word refers to/ reflect the social circumstances of its use/ evoke in the reader/hearer certain associations of what the word refers to. Associative meanings may be private, varying from person to person as the result of individual experience; Associative meanings areoften shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex or age.In scientific and technical varieties of English, where precise information is of primary importance, words without much emotive/evaluative overtone will be preferred.In order to avoid using words with undesirable associations people turn to euphemisms:Senior citizen: old man/ womanNewly single: divorcedMemorial park: graveyardFuneral director: undertakerSanitation collector: garbage collectorIndustrial action: strikeTo eliminate: to kill or to murderDomestic helper: servantHair stylist: barberAirhostess: waitress aboard a planeKnowledge-based nonpossessor: idiotThe South, or the developing countries: countries that have little industrialization and low standard of living.Two freedom fighters took the oppressor’s life away: the general was murdered by two terrorists.Verbal Repetition and ReiterationBoth verbal repetition and reiteration can be regarded as text-forming devices which manifest the relation of meaning within the text. Moreover, they are often used for rhetorical purposes. Verbal repetition refers to the repetition of a linguistic unit (morpheme, lexical item, phrase, etc.) which has already occurred in the preceding context. Repetition is sometimes deliberate; it is used for emotive intensification. In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device; it helps to direct the reader’s attention to the interpretation of its significance.Varieties of Contemporary EnglishLanguage varieties are classified according to the following factors:characteristics or USER, and USE, interference and historical period. Dialect is a variety which a person habitually speaks, determined by regional and social background and adopted as a speaker’s permanent from. Register is a variety determined by what he is doing in a social activity and adopted to suit a specific occasion. The match (correlation) between contextual factors and language features is fairly systematic.Varieties according to region and social group·Regional and Social DialectsVarieties according to the characteristics of language user are commonly termed DIALECTS. A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialect differs from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.Social dialects refer to the language variation according to education, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, and even age and sex. The higher the social status or education, the fewer the regional features in speech.·Standard and non- standard EnglishStandard English refers to the particular socially-favored variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. Standard English is primarily used for public communication: It is the language used in schools, taught to non-native learners of the language.Dialect forms are used to indicate one’s regional or class loyalty. The dialectal English which differs from Standard English in grammar and vocabulary is termed Non-Standard. Standard English has higher status and enjoys more prestige than any other English dialect.·The use of non-standard EnglishWhile the Standard English is an important medium for publiccommunication, education, and official writing, non-standard varieties are characteristically used in informal speech for personal (or local) needs.·Markers Indicating Non-Standard Speech in LiteratureNon-Standard language features are found in dialogues and first-person narrations. They serve to indicate the speech style of a character or a narrator. The representation of non-standard language in literature is generally occasional rather than constant, approximate rather than accurate.Grammatical markers:a.Double/multiple negation“Nobody don’t go there no more”b.Double comparatives/superlativesMore beautifuller, nicerer, woreser, leastest.ck of subject-verb agreement“I walks to work everyday”“He walk to work”·Standard American and British EnglishSee examplesVarieties according to medium (mode of discourse)As far as linguistic communication is concerned, MEDIUM refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or speech sounds (auditory medium)by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to another. Comparing spoken language and written language, linguists notice that the following aspects condition the variations in speech and writing.a.Channel limitationb.Spontaneity of the messagec.Audience interactiond.Publicity of the situationChannel limitation and linguistic explicitnessChannel refers to the route in which a message is conveyed from the addresser (speaker/writer) to the addressee (hearer/reader).“Channel limitation”means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only- visual or auditory. Spoken language, in most case, has no channel limitation. If the transmission of a message has no channel-limitation, the verbal message is often inexplicit.Linguistic inexplicitness (caused by the use of exophoric words) is one of the characteristics of spoken language, when both speaker and hearer understand tacitly the references within the shared situation.Spontaneity and linguistic characteristicsSpontaneously spoken language differs from (formal) writtenlanguage in the following aspects:a.Fluencyb.Sentence structureSpontaneously spoken language is often characterized bya.The lack of clear sentence boundariesb.Syntactic incompletenessc.The use of minor sentencesd.The preference for paratactic structurement clauses in end-positionA formal written text is in general “well-prepared”. It is afinished product created by the writer after a good deal of thinking, planning, revising, proofreading, and polishing. The following are some features, typical of written formal sytle;a.Syntactic completeness and complexityb.Heavily premodified noun phrasesc.Cleft sentencesd.The use of personal pronouns in a subordinate clause,preceding the main clause.Audience interaction and linguistic manifestationTo engage in a MONOLOGUE is to speak in such a way as to exclude the possibility of interruption by the audience. To engage in a DIALOGUE is to speak in such a way as to invite the participationof the audience.In a dialogic situation the communication normally proceeds through the cooperation of speaker and audience. The speaker is continually monitoring his message to keep the channel of communication open by using MONITORING signals. The speaker also uses questions, tag-questions, imperatives to invite the active participation of the hearer.In a monologue situation the audience is denied the opportunity or the right to participate, and the interaction features are fewer in evidence.However, monitoring features may occur in a monologue, indicating that the speaker is aware of the audience’s presence and reactions.A written text can be compared to a written monologue because itis addressed to an imagined audience that is not physically present.Publicity of situation and formality in languageThe language of a speaker/writer is often conditioned byA.The size of the audienceB.The relationship between the addresser and the audience Features of spoken style in fictional dialoguesFeatures of spoken style can be found I the first person narration,interior monologue and dialogue in a novelVarieties according to attitude (tenor of discourse)The language we use varies according to our attitudes towards the addressee. Such attitudes are related to the ROLE RELATIONSHIPS in various situations. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent. The addresser’s attitude towards the addressee influences language choice at every level. Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: FORMALITY, POLITENESS, IMPERSONALITY, and ACCESSIBILITY.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of formalityThe degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, church service, cocktail party, and so on. Thus formal English, typically in written form, is found primarily in official documents, regulations, business letters or ceremonial speeches. Informal English is found typically in private conversations or personal letters. It is also used nowadays in advertisements and popular newspapers.a.Phonological markers.. He dunno. Elision and assimilation. He doesn’t know Whatcna want is assimilation What you want isI wanna come elision I want to comeGimme the bottle elision Give me the bottleI gonna do it elision I’m going to do itLemme think a minute elision Let me think a minuteA cuppa tea elision A cup of teab. Graphological markers·Certain punctuation marks. the dash and the exclamation mark) are more informal than others . the semincolon and the colon)·It is considered informal to write figures instead of words as part of a sentence.c.Syntactic Markers·Contracted forms of auxiliary verbs occur frequently in spoken and informal English.. What’ll you have·In informal English, for indefinite reference you is used instead of one·In informal English the pronoun in the objective case is used when it is notionally the subject of the omitted verb.. She can drive as well as him.·When a that-clause is object or complement of the postponed subject, that is frequently omitted in informal use.. I knew he would come.·In informal English, the preposition may be placed at theend of a relative clause, a wh- question, or an exclamation.. what a difficult situation he’s in!· In informal speech elliptical questions and abbreviated clauses are often used.. What for Where to Who with·Pronoun they is often used informally in co-reference with the in-definite pronouns everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody,. Everyone thinks they have the answer.Has anybody brought their cameraThe use of they is a convenient means of avoiding the traditional formal use of he or the recent use of the cumbersome he or she when the sex is not stated.·In subjunctive clauses, the ordinary past tense was can replace were in informal style.. He treated me as if I was a small boy.·The use of participial and verbless clauses is characteristic of formal written English, as they are rarely encountered in spoken language.d.Lexical markers·Shortened Latinate words·Many Phrasal and prepositional verbs are characteristic ofinformal styles·The use of slang and colloquialism characterizes informal styles·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of politenessIn terms of politeness, language varies according to:a.The degree of intimacy between the addresser and addressee.b.The degree of social distance separating the addresser from theaddresseePoliteness tends to increase to the extent that the addressee is more senior in status and less intimate.Politeness can be separated from formality within language.·pohonological markersIntonation patterns often indicate degrees of politeness.·syntactic markersThe use of syntactic markers is determined by three levels: the cost-benefit scale, option-nonoption scale, and indirect-direct scale.a.The use of exclamatory questions for emotive emphasis istypical of familiar styles.. Am I hungry!b. When the speaker wants to be polite and tactful he usually uses the will+progressive construction instead of the simple willconstruction. When you will be visiting us againc. Could and might are considered more polite alternatives to can and may in first-person requests and would to will in second and third-person requests.d. In order to tone down a command people usually add please or the tag question won’t you, why don’t you, will you. In dealing with one’s inferiors and children, the simple imerative is very much more frequent.e. In familiar use, this may introduce something new in a narrative.· Lexical markersa.Sometimes, members of the same social or regional group mayresort to the use of dialectal forms to reinforce group identification, to show the intimacy among themselves.b.The degree of politeness can be manifested in the choice offorms of greetings and leave-takings.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonality Impersonal style is chiefly in written form: the text is regarded as having validity independent of the person who writes or reads it. Thus impersonal style has a distancing effect and is typical of scientific, legal and official writing. Linguistic markersindicating the degrees of impersonality include;A.The passive voiceB.Introductory it as the subject of a sentenceC.Third person nouns such as the student, a claimant, etc.D.Abstract nouns formed from verbs and adjectives·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of accessibilityACCESSIBILITY means whether a piece of language is easy to understand for the addressee. As the language becomes more formal, more impersonal, more specialized in certain subject matter. It tends to become less accessible to the ordinary reader or listener. Features indicating accessibility often overlap with features indicating formality: Latinate words are usually less accessible than Anglo-Saxon words; and long, multiple sentences are more difficult to understand than short simple sentences.Bureaucratic writings are often referred to as ”gobbledygook”, because they are written in an obscure and complex style, which to some extent may help to impress, to mislead or deceive the public. Varieties according to field of discourseField of discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part. Style is the choice made among the alternative linguistic expressions referring to the same thing in a given text.Varieties according to field are often classified according to the dominant function of language in a given social activity.·The language of news reportingA newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion. The chief characteristic of newspaper is:a. A headline that has dramatic eye-catching effectb.An article within a limited spacec. A material which is most readable and attractiveGraphological DevicesGraphological devices are employed to facilitate reading and highlight what the editor considers important in the report.a.In any newspaper we can find different sizes or shapes of typeused for the main headlines, the subheadings, and sometimes even in the body of the article itself.b.Another important device is paragraphing.c.Frequent use is made of inverted commas to·Spotlight particular terms·Mark out direct quotations·Distance the writer from the reported fact or opiniond.Frequent use of dashes instead of commas to mark off a parentheticphrase, to link expansions of thought or afterthoughts with themain part of the sentence.Syntactic Markersa.The need for clarity and readability underlies the choice ofdifferent sentence structures in a reportb.Very short news items often consist of one or two sentences,location, character, event, mode, time, cause.c.Long adverbial phrases are used to introduce sentencesd.Responsibility for a piece of information is sometimes dodged bythe reporter through the use of the following structurese.Reversed word orderf.Reporters are fond of pilling up modifiers in order to pack inas much information as possible even though the information is sometimes not very relevantg.The simple present is used instead of the present perfective andthe past tensesh.In headlines, to-infinitive construction is used for future-timereferencei.In headlines, the use of the present participle without theauxiliary to refer to an action in passive voice.j.Verbless sentences are common in headlinesk.Articles and other function words are often omitted or reduced to a minimum in headlinesLexical devicesboring-saving clichésb.Neologism or foreign words and giving new meanings to old wordsc.Evaluative and emotive wordsd.Anglo-Saxon words are preferred to polysyllabic Latinate wordse of initials, acronyms and clipped forms is common, especiallyin headlines.f.Sound patterning, punning and use of allusions·The language of press advertisementAds help manufacturers and corporations to increase profits, manipulate social values and attitudes, and shapes people’s life style. It influences the policies and appearances of the media, interacts with and affects other forms of communication-literature, art and even language itself. The primary function of the advertising language remains the same-CONATIVE.Linguistic Characteristics of Press Advertisementsa.Deliberate misspelling of words, particularly in brand-naming.b.Abundant use of exclamation marksc.Instead of commas, punctuation marks of greater separative forceare used for emphasis and effectSyntactic Devicese of direct imperative to prompt action。

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