外文文献
如何查找外文文献
如何查找外文文献
查找外文文献是学术研究的重要环节之一，以下将介绍如何进行外文文献检索和查找的方法。
一、了解文献检索工具
1. 学术引擎：如Google学术、PubMed、Microsoft Academic等。
这些引擎提供了全球范围内的学术出版物，包括期刊文章、学位论文、会议论文等。
2. 文献数据库：如Web of Science、Scopus、IEEE Xplore、ScienceDirect等。
这些数据库提供了大量的学术出版物，并且可以进行更加精确和专业的文献检索。
3.图书馆索引和目录：如大学图书馆的在线目录、OPAC等。
图书馆的资源丰富，通常也有电子文献资源，可以通过图书馆网站进行检索。
二、选择合适的检索词和检索策略
1.检索词的选择：根据研究主题，选择合适的关键词进行检索。
关键词应与所研究的领域相关，可以包括专业术语、主题词、人名、地名等。
2.组合使用检索词：不同的检索词可以组合使用，使用布尔运算符（如AND、OR、NOT）构建逻辑关系，缩小或扩大检索范围，以获得更加精确的检索结果。
三、进行文献检索和筛选
1.首先选择一个合适的文献数据库或引擎，输入相关的检索词。
3.阅读和筛选文献全文，如果文献符合研究需求，可以进一步收集相
关的引用文献。
1.引文索引：在已经找到的高质量文献中，查找其中引用的其他文献。
通过查阅引文索引，可以找到相关的后续研究或者经典文献。
五、利用文献管理工具。
外文参考文献译文及原文【范本模板】
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求与格式
百度文库- 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求及格式一、外文参考文献的要求1、外文原稿应与本研究项目接近或相关联；2、外文原稿可选择相关文章或节选章节，正文字数不少于1500字。
3、格式：外文文献左上角标注“外文参考资料”字样，小四宋体。
1.5倍行距。
标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
段前段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号，Times New Roman字体，首行空2字符。
4、A4纸统一打印。
二、中文翻译稿1、中文翻译稿要与外文文献匹配，翻译要正确；2、中文翻译稿另起一页；3、格式：左上角标“中文译文”，小四宋体。
标题：宋体三号加粗居中，行距1.5倍。
段前、段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号宋体，数字等Times New Roman字体，1.5倍行距，首行空2字符。
正文字数1500左右。
4、A4纸统一打印。
格式范例如后所示。
百度文库 - 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献Implementation of internal controls of small andmedium-sized pow erStephen Ryan The enterprise internal control carries out the strength to refer to the enterprise internal control system execution ability and dynamics, it is the one whole set behavior and the technical system, is unique competitive advantage which the enterprise has; Is a series of …………………………标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
外文文献 研究方法
外文文献研究方法
外文文献研究方法主要包括以下几种：
1. 文献回顾：这是外文文献研究的基础，主要是通过查阅大量的文献资料，了解相关领域的研究现状、研究问题、研究方法和研究成果等，为进一步的研究提供参考和依据。
2. 内容分析法：通过对文献内容进行系统分析和比较，探究文献中主题、观点、理论框架等方面的异同点，从而得出一定的结论。
3. 引文分析法：通过分析文献中的引文，了解文献之间的内在联系和知识结构，从而判断研究领域的发展趋势和研究动态。
4. 历史研究法：通过对相关历史资料的研究和分析，了解研究领域的背景和发展历程，从而更好地理解当前研究现状和未来发展方向。
5. 案例分析法：通过对具体案例的研究和分析，探究案例中存在的问题、解决方案和经验教训等，从而得出一般性的结论或提出相应的建议。
6. 问卷调查法：通过发放问卷的方式，了解相关人群对外文文献的认知程度、使用情况、评价和建议等方面的信息，从而为进一步的研究提供数据支持。
7. 比较分析法：通过对不同文献或同一文献的不同方面进行比较和分析，探究它们之间的异同点和优劣之处，从而更好地理解研究领域的特点和发展趋势。
以上是外文文献研究方法的主要内容，不同的研究方法各有优劣，应根据具体的研究需求和实际情况选择合适的方法。
外文参考文献
[1]G. Einsele a, SK. Chough b, T. Shiki，1996. Depositional events and their records-an introduction[J].Sedimentary Geology, 104：l-9.[2]Kauffman E.G.,Elder W.P. and Sageman B.B..High-resolution correlation: a new tool in chronostratigraphy. In: Einsele et al. (Editor), Cycle and Events in Stratigraphy. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1991,798-819.[3]Bruce C. Heezen, D.B. Ericson, Maurice Ewing.Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 Grand banks earthquake[J].Deep Sea Search.1954,1(4):193-202.[4]Cita and Lucchi.Marine Geology[J].Seismicity and sedimentation.1984, 55(1-2):VII–X.[5]Frank R Ettensohn,Carlton E Brett. Stratigraphic evidence from the Appalachian Basin for continuation of the Taconian orogeny into Early Silurian time[J]. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth.2002,27(1): 279-288.[6]Fabrizio Storti, Paola Vannucchi.Preface[J].Sedimentary Geology.2007,196(1-4):1-3.[7]R. Bernhart Owen;Robin W. Renaut and Michael G. te Miocene lacustrine sedimentation in the Mytilinii Basin, Samos Island, Greece[J].Journal of Paleolimnology.2011,46(1):151-166.[8]DengWeidong, YangBaoguo, WuXiaogen. 1997. Studies of storm deposits in China:a review. Continental Shelf Research, 17(13): 1645-1658.[9]H.N. Bhattacharya, Biplab Bhattacharya, Indranil Chakraborty, Abhijit Chakraborty.Sole marks in storm event beds in the Permo-Carboniferous Talchir Formation, Raniganj Basin, India[J].Sedimentary Geology.2004, 166(3-4):209–222. [10]Shu Degan , Conway Morris S , Zhang Xingliang .A Pikaialike chordate from the Lower Cambrian of China[J]. Nature.1996a,384 : 156 -157.[10]Shu Degan, Conway Morris S, Zhang Xingliang, et al.. A pipiscid-like fossil from the Lower Cambrian of South China[J]. Nature, 1999a,400: 746 -749.[11]Becker L, Poreda R J, Hunt A G, et al . . Impact event at the Permian-Triassicboundary: Evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in fullerenes[J]. Science, 2001, 291 (5508): 1530-1533.[12]Bambach R K. . Phanerozoic biodiversity mass extinctions[J]. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci..2006, 34: 127-155.[13]Alvarez L W, Alvarez W, Asaro F, et al.. Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction[J]. Science.1980,208: 1095-1108.[14]Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, Gerta Keller, Peter Schulte, Doris Stüben, Zsolt Berner, Utz Kramar, JoséGuadalupe Lopez-Oliva.The Cretaceous–Tertiary (K/T) boundary transition at Coxquihui, state of Veracruz, Mexico: evidence for an early Danian impact event?[J]Journal of South American Earth Sciences .2002,15 (5) :497–509. [15]S. J. Nichols and S. G. Hagemann[16]P. Farrimond, G. Eglinton, S.C. Brassell, H.C. Jenkyns.The Toarcian black shale event in northern Italy[J].Organic Geochemistry.1988,13(4-6):823-832.[17]Röhl, Hans-Joachim;Schmid-Röhl, Annette;Oschmann, Wolfgang;Frimmel, Andreas.Erratum to “The Posidonia Shale (Lower Toarcian) of SW-Germany: an oxygen-depleted ecosystem controlled by sea level and palaeoclimate”[J].Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.2001,169(3-4):271.[18]Anthony S. Cohen;Angela L. Coe and David B. Kemp.The Late Palaeocene–Early Eocene and Toarcian (Early Jurassic) carbon isotope excursions: a comparison of their time scales, associated environmental changes, causes and consequences[J].Journal of the Geological Society.2007,164(6):1093-1108.[19]Bryony A. Caswell;Angela L. Coe;Anthony S. Cohen.New range data for marine invertebrate species across the early Toarcian (Early Jurassic) mass extinction[J].Journal of the Geological Society.2009,166(5):859-872.[20]Mattioli[21]Suan[22]Hoffman P F, Li Zhengxiang. A palaeogeographic context for Neoproterozoic glaciation[J]. Palaeogeogrpahy.2009,277: 158-172.[23Ramzi Gharsalli, Taher Zouaghi, Mohamed Soussi, Riadh Chebbi, Sami Khomsi, Mourad Bédir.Seismic sequence stratigraphy of Miocene deposits related to eustatic,tectonic and climatic events, Cap Bon Peninsula, northeastern Tunisia[J].Comptes Rendus Geoscience.2013,345(9-10):401-417.[24]Yuzhu Zhang;Chun Chang Huang;Jiangli Pang;Xiaochun Zha;Yali Zhou;Xiaqing Wang.Holocene palaeoflood events recorded by slackwater deposits along the middle Beiluohe River valley, middle Yellow River basin, China[J].Boreas.2015,44(1):127-138.[25]Keim[26]Hornung[27]David Z. Piper.Rare earth elements in the sedimentary cycle: A summary[J].Chemical Geology.1974,14(4):285-304.[28]Mclennan S M. 1989. Rare earth elements in sedimentary rocks: influence of provenance and sedimentary processes. In: Lipin B R, Mckay G R, eds. Geochemistry and mineralogy of rare earth elements. Reviews in Mineralogy, 21: 169-200.[29]Mclennan S M, Hemming S, McDanial D K, et al.. Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance, and tectonics[J]. Geological Society of American Special Paper.1993,284: 21-40.[30]Bhatia M R..Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of sandstones[J].Journal of Geology, 1991,91:611-629.。
外文文献 英文
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question ―do we need a chemical industry?‖ However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to ―bond‖ th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.。
外文文献的引用格式
外文文献的引用格式一、APA格式1. 文献列表作者姓，名字首字母.（出版年份）. 文献. 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围。
例如：Smith, J. (2020). The impact of climate change on biodiversity. Journal of Environmental Science, 35(2), 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上作者姓氏和出版年份，用括号括起来。
例如：According to Smith (2020), climate change has asignificant impact on biodiversity.二、MLA格式1. 文献列表作者姓，名字首字母. “文献.” 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围，出版年份。
例如：Smith, J. “The impact of climate change on biodiversity.” Journal of Environmental Science 35, no. 2 (2020): 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上作者姓氏和页码，用括号括起来。
例如：According to Smith (123), climate change has asignificant impact on biodiversity.三、Chicago格式Chicago格式是美国芝加哥大学推荐的引用格式，广泛应用于历史、艺术、哲学等领域。
Chicago格式有两种引用方式：脚注和尾注。
具体格式如下：1. 脚注/尾注作者姓，名字首字母. 文献. 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围，出版年份.例如：Smith, J. “The impact of climate change on biodiversity.” Journal of Environmental Science 35, no. 2 (2020): 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上脚注或尾注编号，如：1。
怎么翻译外文文献
怎么翻译外文文献
翻译外文文献的方法和步骤可以总结为以下七个步骤：
1. 阅读全文：在开始翻译之前，先通读一遍外文文献，了解主要内容和结构。
2. 理解上下文：将外文文献的上下文理解清楚，包括作者所表达的意思、目的和主题。
3. 提取关键信息：根据主题和目的，提取出自己需要的关键信息，例如数据、结论或主要观点。
4. 查找术语和专业词汇：在翻译过程中，遇到不熟悉的术语和专业词汇时，可以借助词典、学术论坛或专业资源进行查找。
5. 构建句子结构：根据源文档的语法和结构，构建出准确和流畅的句子，确保翻译的准确性和可理解性。
6. 避免直译：尽量避免直译源文档，而是根据目标语言和文化背景，进行合适的转换和调整。
7. 校对和编辑：完成翻译后，进行校对和编辑，确保翻译的准确性和流畅性，并与原文对照，检查漏译或错误。
在翻译外文文献时，为了保证翻译的准确性和专业性，最好选择具备相关背景知识的翻译者或专业翻译团队。
另外，翻译过程中可以借助一些翻译工具和资源，例如在线翻译软件、术语
词典或翻译论坛，提高翻译效率和准确度。
同时，保持对源文档的敬意和尊重，尽量保持原文的风格和质感。
外文文献
英文文献资料外文文献一：Food safety: the shocking truth about the food industrySource: Author: Marion Nestle、Refrigeration technology, pasteurization, pesticides, disease control, these technologies so that safe food into the 20th century, public health's greatest achievements. This book view is that food safety problems also depend on politics. September 2001 events to dispel this view of the doubts about aviation aircraft used by terrorists as a destruction of weapons to civilians and public figures have anthrax spores sent folder of letters, the consequences of these events shows, food, water can easily become a a tool for terrorists, it has also become the federal government for food safety control problem.This chapter will sum up this book referred to in the various food safety problems. Some of them threatened to keep animals healthy, very few will lead to a number of human diseases. Even so, these issues impact on human well-being is deep; large-scale destruction of breeding animals, affecting the livelihood of many people, limiting personal freedom. The 20th century, 90's and early 21st century, an outbreak of mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease Although this is only because of errors caused by the production process, but still brings a lot of destructive. In contrast, bio-terrorism is the deliberate use of biological and chemical substances to achieve their political objectives. For food safety issues,Bio-terrorism extends food safety issues and political outreach; deliberate destruction, excluding any consequences of innocent injury.In this chapter, we will discuss how the rise of bio-terrorism, food safety issues and extend the extension of food safety issues. In the United States, food safety, usually refers to the family food supply reliability. E-mail from the anthrax incident, the food safety issues, also includes safety from biological terrorism. Our discussion will be the beginning of some zoonotic diseases: such as mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, anthrax. In recent years, these zoonotic diseases harmful to humans is relatively small. Today, for these zoonotic diseases, we are concerned that they may give rise to disease, destruction of food supply system,To become a tool for bio-terrorism aspect. This chapter summarizes the discussion of this book, fromsociety and from a personal point of view what action should be taken to face these issues, as well as food safety issues present and future.The political animal diseasesOne of the consequences of globalization is that of food cross-border long-distance rapid transit, affecting food supply all kinds of disease can easily spread from one country to another country. Animal diseases have a commercial impact, if a country has come to infectious diseases of animals, other countries will refuse to import the kinds of animal meat. The impact of business at the same time there are political consequences.Britain's mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease occurred as a result of beef in the production process caused by mismanagement, compared to the U.S. anthrax letters is a result of vandalism. However, this three kinds of threatening to cause great panic, they are difficult to detect control, can cause severe disease. Moreover, these three kinds of threats against people for the food supply, as well as confidence in the Government.Mad cow is the mid-20th century, 90 of the most popular of a food security crisis, the epidemic is mainly limited to the United Kingdom. With regard to BSE-related issues and our discussion, mainly because of political issues and scientific issues intertwined Among them, public confidence had a great impact. For example, the British Government in the BSE crisis in the practice is also considered to result in distrust of genetically modified food one of the reasons. The beginning of the 20th century, 80 years, no one had heard of the disease, but in 1999, this disease affects at least 175,000 British cattle. The consequences are very serious: 400 million head of livestock were slaughtered, the loss of 70 billion U.S. dollars,Spread to 18 countries worldwide national boycott of British beef. By 2001 only, although "only" 120 people died of the human variant of mad cow disease, it is estimated the death toll will reach 10 million people. Because mad cow disease revealed the modern politics of food safety issues, it is worth detailing.英文文献中文翻译06013618 胡冬敏外文翻译一：作者：玛丽恩·内斯特尔出版时间：2004年11月食品安全：令人震惊的食品行业真相（美）玛丽恩·内斯特尔冷藏技术，巴氏消毒，杀虫剂，疾病控制，这些技术使安全食品成为20世纪公众健康最伟大的成就之一。
外文参考文献的格式
外文参考文献的格式篇一：英语论文参考文献格式用Times New Roman。
每一条目顶格, 如某一条目超过一行，从第二行起“悬挂缩进”2字符。
参考文献中所有标点与符号均在英文状态下输入，标点符号后空一格。
参考文献条目排列顺序：英文文献、中文文献、网络文献。
分别按作者姓氏字母顺序排列。
文献前不用序号。
1）英文参考文献（1）专著与编著排列顺序为：作者姓、名、专著名、出版地、出版社、出版年。
例如：Brinkleyork: Knopf, 1993.专著名中如果还包含其他著作或作品名，后者用斜体。
例如：Dunn, Richard J ed. Charlotte Bront?: Jane EyreNew York: Norton, 1971.A．两个至三个作者第一作者的姓在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开；其余作者名在前，姓在后，中间无逗号；每个作者之间用逗号隔开，最后一个作者的姓名前用“and”，后用句号。
例如：B. 三个以上作者第一作者姓名（姓在前，名在后，中间加逗号）后接“et al.”，其他作者姓名省略。
例如：University of Hawaii Press, 1997.C. 同一作者同一年出版的不同文献，参照下例：Widdowson, Hey G1998a.Widdowson, Hey G. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1998b.（2）论文集参照下例：Thompson, Pett. “Modal Verbs in Academic Writing”. In Ben Kettlemann & York: Rodopi, 2019: 305-323.（3）百科全书等参考文献参照下例：Fagan, Jeffrey. “Gangs and Drugs”. ork: Macmillan, 2019.（4）学术期刊论文参照下例：Murphy, Karen. “Meaningful Connections: Using Technology in PrimaryClassrooms”.（5）网络文献参照下例：----“Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL”..2）中文参考文献（1）专著参照下例：皮亚杰．结构主义[M] ．北京：商务印书馆，1984．（2）期刊文章参照下例：杨忠，张韶杰．认知语音学中的类典型论[J] ．外语教学与研究，1999，(2)：1-3．（3）学位论文参照下例：梁佳．大学英语四、六级测试试题现状的理论分析与问题研究[D] ．湖南大学，2019．（4）论文集参照下例：许小纯．含义和话语结构[A]．李红儒．外国语言与文学研究[C] ．哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社，1999：5-7．（5）附录篇二：中英文参考文献格式中文参考文献格式参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识：M——专著，C——论文集，N——报纸文章，J——期刊文章，D——学位论文，R——报告，S——标准，P——专利；对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。
2024年外文参考文献格式要求
D.专著中析出的文献
〔序号〕 析出责任者.析出题名.见(英文用In)：专著责任者.书名.出版地：出版者，出版年：起止页码.
〔12〕罗云.安全科学理论体系的`发展及趋势探讨.见：白春华，何学秋，吴宗之.21世纪安全科学与技术的发展趋势.北京：科学出版社，2000：1-5.
2024年外文参考文献格式要求
外文参考文献格式要求 篇1
单一作者著作的书籍：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.
②磁带数据库[DB/MT]
③光盘图书[M/CD]
④磁盘软件[CP/DK]
⑤网上期刊[J/OL]
⑥网上电子公告[EB/OL]
期刊论文
[1]周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的.溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323
[2]Dobbs J M, Wong J M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polor coselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56
B.专著
〔序号〕 主要责任者.文献题名〔M〕.出版地：出版者，出版年：页码.
〔3〕 刘国钧，郑如斯.中国书的故事〔M〕.北京：中国青年出版社，1979：115.
有关外文文献资源简介
有关外文文献资源简介一、约翰威立（Wiley-Blackwell）数据库（美国）Wiley-Blackwell 是2007年2月由Blackwell出版社与Wiley的科学、技术及医学业务合并而成的，通过Wiley Interscience平台提供1500余种高品质期刊。
Wiley-Blackwell是当今世界最重要教科和专业出版商之一，同时也是最大的学术出版机构。
学科涉及：化学化工、生命科学与医学、计算机科学、工程技术、地球科学（包括环境科学）、数学与统计学、物理科学、心理学、教育学、法律、社会学、经济与管理类等。
威立（Wiley）已经在全球学术出版、高等教育出版和专业及大众图书出版领域建立起了卓越的品牌，成为全球唯一一家业务涵盖这三大领域并处于领先地位的独立出版商。
Wiley-Blackwell 目前共有1,087种期刊（占所出版期刊总数的73%）收录在Thomson ISI® 2010年期刊引用报告（JCR）中，其中317 种期刊影响因子排名前十。
其中，在自然科学版期刊引用报告中Wiley-Blackwell出版的《CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians》再次成为自然科学版期刊引用报告中影响因子最高的期刊，影响因子为94.262，冠绝所有期刊。
在社会科学版期刊引用报告中，Wiley-Blackwell出版了其中13%的期刊和14%的文章，占被引用次数的16%。
Wiley-Blackwell出版的被期刊引用报告收录的社会科学期刊数量要多于其他任何一家出版社。
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二、国外博硕士论文全文数据库（PQDT）（美国）国外学位论文（博硕士论文）全文是不同于期刊或书本的一种高水平的全文资料，对于研究和跟踪世界最新科学前沿有不可替代的作用，受到世界各国科研人员的高度重视和欢迎。
ProQuest®学位论文全文数据库(PDF格式)，是将ProQuest公司的PQDT文摘库中适合中国科研人员科研和教学使用的论文全文建设而成，并向全国百数家科研教学单位的读者提供全文服务。
外文文献——精选推荐
毕业论文材料：英文文献及译文课题名称：中小企业品牌战略研究专业楷体_GB2312 三号学生姓名班级学号指导教师专业系主任完成日期二零一二年三月Russian Accession To The WTO On China Textile Trade ImpactDAVID E. MILLS Texdaily/ Dec /2006o n November 19,2006,Russia and the United States signed a bilateral agr-eement Russia, after years of efforts, Russia's accession to the WTO on the r-oad to finally remove the greatest obstacle, if all goes well, the year 2007 is expected to become Russia's WTO membership.Textiles are China and Russia (Soviet Union) trade in traditional commod-etyies, and China's main export commodities one. But after the breakup of th-e Soviet Union, by Russia gray customs clearance and other factors, the bil-ateral textile trade has been in chaos, I most large enterprises entered, the self-employed and SMEs to take a leading role in Russia's business interests insec-urity, commodities poor reputation. Russia's accession to the WTO, trade envi-ronment will be improved, I brought large enterprises to enter the dawn.A Sino-Russian textile trade statusRussian textile exports is one of the major markets, with the accelerated pace of Russia's accession to the WTO, I saw a big fluctuations.According to customs statistics, in 2005 the Sino-Russian trade volume of textiles and garments to 6.218 billion US dollars, an increase of 35%. Within this total, China's exports to 6.213 billion US dollars, increasing by 35.4% and imports 4.8 million US dollars, down 21.6%.China's textile exports to Russia 47% of the total.In 2006, bilateral trade has witnessed rapid growth runs counter to the trend, the bilateral textile trade has been a substantial drop49.8 billion dollars, a drop of 19.9%, basic for China's exports. Chinese exports to Russia share has dropped to 32%. Russia in 2005 from my first five largest export market retreated No. 7.2, Russia textile trade the main problems(1)Gray clearanceGray clearance of the Chinese textile and apparel trade disorder causes. This directly caused the main issues include : One, in the interests of the Russian Chamber can not be guaranteed. The absence of legitimate goods clearance certificates, making the Russian Chamber of Trade as powerful departments arbitrary raids targeted heavy losses.2, the two sides statistics, the differences do not reflect the actual trade. According to Russian experts estimated that will take about a year Russia imported 15 billion US dollars of textiles and garments to meet demand on the domestic market. Russian customs statistics, in 2005 the import statistics only 1.23 billion US dollars, of which 800 million US dollars clothing, and all the imports fromChina, imports from other countries failing basic statistics. From January to September 2006, imports of textiles and garments 1.23 billion US dollars (1 billion US dollars clothing). 3, large Chinese enterprises can not directly enter the Russian market. Lack of foreign exchange reserves and Russia's trade environment triggered worry about the market risk, and large enterprises mostly through cross-border trade, wholesale, in Russia, or through the self-employed sales, has been unable to become a bilateral textile trade mainstay. 4, commodities credibility been affected. Because no legitimate clearance certificates, the only Chinese textile products on the market, can not enter the store or conventional malls. , Is often branded as the "smuggling goods" in the hat. Leading Chinese goods on the image and credibility has not high. 5, merchants become targeted. In Russia against illegal customs clearance companies, in the course of the Russian Chamber of easily being implicated as an accomplice in the smuggling and the targets to be attacked.(2) Russia's unilateral actions have resulted in my training partner, 2006 a ccompanied Putin on the training of the judiciary and the WTO intensified the pace Russia to rectify the market order has gradually expanded Show.In 2006, Russia not only in the Moscow region, but also in other regions of the big market for a number of raids. Meanwhile, the replacement of the Director of Customs, Customs officials over a gray customs clearance dropped. Due to the normal clearance impeded, irregular clearance adds another surface, leading to direct Russian textile trade drop, some traders were forced to Kaza khstan and Kyrgyzstan by other re-exports. In particular, Russia introduced late last year against foreigners engaged in retail trade policies, the majority of th-e Russian Chamber of confusion in the future, not to rush into another purcha-se.(3)Russian accession to the WTO on bilateral textile trade impactRussia's accession to the WTO, the immediate future, China and Russia will bring about some textile trade shocks and fluctuations. The major reasons are :1，A Russian trade environment has always been States complained that a-fter WTO entry, to rectify the order of operation will be Russia's accession to the WTO after one of the top priorities.2,The "China threat theory" and "Chinese immigrant" in Russian society a-nd the officials are certain market, and foreigners are prohibited in the market for the wholesale business can be viewed as restrictions on Chinese participate-on in the Russian economy were the first step further measures taken remains to be seen.3，Chinese businessmen from the Russian market after the wholesale busi-ness, in the short term, both can hardly establish new trade and way to be fil-led, will lead to direct bilateral textile trade has been shrinking.4, the Russian Customs policy changes at the implementation of standards throughout. After accession to the WTO will be increased adjustment and res-tructuring efforts. Foreign enterprises to adapt to the changes in Russian cust- oms needs a certain period.5, Russia's textile exports to mainly SMEs and the self-employed, in the face of Russia's accession to the WTO after the change, low adaptive capacity of enterprises will be forced to withdraw.China textile trade in order to completely informal, and realize sustained and steady development in the long run, Judgment to the following factors : 1, The political situation in Russia and to maintain long-term stability and thrive, and severely punish corruption;2, Russia will abide by WTO commitments to reduce import tariffs, the e-limination of unreasonable fees;3, Russia changes with the WTO standards and improve the customs and commercial laws and regulations to enhance transparency. to ensure impartial l-aw enforcement.4, Russia trade environment rectification measures in place, reducing the s-ize of the market trade, foreign trade to become normal.5, The Chinese and Russian customs, quality control, banking and transpo-rtation management and service trade cooperation between the departments to further deepen, create better it will be beneficial to bilateral trade environment.6, Standardize border trade between China and Russia, to reduce its neg-ative factors and implications.7, Bilateral government departments to take positive measures to promote timely strength of large enterprises to establish contacts direct trade cooper-ation.(4) China and Russia are complementary to each other textile industry will exist for a long timeRussia's existing textile enterprises 3000,but the scale of more than 60 en-terprises only. The majority of small-scale, aging equipment, and three-quarter-s of the equipment over 20 years, low productivity and high costs,far from b-eing competitive products arrived in similar foreign products. Although the Ru-ssian government has issued 110 preferential policies for the development of the industry, but has never been effectively implemented. Currently, the annual investment in the upgrading of equipment is only over 100 million US dollars. In addition to a small amount of chemical fiber and flax, the other la-rgely dependent on imports, and also restricting the development of the Russia-n textile industry.According to incomplete statistics, there are Russian garment production of more than 200 enterprises, the main production midrange suits fashio n police and the special tooling, clothing and other basic apparel imports.By raw materials and labor resource constraints, coupled with a weak fou-ndation, the Russian textile industry is unlikely to rapid development. Meanwh-ile, as economic development, people's living standards improve, the demand f-or textile products will keep increasing. According to Russian experts forecast that in 2010 the need 200-250 billion dollars of imports to meet domestic de-mand for textiles.Chinese textiles because of the quality, grade, and so the prices are suita-ble for the needs of ordinary Russian people, Russia has long been the largest supplier of the market.From the Russian market my main competitors Turkey and Vietnam production, the short term can replace China.In addition, the two good political relations,intersectoral cooperation has been enhanced,to promote the sustained and rapid development of bilateral trade is the common a spi-ration of both active border trade and transport facilitation, frequent personnel ex-changes as well as the advantages of long-term,as I have to ensure Russia's largest textile and apparel supplier status of the important factors.China’s apparel industry has an intimate relation with the Asian market. 47.26% of the apparel export volume goes inside Asia, and 91.02% of its import volume also comes from Asian countries. The cooperation between China and Asian countries has also been strengthened. The theme for the Asia Fashion Federation this years the ve-ry focus Chinese apparel industry eyes on. The cultural source and creativity shared by all Asian countries is the important precondition of the development of Asian Fas-hion industry and prosperity of its people. So far as all Asian countries discover and show more of its brilliant culture and intensify exchanges in technology, design innov-ation and local brand creation, the Asian apparel industry will make more historic co-ntributions to not only the Asians but people across the world.The textile industry in various countries in the national economy has alw-ays been a very important position in China's textile and apparel years to mai-ntain high momentum of growth is the world textile production and export's b-iggest. Since the 1980s, China's textile and apparel exports has been ranked fi-rst in its import and export trade surplus has become China's foreign exchange earnings and an important source of capital accumulation. However, we are n-ot textile and garment export of strong and long-term price competition from China's textile products in the international market did not gain a firm foothold. January 1, 2005, the abolition of all quotas, which will be conducive to furt-her expand the international textile and apparel market of the country to reduc-e imports of the various restrictions on China's exports. Although China's labor force have a certain advantage, but in production technology, management and production costs also at a disadvantage, and the world economic situation and the uncertainties surrounding the global textile and apparel trade pattern chang-es, quota-free era of China's textile and apparel export competitors will face t-he weight of the international market and severe challenges. How to meet the challenges and grasp the opportunity to further expand the export of textiles a-nd garments, which has a direct impact on China's economic development and foreign exchange balance the important and pressing issue. Based on China's t-extile industry in recent years and the status of new problems facing the analy sis of how the Chinese textile industry should grasp the opportunity to exceed and make reasonable adjustments.外文翻译：俄罗斯入世对中国纺织品贸易的冲击与影响大卫 E .麦尔斯《纺织日报》2006年12月刊2006年11月19日，俄美签署俄罗斯入世双边协议后，经多年努力，俄罗斯入世道路上的最大障碍终于清除，如一切顺利，2007年内俄罗斯有望成为WTO 正式成员。
分享能够免费下载外文文献的几个网址各类网站网址
分享能够免费下载外文文献的几个网址各类网站网址
斯坦福大学图书馆的分支机构——斯坦福出版社（Stanford Press），拥有最大的免费期刊数据库，可以在线提供916种免费期刊和1，149，216篇全文（至2005年）。
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(完整word版)外文文献及翻译doc
Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。
外文实践教学文献(3篇)
Abstract:
This literature review aims to explore the current trends and methodologies in foreign language practical teaching. By analyzing various studies, this paper discusses the importance of practical teaching in language learning, the challenges faced by teachers, and the innovative approaches adopted to enhance the effectiveness of practical teaching. The review also highlights the role of technology in practical teaching and suggests future directions for research in this field.
4.2 Utilizing Technology
Integrating technology into foreign language practical teaching can enhance the learning experience and make it more engaging. Teachers can use online platforms, mobile applications, and interactive tools to facilitate communication, collaboration, and cultural exchange among learners.
外文文献的引用格式
外文文献的引用格式1. APA格式作者姓名：姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间用逗号隔开，名缩写为首字母。
出版年份：用括号括起来，紧跟在作者姓名之后。
文章首字母大写，其他单词小写，与期刊名之间用句号隔开。
期刊名：斜体，首字母大写。
卷号：用阿拉伯数字表示，斜体，卷号与期号之间用逗号隔开。
期号：用阿拉伯数字表示，期号与页码之间用逗号隔开。
页码：用阿拉伯数字表示，页码范围之间用短横线连接。
示例：Smith, J. (2010). The impact of social media on interpersonal relationships. Journal of Communication, 25(3), 4556.2. MLA格式作者姓名：姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间用逗号隔开，名缩写为首字母。
文章首字母大写，其他单词小写，与期刊名之间用句号隔开。
期刊名：斜体，首字母大写。
卷号：用阿拉伯数字表示，斜体，卷号与期号之间用逗号隔开。
期号：用阿拉伯数字表示，期号与页码之间用逗号隔开。
页码：用阿拉伯数字表示，页码范围之间用短横线连接。
示例：Smith, J. "The impact of social media on interpersonal relationships." Journal of Communication 25.3 (2010): 4556.3. Chicago格式作者姓名：姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间用逗号隔开，名缩写为首字母。
出版年份：用括号括起来，紧跟在作者姓名之后。
文章首字母大写，其他单词小写，与期刊名之间用句号隔开。
期刊名：斜体，首字母大写。
卷号：用阿拉伯数字表示，斜体，卷号与期号之间用逗号隔开。
期号：用阿拉伯数字表示，期号与页码之间用逗号隔开。
页码：用阿拉伯数字表示，页码范围之间用短横线连接。
示例：Smith, J. "The impact of social media on interpersonal relationships." Journal of Communication 25, no.3 (2010): 4556.外文文献的引用格式1. APA格式作者姓名：姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间用逗号隔开，名缩写为首字母。
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融资理论是企业制定融资政策的理论基础。
自20世纪50年代以来,在解释企业融资决策行为的动机及其所秉承的理论基础时,主要存在着两大理论,一是权衡融资理论;二是优序融资理论。
权衡融资理论认为,企业在构造长期资本来源的组合时,存在着一个最佳的资本结构,企业将按照事先测算的最佳资本结构来选择资金来源及配置各种不同性质的资金。
优序融资理论最早是Modigoliani和Miller(1958)提出的。
理论指出在完善的资本市场中,如果不存在税收、破产成本以及代理成本的影响,那么,企业市场价值将与其资本结构无关。
Myers和Majluf(1984)在《企业知道投资人所不知道信息时的融资和投资决策》一文中,以信息不对称理论为基础,提出企业融资存在一种“啄食顺序原则”。
认为由于所有权和经营权的分离而产生委托代理关系,因为利益不同,内部经营者和股东之间的信息不对称原因,企业的融资顺序上就形成了一个优序策略。
即首先为内部融资,也就是企业的留存收益;其次是长期借款和长期债券;再次是发行优先股融资;最后是发行普通股融资。
此外,1989年Baskin以交易成本、个人所得税和控制权的研究角度对优序融资理论作出了解释,指出由于留存收益提供的内部资金不必承担发行成本,也避免了个人所得税,因此内部资金要优于外部资金。
与权益性资金相比较,负债融资由于具有节税效应,发行成本低,又不会稀释公司的控制权,所以对外融资来说负债融资又优于权益性融资。
Claggett(1991)利用交叉分类法以验证权衡融资理论和优序融资理论在实践中是否存在。
结果发现这两种理论都成立,但优序理论的显著性高于权衡融资理论。
因此,Claggett认为无论是权衡理论还是优序理论都过于简化,实际的操作是介于两者之间,故应称为混合理论。
在国内,也有一些学者在专题研究融资理论及其实践效应。
有的通过实证研究认为我国企业偏好于股权融资,有的认为我国企业融资秩序与优序融资理论的主张正好相反。
Mm理论、平衡理论、优序列理论。
融资顺序理论:“融资顺序理论”(pecking financial order theory)是由Mayers(1984)提出，该理论认为企业的融资决策是在综合各种因素如控制权的分散与财务成本根据成本最小化的原则依次选择不同的融资方式，即首先选择无交易成本的内源融资如经营利润的积累；其次选择交易成本较低的债务融资；对于信息约束条件最严，并可能导致企业控制权分散与价值被低估的股权融资则被企业排在末位。
之所以这样，一是因为权益融资无法享受避税的好处，二是因为增发股票对于投资者来说是利空的消息，常常会导致股票下跌。
权衡理论的代表人物包括罗比切克(Robichek,1967）、梅耶斯(Mayers,1984）、考斯(Kraus,1973）、鲁宾斯坦(Rubinmstein,1973）、斯科特(Scott,1976）等人。
权衡理论认为，企业可以利用税收屏蔽的作用，通过增加债务来增加企业价值。
但随着债务的上升，企业陷入财务困境的可能性也增加，甚至可能导致破产，如果企业破产，不可避免的会发生破产成本。
即使不破产，但只要存在破产的可能，或者说，只要企业陷入财务困境的概率上升，就会给企业带来额外的成本，这是制约企业增加借贷的一个重要因素，因此，企业在决定资本结构时，必须要权衡负债的避税效应和破产成本。
根据权衡理论，负债企业价值等于无负债企业价值加上节税利益，减去预期财务拮据成本的现值，即V1= Vu+ TcB−FPV(FPV 为预期财务危机成本的现值，包括由于债务过高引起的直接或间接的财务危机成本），企业的最佳资本结构存在于企业负债所引起的企业价值增加与因企业负债上升所引起的企业风险成本和各项费用相等时的平衡点上，此时的企业价值最大。
权衡理论以后又发展为后权衡理论，后权衡理论的代表人物是迪安吉罗（Diamond,1984）、梅耶斯（Mayers,1984）等人，他们将负债的成本从破产成
本进一步扩展到了代理成本、财务困境成本和非负债税收利益损失等方面，同时，又将税收利益从原来所讨论的负债收益引申到非负债税收收益方面，实际上是扩大了成本和利益所包括的内容，把企业融资看成是在税收收益和各类负债成本之间的权衡。
迈尔斯和马吉洛夫的研究表明，当股票价格高估时，企业管理者会利用其内部信息发行新股。
投资者会意识到信息不对称的问题，因此当企业宣布发行股票时，投资者会调低对现有股票和新发股票的估价，导致股票价格下降、企业市场价值降低。
内源融资主要来源于企业内部自然形成的现金流，它等于净利润加上折旧减去股利。
由于内源融资不需要与投资者签订契约，也无需支付各种费用，所受限制少，因而是首选的融资方式，其次是低风险债券，其信息不对称的成本可以忽略，再次是高风险债券，最后在不得已的情况下才发行股票。
另一位优序融资结构学派学者纳拉亚南(Narayanan，1978)用一种
略为不同的方法得出了与梅耶斯～迈基里夫模型相类似的结论，所不同
的是，梅耶斯等人认为信息不对称不仅存在于需要融资的项目，而且
存在于企业现有资产中，所以梅耶斯等更为关心企业在资本市场为新
项目融资时对企业现有资产的影响；而纳拉亚南则只考虑新投资机会
的信息不对称现象，他认为其模型将对没有现有资产、渐成立企业或
从企业分拆出来的某一部分都能适用。
梅耶斯等人的优序融资结构理
论另外一个非常重要的贡献就是将企业融资结构问题通过信号的传递
与证券市场的反应直接联系起来，而回避了以前理论中必须通过资本
资产定价模型才能间接联系的效果，使企业融资问题通过证券市场得
到大量的实证分析。
二、激励理论
激励理论认为，融资结构会影响经理人员的工作努力水平和其他
的行为选择，进而影响企业未来现金收入和企业市场价值。
詹森和麦
克林(Jensen，Meckling，1976)认为企业经理人员与投资者之间的目标
函数是不一致的，投资者(如股东)只关心企业价值最大化，而经理人员
不仅关心企业价值最大化，而且还享有控制企业日常经营活动而带来
的私人利益(Pn在职消费等1。
由于信息的不对称，管理者的努力水平不
能被观察，因而不同的融资结构能产生不同的激励作用。
Ross(19771
从信息传递的角度探讨了融资结构的信号传递作用。
假定经理人员了
解投资收益的分布函数，而投资人不了解。
如果企业证券的市场价格
高于实际价格则经理人员获益，如果企业破产则经理人员要受到惩罚。
投资者把具有较高举债水平当作是一种较高质量的信号，因为他们认
为经理人员为了保证自己的在职利益而追求企业利润最大化，否则就
会付出代价，此时市场意识到企业利润将上升，企业的市场价值会增
大。
Myers和Majluf(1984)也认为私人信息是融资结构的重要决定因素，
当经理人员比投资者有信息优势时，外部投资者根据管理层的决策行
动传递的信号进行决策，如果管理人员发行新的股份就容易被市场曲
解，新股的发行不得不以折扣方式发行，现有股东的价值降低，而通
过债务融资则不会使现有股东的价值降低，从而证明了融资顺序理论。