2011级话语分析复习资料 2
语言学概论完整版复习资料
语⾔学概论完整版复习资料第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学1.语⾔与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语⾔学必须明确⾃⼰的研究对象，才能成为⼀门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号，包括语⾔符号都是形式和意义的统⼀体。
3.什么是语⾔的客观存在形式语⾔的客观存在形式⾸先表⽰为有声的⼝头语⾔即⼝语，⽽当出现了⽂字以后，⼜表现为有形的书⾯语⾔即书⾯语。
4.语⾔符号的强制性正因为语⾔符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同⼀社会，同⼀时代，对使⽤同⼀种语⾔的每⼀个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个⼈可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际⼯具的作⽤。
5.语⾔与⾔语的区别语⾔是⾔语活动中同⼀社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循⽽⼜成系统的那⼀部分；⽽含有个⼈要素或个⼈杂质的说话⾏为和说出来的话只能属于⾔语。
第⼆章语⾳1.声⾳的四要素：⾳⾼，⾳强，⾳长，⾳质2.振幅：也就是发⾳体振动时离开平衡位置的最⼤偏移距离。
3.频率：发⾳体在每⼀秒钟内振动的次数。
4.⾳⾼：就是声⾳的⾼低。
它是由频率的⼤⼩决定的。
频率同⾳⾼成正⽐。
频率越⼤，声⾳越⾼；频率越⼩，声⾳越低。
5.⾳强：就是声⾳的强弱。
它是由振幅的⼤⼩决定的。
振幅同⾳强成正⽐，振幅的⼤⼩⼜决定于使发⾳体振动外⼒的⼤⼩。
外⼒⼤，振幅就⼤，声⾳就强；外⼒⼩，振幅就⼩，声⾳就弱。
6.⾳长：就是声⾳的长短。
它是由发⾳体振动的持续时间决定的。
发⾳体振动的持续时间长，声⾳就长；发⾳体振动的时间短，声⾳就短。
7.基⾳：振动中有⼀个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声⾳叫做“基⾳”。
其他振动发出的声⾳叫做“陪⾳”。
8.乐⾳：当基⾳的频率的陪⾳的频率之间存在着整数倍的⽐例关系时，会形成⼀种复杂⽽有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做乐⾳。
9.噪⾳：如果基⾳的频率和陪⾳的频率之间不存在整倍数的⽐例关系，就会形成⼀种杂乱⽆章的不规则的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做噪⾳。
10.语⾳的⽣理基础：语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官协同动作⽽产⽣的，⼈的发⾳及其运动是“语⾳的⽣理基础”，决定着语⾳的⽣理特征。
2011年考研英语二真题及答案
2011年考研英语二真题及答案2011年考研英语二真题及答案2011年的考研英语二真题一直备受考生关注。
这份试卷包含了阅读理解、完形填空和翻译三个部分，共计120分。
下面我们将对这三个部分进行分析和讨论。
首先是阅读理解部分，该部分共有四篇文章，涉及的主题包括科学、文化、教育和社会问题。
其中一篇文章讨论了社交网络在当代社会中的影响。
这篇文章要求考生理解社交网络的优点和缺点，并对其对人际关系和社会交往的影响进行评估。
另一篇文章则探讨了人类语言的起源和发展。
考生需要理解语言的功能和作用，并思考语言与人类文明的关系。
这些文章都要求考生有较强的阅读理解能力和思辨能力。
接下来是完形填空部分，该部分共有两篇文章，涉及的主题分别是教育和环境保护。
其中一篇文章讨论了教育的重要性，强调了教育对个人和社会的影响。
考生需要通过上下文理解词语的含义，并理解作者的观点和论证方式。
另一篇文章则探讨了环境保护的重要性，提出了保护环境的措施和方法。
考生需要理解文章的逻辑结构，并推断出作者的态度和立场。
最后是翻译部分，该部分要求考生将一段英文翻译成中文。
这部分考察考生的翻译能力和语言表达能力。
考生需要准确理解原文的意思，并用准确、流畅的中文表达出来。
这部分的难度较大，需要考生具备较高的英语语言水平和翻译技巧。
综上所述，2011年考研英语二真题涵盖了多个主题和领域，要求考生具备较强的阅读理解能力、词汇理解能力和语言表达能力。
对于考生来说，备考过程中应注重平衡各个部分的准备，提高自己的整体水平。
阅读大量相关的英文文章，积累词汇和短语，提高阅读速度和理解能力。
同时，多进行翻译练习，提高自己的翻译水平。
通过系统的学习和练习，相信每个考生都能在考试中取得好成绩。
中山大学中国语言文学系2011年现代汉语与语言学概论真题及详解
中山大学中国语言文学系2011年现代汉语与语言学概论（代码613）真题及详解一、单项选择题（20分）在每小题列出的各个选项中，只有一个选项是符合题目要求的，请把答案写在答题纸上，注明题号。
1．下列汉字音节中，主要元音是舌面、前、半高、不圆唇元音的是________A．月B．对C．论D．界2．下列各组字中韵腹相同的是________。
A．问、军、肯、坤B．料、到、当、雅C．依、市、吉、迎D．桂、非、文、言3．下列加着重号的词语在句子中的比喻意义不是该词的固定义项的是________。
A．我们要避开市民出行的高峰．．。
B．党员要做党和广大群众联系的桥梁．．C．改革开放的春风吹遍了祖国大地。
．．为自己谋利益。
D．他打着政府的招牌．．4．下列句子中的“得”，属于助动词的是________。
A．这件事我不想干，免得添麻烦。
B．你不干也得干！C．老干那么多吃得消吗？D．没办法，这阵子大家都忙得晕头转向。
5．下列短语中不是谓词性短语的是________。
A．清新自然B．飞也似的C．为广大群众D．轻轻旋转6．下列句子中补语的语义指向主语的是________。
A．我写好了两篇文章。
B．天热得令人难受。
C．你要弄清楚他的意图。
D．猫把鸟儿吓跑了。
7．汉字“爱/阿/盎/案/奥”的汉语拼音分别是“ài/à/àng/àn/ào”，它们的拼式中都有一个共同的字母ɑ。
但实际上ɑ在以上各字中代表着不同的音位变体。
请问以上五字中含有几个拼音字母ɑ的音位变体？A．1个B．2个C．3个D．4个8．下列各组词中属于纯粹的借词的是________。
A．电话咖啡电视B．咖喱可乐蛇果C．吉普坦克手机D．沙发麦克风拷贝9．下列各词中附加色彩与其他词不同的是________。
A．大娘B．老大爷C．老头D．大妈10．下列各项中不是词缀的是________。
A．“worker”（工人）中的“er”（work：工作）B．“老板”中的“老”C．“working”（工作）中的“ing”D．“阿姨”中的“阿”二、多项选择题（20分）每题作出2项以上的选择，把答案写在答题纸上，注明题号。
话语分析课程资料
1. What is Discourse?•Language does not normally consist of isolated, unrelated sentences, but instead of collocated, structured, coherent groups of sentences we can call a discourse.2. What is Discourse Analysis?•Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event.3. What is a Speech Act?i. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication.–Austin’s Speech Ac t Theory (speech is itself a form of action: constative vs. performative)Austin is widely associated with the concept of the speech act theory and the idea that speech is itself aform of action.•Constative utterance is one that asserts or states something that can be judged as true or false.(e.g. He promised to give her ten dollars.)•The performative is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary act and is either felicitous or infelicitous.(e.g. I promise to give her ten dollars. )•Limitation(e.g. Jocelyn got a Cartier for her birthday. )Austin later modified his theory:•locutionary act 以言指事行为the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic actscorresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance.•illocutionary Act 以言行事行为The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning•Prelocutionary Act 以语成事行为Its actual effect, whether intended or note.g.In uttering the locution "Is there any salt?" at the dinner table, one may thereby perform theillocutionary act of requesting salt, as well as the distinct locutionary act of uttering theinterrogatory sentence about the presence of salt, and the further perlocutionary act of causingsomebody to hand one the salt.ii.Searle’s Speech Act Theory–Searle’s Speech Act Theory (Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, Declarations) •Searle has set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts:1)Assertives 断言类 E.G. Sam smokes habitually.2)Directives 指令类 E.G. Does Sam smoke habitually?3)Commissives 承诺类 E.G. Sam, smoke habitually!4)Expressives 表达类 E.G. Would that Sam smoke habitually!5)Declarations 宣告类(a statement, a question, a command, and an expression of desire,respectively)4. What is Context?•Malinowski-- Context “must burst the bonds of mere linguistics and be carried over into the analysis of the general conditions under which a language is spoken.”•Context includes: Firth--1) The Participants in the situation;2) The Action of the participants;3) Other Relevant Features of the situation;4) The Effects of the verbal action.✓THE FIELD OF DISCOURSE语场:Refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place.✓THE TENOR OF DISCOURSE 语旨:Refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles.✓THE MODE OF DISCOURSE语式:Refers to what part the language is playing, what is that the participants are expecting the language to dofor them in that situation.•Function of Context:1)制约功能2)解释功能5. What is Cohesion?•Cohesion is defined as a semantic concept.It is “a semantic relation between an element in the text and some other elements that is crucial to the interpretation of it”.•Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence. It can be defined as the links that holda text together and give it meaning.•Types of cohesion1. Referencing 照应✓Exophoric Reference 外指照应:It is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them✓Endophoric Reference内指照应•Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previouslyidentified, to avoid repetition.•Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to backward in thediscourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified.2. Ellipsis & substitution 省略与替代✓Ellipsis happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated.✓Substitution means that a word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another, more general word.3. Conjunction 连词Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses.4. Grammatical cohesion 语法衔接5. Lexical cohesion 词汇衔接A.Repetition 重复B. Synonym/Antonym 同/反义词C. Hyponymy 上下义关系D. Collocation 组合，搭配5. What is Coherence?•(Four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between ideas: using transitional expressions, repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference, and using parallel form)•Cohesion refers to the linguistic features that relate sentences to one another and Coherence refers to the text that appropriately fits its situational context. When a text is consistent internally, it is cohesive; when it is consistent with its context, it is coherent.•Cohesion contributes only partially to textual coherence, while a coherent text does not necessarily require cohesion. •Beaugrande（1981）-- Coherence is defined as the procedures which ensure conceptual connectivity，including（1）logical relations，（2）organization of events，objects and situations，（3）continuity in human experience．It concerns “the way in which the components of the textual world which underlie the surface text are mutually accessible and relevant” .6. Thematic Structure–To convey given information and new information–To subject and predicate–To frame and insert•Theme and Rheme1)Theme is given information serving as “the point of departure” of a message.2)Rheme is the remainder of the message in a clause in which Theme is developed.3)Rheme typically contains unfamiliar or new information.Theme is the first element occurring in a clause;The remainder clause is Rheme.•Marked and Unmarked Theme1)Theme is not equated with the subject of a sentence; nor is Rheme equated with the predicate.2)If the Theme overlaps with the grammatical subjects of the sentences, we call it unmarked Theme.3)On the other hand, marked sentences often contain a Theme that is separate from the subject containingpre-posed adverbial groups or prepositional phrases.•Theme and Rheme1)Theme may be realized by a nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, prepositional phrase or adependent clause. The characteristic of these elements is that they appear first in a clause and represent‘given’ information.2)All the rest of a clause is Rheme representing ‘new’ information.• 3 Thematic Progression Patterns主位推进模式–Simple Linear TP 延续型–TP with a Continuous Theme 主位同一型–TP with derived Themes 扩充型7. What is perspective？•Perspective in theory of cognition is the choice of a context or a reference (or the result of this choice) from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, cohesively forming a coherent belief, typically for comparing with another. One may further recognize a number of subtly distinctive meanings, close to those of paradigm, point of view, reality tunnel, or weltanschauung.•Types of Perspective1)Third-person omniscient perspective 全面视角2)First person perspective 单向视角3)Multiple perspective 多向视角8. What is Conversation Analysis?•Conversation analysis(CA) is an approach to the study of social interaction, embracing both verbal and non-verbal conduct, in situations of everyday life.•Methods of CA:1)turn-taking2)constructing sequences of utterances across turns3)identifying and repairing problems, and4)employing gaze and movement9. Grice’s ‘Co-operative Principle’-- “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the acceptedpurpose and direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.”•Conversation works only with the co-operation of its participants.•Co-operation is built around a series of ‘Gricean maxims’:Quality Relation1)“Do not say what you believe to be false.”“Do not say that for which you lack evidence.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:that what they say is not knowingly untruthful;that the truthfulness of what they say does not need to be made stated.2)“Make your contribution as informative as is required.”“Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:they do not purposefully hold back anything that is important;they do not give more information than is asked.3)“Be perspicuous.”/“Avoid obscurity of expression.”/“Avoid ambiguity.”“Be brief.”/“Be orderly.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:that what they say is being said as straightforwardly as they can say it.4)“Be relevant.”So… when someone speaks to us , we assume:that what they say is relevant to the conversation.10. Geoffrey Leech: The ‘Politeness Principle’•Geoffrey Leech proposed the need for ‘politeness maxims’ as a prerequisite for conversational co-operation.1)The Tact maxim 得体准则，圆通准则2)The Generosity maxim 慷慨准则，大方准则3)The Approbation maxim 赞扬准则，赞许准则4)The Modesty maxim 谦虚准则，谦逊准则5)The Agreement maxim 赞同准则，一致准则6)The Sympathy maxim 同情准则•Leech’s Politeness Maxims1. T act'Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other; maximize the expression of beliefs whichimply benefit to other.‘2. Generosity'Minimize the expression of beliefs that express or imply benefit to self; maximize the expression of beliefsthat express or imply cost to self.'3. ApprobationMinimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other; maximize the expression of beliefswhich express approval of other.4. ModestyMinimize the expression of praise of self; maximize the expression of dispraise of self.Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other; maximize the expression of agreementbetween self and other.6. SympathyMinimise antipathy between self and others; maximise sympathy between self and otherCP V.S. PP•The CP does not tell us why people do not say directly what they mean, but PP does.•Politeness can satisfactorily explain exceptions to and apparent deviations from the CP.•Therefore, PP is a necessary complement needed for cases where the CP fails to offer a reasonable explanation.。
2011语概真题
刚刚考好，趁我还有点印象的时候，赶快爬吧，不然就忘忘了，呵呵~~ 各位童鞋积极补充啊，我记性不好，只剩这点了。
一．名词解释：（2*10）
语言
共时语言学
语法意义
区别特征
组合的递归性
历史比较语言学
二．选择：
略。
三．填空题：（每个0.5）
1.语言体系包括四部分？？？？
2.修饰语包括？？
四．分析题
1.根据材料分析本义、引申义，指出派生方式：（每个1.5）
绿色铁窗 china
2.用国际音标写下列词语：（5分）
上海外国语大学研究生
3.用变换分析和层次分析法分析下列短语：
鸡不吃了变换
反对的是。
书记变换
狗找到了变换
变换
变换
层次
老人和妇女的家属层次
4.根据方言材料写音位,关于j q x 的，[tc]---[ts]打不出来。
五．论述题：（5分*10）
1.根据材料分析语言和言语的区别和联系
2.举例说明组合关系和聚合关系
3.举例说明你所学的外语的语法范畴（至少5种）
4.根据词的形态变化，说明类型有哪几种，举例
5.语言的不平衡性规律
6.词义演变的原因
7.新词产生的途径和方式
8.归纳音位e o ^e。
语言学期末复习资料
语⾔学期末复习资料语⾔学复习纲要说明：1.此份材料最多只考80%，还有20%不在范围内2.请务必结合教材复习，例⼦没列举的请看教材3.匆忙整理，答案有不够完整的，请⾃⾏补充更正4.语⾔学太抽象请保证有充⾜的时间来复习祝⼤家考试顺利加油1、语⾔的作⽤是什么？) 语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
⼈类传递信息，进⾏交际和交流思想，除了使⽤语⾔外，还可以使⽤⽂字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及⾝势、表情等，在⼀定场合使⽤，可以弥补语⾔的⼀些不⾜，但是这些交际⼯具使⽤范围有限，有的仅⽤于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际⼯具，都离不开语⾔，都是在语⾔的基础上产⽣的，是辅助语⾔进⾏交际的，没有语⾔，这些⼿段的存在没有任何意义。
（即为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
）2) 语⾔是⼈类的思维⼯具。
语⾔不但是⼈类的交际⼯具，同时也是⼈类思维的⼯具，是认识成果的贮存所。
思维过程离不开语⾔，需要借助语⾔来进⾏⽐较、分析、综合等⼀系列活动，需要借助语⾔来形成思想，利⽤语⾔把它储存在头脑中，再借助语⾔把思想表达出来，传达给听话⼈，同时使听话⼈产⽣思想。
⽽且⼈类思维的成果－概念，还可以通过词语固定下来。
总之，思维活动的过程不可能离开语⾔⽽单独进⾏，思维离不开语⾔，必须借助语⾔材料才能进⾏。
语⾔也离不开思维，⼆者是互相依存，共同发展的。
（即语⾔和思维的关系）2、为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具？1) 语⾔存在于说话和所说出来的话中，说明语⾔在社会⽣活中具有⾮常重要的作⽤，因为不会说话⼈就失去了它的本质，与动物⽆异。
⼈们⽤语⾔进⾏交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的⾏为，以取得最佳的效果。
所以，语⾔是⼈们的⼀种交际⼯具。
2) ⼈类的交际⼯具不⽌语⾔⼀种，其它如⽂字、⼿势表情等也都能实现交际的任务，也是交际⼯具，但它们与语⾔相⽐重要性就要差多了。
根本上说⼈类各种辅助性交际⼯具，都是在语⾔基础上制定的，没有语⾔基础，这些⼯具也就失去了存在的意义。
626语言学与作文2011年真题回忆版
626语言学与作文2011年真题回忆版Part one: linguistics第一题：名词解释1. Conceptual meaning2. Language transfer3. Place of articulation4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis5. Allomorph第二题：填空（十个）1. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.2. Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.3. The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___.4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word thatintroduces the embedded clause.5、"Can I borrow your bike?" ___ "You have a bike."6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.7、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.8、According to Krashen,__________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.9、Language is a system of __________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural10、H__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.第三题：判断（十个）( ) 1.In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( ) 2.In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a long vowel such as/i: /, the larynx is in a state of tension.( ) 3.A compound is the combination of only two words.( ) 4. “The student” in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture.”,and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.”belong to the same syntactic category.（) 5.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.( ) 6.An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true.( ) 7.The division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English is nonconventional and not arbitrary.( ) nguage reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, just as it is not obscene; but it can connote sexist attitudes as well as attitudes about social taboos or racism.( ) 9.If a child is deprived of linguistic environment; he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.( ) 10.When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language; they can acquire any sounds in their native language once their parents teach them.第四题：分析题（五个）A. Use Error Analysis to analyze the following sentences.用错误分析法分析句子1. My mother sleeping.2. His brother is goes to school by bus.3. There are so many Taiwan people live around the lake.4. They didn’t went there.5. The dog finished to eat the bones.B Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with Cooperative Principle.1. A: When is the bus coming?B: There has been an accident further up the road.2. A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.C What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?1. Dogs, cats, pets, parrots;2. trunk, branches, tree, rootsD Explain sentences with the functions of language.1.Wow,what a beautiful girl!2. Dear Professor, would you like to give me some advice about my term paper？3. We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.E. The following is spoken by females. Please summarize the features of woman language.1.I was so naive.2. My goodness, there’s the vice-chancelor!3. You have done it, haven’t you?4.Won’t you please get me that glass?第五题：小作文“Linguistics and Our Daily Life”(200words)Part two: compositionA Original ideas are of great value than just copy others’ ideas（250Words）B why so many people go abroad and study in english.why english would be the first language in the world.(300 words)4.1.1 真题解析及技巧指导第一题：名词解释1. 以小见大，从所考的Conceptual meaning 可以看出与之相关的一系列概念是考试重点，在这里复习一下：Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1) Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2) Associative meaninga. Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.b. Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.c. Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer.d. Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e. Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Language transfer ：whether they learn the target language consciously or subconsciously, learns have come to the task of acquiring a second language with their fiest language. Naturally, learns will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language.考查范围：Language and society注意关注相关概念What are vernacular, Pidgin and Creole?What are bilingualism, diglossia, and multilingualism?What is discourse analysis？Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity，Speech community3. Place of articulation refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant.考察范围：发音学、音系学相关概念：manner of articulation4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis ：What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: ourlanguage helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greatertheir structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.考查范围：Language, Culture and Society5. Allomorph：It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.考查范围：morphology第二题：填空（十个）1.descriptive2. tongue3. free morpheme4. subordinator主从连词5. presupposes6. Pragmatics7. Pidgin8. Acquisition9. Arbitrary 10. Homonymy 第三题:判断1. F The contrary is true. The writing system is always a later invention.2. T3. F Some compounds contain more than two words.4. T5. F It is false because linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.A case in point is the two expressions "morning star" and " evening star." They refer to the same star but differ in sense.6.T7.FThe division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English is conventional and somewhat arbitrary.8.T9.T10.FChildren first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to ,and in later stages acquire the " more difficult" sounds.第四题：分析题A.1. The sentence is grammatically wrong. The absence of an item, t hat is the predicate “is”, must appear in a well-formed utterance. The error is omission.2. This sentence is grammatically wrong. The presence of an item, that is “is”, must not appear in well-formed utterances. We call the error addition.3. The speaker commits the error. There is two situations. First, the error occurs because “who” is omitted after “people”. Second, because “live” is used instead of “living”, the error occurs.4. The use of a tense marker twice in one sentence. This error belongs to double markings.5. The meaning of the sentence is clear. It just uses the wrong form of the morpheme or structure: Misformation. The correct formation maybe: “The dog have finished the bones.” or “The dog finished eating the bones.”小结：First of all, we have to known the definition of Error Analysis. Error is the grammatically incorrect form. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to the language learner. Then you should clearly remember the five types of error: omissions, additions, double markings, misformations and misorderings. You should use the theory to explain these sentences. The procedure of error analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition. Dealing with a sentence produced by the language speaker, we should first ask whether the sentence is grammatically correct. If the answer is negative, then errors exist. If the answer is positive, then we further check whether the sentence is appropriate in the communicative context. A negative answer indicates a mistake.(2) Description. If the erroneous sentence is intelligible, we compare it with the correct sentence produced by a native speaker and list the errors and mistakes, if the meaning of sentence is not clear, we may refer to the learner’s nativ e language to find out what he means and carry out a contrastive analysis. Taking into consideration the use of language in social contexts, we can describe mistakes as well as errors.(3) Explanation. When an error is recognized and described, we attempt to answer the question “Why the learner commit the error?”B. 1. B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”2. In the dialogue, the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationship between A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car, he may be in Sue’s house.小结：考点：The cooperative principle是常考点，几乎每年都考，遵循与违背合作原则，大家一定要烂熟于心，且会应用理论分析实际对话。
2011年语言学概论题1-4章
2011年语言学概论（1-2章）思考练习题第一章绪论一、解词1．自然语言 2.具体语言学 3. 普通语言学 4.共时语言学 5.历时语言学 6.应用语言学二、问答题1.语言学的任务是什么？2.传统语言学的主要缺陷有哪些？3.共时语言学与历时语言学二者关系如何。
4.语言学有什么功用？第二章语言的社会本质一、解词1.语言2.言语3.言语行为4.言语作品5.内部言语6.外部言语7.语言的基础8.社团变体9.风格变体二、问答题1.语言和言语的关系如何？2.语言和言语有什么区别？3.为什么说语言是全民的交际工具？4.为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？5.人类的思维有那几种类型？各有什么特点？6.为什么说语言和思维的关系密不可分？7.语言和思维的区别是什么？8.有人认为语言是一种生物现象，也有生长老病死，你怎么看？三、填空题1.语言的基础包括（）和（）两部分。
2.语言的社会变体有（）和（）两类。
3.隐语分为（）和（）两种。
4.作为交际工具，语言有下列优势：（）、（）、（）、（）。
5.人类大脑的左半球有（）个语言中枢。
2011语言学概论（2—3章）练习题（二）第二章（下）第4-5节一、填空题1.人类思维的三种类型是（）、（）和（）。
2．人类语言能力和思维能力的获得和发展一方面依赖于（），一方面依赖于（）。
3.人类大脑左半球有（）、（）、（）和（）四个语言中枢。
4.语言具有（）性，思维规律具有（）性。
二、问答题1．人类思维有那几种类型？各有什么特点？2.为什么说语言和思维是密不可分的？3.语言和思维的区别表现在哪些方面？4.为什么说语言是社会现象？5.为什么说语言是一种特殊的社会现象？第三章第1—2节一、解词符号任意性线条性两层性生成性组合关系聚合关系二、填空题1.皮尔士区分三种符号：（）符、（）符和（）符，语言符号属于（）符。
2.（）和（）是语言符号系统中的两种基本关系。
3.人类语言和动物语言的区别有以下七个方面：（）、（）、（）、（）、（）、（）和（）。
北京语言大学2011语用真题及答案
北京语言大学语言学及应用语言学语用2011年语概考研真题参考答案一．填空1，现代汉语属于（共时）语言学，汉语史属于（历时）语言学2，发音学研究语音的（物理）属性，听觉语言学研究语音的（心理）属性3，意义相同或相近的词聚叫（同义词），语音形式相同或相近的词聚叫（同音词）4，Present（礼物）和present（赠送）通过（重音）区别意义5，动词的凉和形容词的凉通过（音高）区别意义。
这个题给注音了，一个2声，一个四6，洋泾浜只有（口语）形式7，文字的产生，从时间和空间上（扩展）语言的交际功能二．名词解释：1.非对立关系：2.共同语：包括（1）民族共同语（2）民族交际语（3）国际共同语（1）民族共同语：是在某一地域方言基础上形成的在一个社会内部(如一个民族)全体人民共同使用的语言。
（2）民族交际语（国语）：在一个多民族国家中，各民族之间共同的交际工具，如中国有56个民族，民族交际语是汉语。
(3)国际共同语（国际交际语/国际辅助语）：不同国家间由于交际的需要选择一种或数种语言作为共同使用的交际工具，在国际会议上确定的不同国家间共同使用的语言。
3.语言能力：人类的语言能力是先天具备的，是抽象思维能力和灵活发音能力相结合，分别由发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官完成。
4.句法同义：句法同义：几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义（语法意义，隐性意义）如，我打破了杯子。
（主动句）杯子我打破了。
（话题句）杯子被我打破了。
（被动句）我把杯子打破了。
（把字句）几种句子格式表示相同的结构意义：我为打的施事；杯子为打的受事。
5.词义的扩大：一个词的意义，如果演变后所概括反映的现实现象的范围比原来的大，即词义的扩大。
如，汉语“江河”原来只指长江和黄河，现在泛指一切河流三．判断并改错1，送气音发音时声带都不参与活动（拿不准）2，自愿融合和被迫融合是两种语言接触不可回避的必经之路（错，语言接触可能产生语言混合情况）3，同音词的存在和音义结合的任意性密不可分（对）4，语言能力包括抽象思维能力和随时发音的能力（对）5，英语中wrote和sat同过内部屈折（记得不全）（对）6，社会方言在语音词汇语法方面存在特点（大约是这样）（对主要是词汇方面）7，层次性是任何语言系统都存在的突出特征（对）8，数的语法范畴在所有语言中都存在（对广义的语法范畴可以这么说）9，我国境内汉藏语系的语言最多（对）10，记事图画都不是独立的文字（对）四分析题1．答：（1）音位: 从语音的社会功能的角度划分出来的特定语言或方言系统能区别词的语音形式进而区别词的意义的最小语音类型单位。
第二语言教学理论与方法期末复习要点——汉语国际教育
第二语言教学复习要点绪论名词解释：语言教学:泛指一切语言的教学，包括本族语（母语）和非本族语。
第二语言教学：非本族语教学P5第一语言：幼儿习得语言第二语言：本族语掌握之后习得语言P10方言：如我国汉语方言，,具有地域性社会方言：社会不同结成使用的语言变体标准语：如我国的汉语普通话第二语言教学理论研究的主要任务：6个wh who what where why when how P7 （在教学环节方面，第二语言教学四大环节：总体设计，教材编写或选用，课堂教学；成绩测试应用语言学的分界线（60年代）：第一章交际能力：潜意识下的对语言的运用，必须建立在十分熟悉的基础之上，比如母语。
近些年的研究也向语言运用技巧（不仅是听说读写，还包括一些交际策略）发展。
p15P15 语言功能：从功能的角度来研究语言的作用，职能。
1、奥斯汀：语言行为理论:强调作用的过程2、哈里迪：强调作用的结果P16话语分析（美国哈里斯）：对话语的功能分析1、话语语法分析2、话语语义分析3、话语交际分析（如何引起注意、开始谈话、进行谈话、结束谈话）话语分析打破了传统的结构主义语言学“句本位“的框架，跳出了话语即句子的思维模式，注重句际关系，超句子关系，强调语境。
P19语体：为特殊目的服务的语言变体。
其不同于社会方言，而取决于不同语境，例如话题、听众、场合等。
P20非言语交际：人与人之间用非言语因素息传递的过程，主要表现为体势语。
1、动态无声2、静止无声3、有声：如音调和节奏的变化第二章第一代应用语言学重在教第二代语言学认为学是基础，以教为辅。
P24学习：动物和人的经验获得和行为变化的过程，人类学习是一种来自经验的在知识上或行为相对持久的过程。
习得：是小孩子不自觉的自然掌握母语的过程和方法，它是一种特殊的过程。
区别：习得不注重语言形式，注重意义，过程由不自觉到自觉;二学习一般是在学校环境中有意识的掌握第二语言的过程和方式，他注重语言形式，过程有自觉到不自觉。
2011年北京语言大学汉语国际教育考研真题及答案解析、复习方法、复习法宝
2011年北京语言大学汉语国际教育硕士考研真题及答案解析现在汉语国际教育考研趋于白热化时期，竞争异常激烈。
所以，很多非名校的学生总是处于惆怅复杂的心态之下，阻挡了前进的步伐。
在此，提醒广大考生：心态是考研是否成功的重要因素。
同学们在考研路上遇到了难以解决的问题，请同学们想起育明，育明每年培养出众多全国高校汉硕的研究生，其中包括不少初试复试状元。
考研选择了育明就选择正确的团队伴你一起备战：一个人不可能完成的事业，多人齐心协力众志成城铸造成功。
育明教育倾心为全国汉硕考生打造价值2500元的精品视频课程，包括汉硕考研两门专业课内容深度讲解，涵盖了全部考点。
同时育明教育随视频赠送相应考研资料（状元笔记、历年真题及解析）。
整套汉硕秘籍适用于全国非名校，本专业成绩一般，跨专业基础薄弱，但都梦想着专业课考出高分的学子们。
2014年汉语国际教育视频课程+近三年真题+状元笔记+公共课阅卷人一对一指导=2500元7月1日前报名，8折优惠历年考研真题资料是十分珍贵的,研究真题有利于大家从中分析出题人的思路和心态,因为每年专业课考试不管在题型还是在内容上都有很高的相似度，考研学子们一定要予以重视。
汉语国际教育基础一、壹中外文化及跨文化交际基础知识（共80分）填空题（每小题1分，共30分）颜体字是指唐代著名书法家（）所创立的楷体书法。
答案：颜真卿著名书法作品《兰亭集序》的作者是（）。
答案：王羲之“孔子学院”是海外推广中国语言和文化的重要基地，其英文是（）。
答案：Confucious Institute 中国近代史上较早介绍世界的专著是《海国图志》的作者是（）。
答案：魏源马头琴是（）族的名族乐器。
答案：蒙古第一位访问新中国的美国总统是（）。
答案：尼克松《格萨尔王》的中国（）族的长篇英雄史诗。
答案：藏明清时期，科举考试分为乡试，会试和（）。
答案：殿试《最后的晚餐》是画家（）的著名绘画作品之一。
答案：达芬奇清代时期，乾隆皇帝组织编撰看中国历史上最大的一般丛书（）。
2011-2012-1考试资料
7、语言行为与人际关系的矛盾（1）语言形式和语言内容的矛盾。
人际关系是在人际交往中建立、巩固、发展、调整的，而人际关系交往的主要工具是语言。
语言是由形式（语音、句式）和内容（语义）组成的统一体，但是语言形式和语言内容充满着种种矛盾，如何处理这种矛盾就直接影响到人际关系的处理。
常见的一音多义现象的二种类型：同音词、多义词。
一是同音词，“同音异义词”的别称，指的是声、韵、调完全相同，而意义完全不同的一组词。
如现代汉语中“góngshì”一音，至少表示了“公式”“工事”“攻势”“公事”“宫室”“宫市”六个意义。
同音词的产生是语言在发展过程中必然出现的现象，没有同音词的语言几乎没有的。
现代汉语中同音词、同音字的也很多，在两万多个常用词中，同音词就有两千多。
大量同音词的存在有它积极的一面，它使得汉语的表达多了同音双关等修辞手法，运用得好，可以使语言风趣幽默，涵义丰富。
例如避讳，即谓帝制时代对于君主和尊长的名字，必须避免直接说出或写出，后来延伸到人们在说话时遇有触犯忌讳的事物，不直说该事该物，而用旁的话来委婉地表述。
避讳有“国讳”、“家讳”、“圣讳”等三种形式。
例如，秦始皇的父亲名子楚，于是把楚地改为“荆”。
苏轼祖父名“序”，即讳“序”字，所以苏洵不写“序”字。
碰到写“序”的地方，改成“引”字；苏轼也跟着不用“序”字，他以“叙”字来代替。
如船家不能说与“沉”“翻”同音的字：在船上吃饭时，不能说“盛”饭，因为在方言中，“盛”和“沉”同音，只能说“装”或“添”；在船上吃鱼时，吃完一面，不能说“翻”过来吃另一面，而要说“划”过来。
再如以前从事商业的人，忌讳说“关门”，要说“打烊”，“收店”。
四川人忌讳说“舌”，因为与“蚀本”的“蚀”同音，于是称舌为“招财”，称猪舌叫“猪招财”，牛舌叫“牛招财”。
为了减少话语的刺激性，把“自杀”改成“从高处处行坠落”。
在中国北方，老人故世，以“老了”讳饰，老干部故世，用“见马克思去了”讳饰。
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）语法范畴：词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
文字：是指语言的视觉符号性质，是为了记录语言而发明的一种书写符号系统，是在语言的基础上产生的。
文字有音，形，义三部分。
音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果他们被归为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看作同一个音位在不同的位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我么把它们叫做音位变体。
音位变体可以分为“自由变体”和“条件变体”组合关系：符号和符合组合起来，形成高一级的结构，处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成份，结构中的各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在结合的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。
直接组成成分：句子是按照一定的规则一层一层组合起来的。
每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成部分。
洋泾浜：是当地人在和外来的商人，水手，传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
是当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的总说法指称事物。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交往的特殊场合，没有人把它看作母语作为第一语言。
语言和言语语言的交际功能就是通过言语形式来实现的。
语言学中把对语言的运用及其成果成为言语，通俗点讲言语就是说话（或写作）和所说（所写）的话语言是从言语中概括出来的的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和。
2011级语言人类学考试重点整理
2011级语言人类学重点目录1.语序 (1)2.语言人类学 (1)3.文化 (1)4.藏缅语族 (2)5.族群中心主义 (2)6.失语症 (2)7.社会语言学 (2)8.交流模式 (2)9.语言相对论 (2)10.语素 (3)1.语言人类学的研究范围（我自己加的） (3)2.简述区域差异对方言形成的影响。
(3)3.简要论述拉斯特的文化定义。
(4)4.简述语言普遍性理论。
(4)5.什么是语言接触？请举例说明。
(4)6.什么是语言类型学？ (5)7．语言的本质是什么？ (5)1.试论述语言的起源问题。
(7)2.人类语言形成的原因（没找到相关的文章和论述，只有一道题......）.. (8)3.论述语言的类型。
(9)4.论述思维和语言的关系。
(10)5.语言与文化的关系。
(11)6.论述动物的交流方式。
(12)一、名词解释1.语序：语言里语素、词组合的次序，为汉语里的主要语法手段。
语序变动，可组成意义不同的词组、句子。
按句子中心与受其支配的宾语的关系可分为VO、OV两种。
语序是汉语句法结构中的一个主要的表达手段，同样的词排列顺序不同，句法结构关系也不同，所表达的意义也有所不同。
2.语言人类学：语言人类学是人类学和语言学的交叉学科。
它从语义出发研究语言的社会文化功能，以内在的认识体系和外在的使用方法为基本课题。
关于语言的结构究竟是由其共生的文化形式与内容所决定，还是前者决定后者的问题并未解决。
3.文化：文化是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗，和任何人作为一名社会成员而获得的能力和习惯在内的复杂整体。
（泰勒）在人类学意义上，文化使一个共享和协调的意义系统。
这一系统是由人们通过阐释经验和产生行为而习得并付诸实践的知识所获得的。
（拉斯特）4.藏缅语族：汉藏语系语族之一。
为汉藏语系中语言最多的语族。
在中国，主要分布在西南、西北、中南地区;在国外，主要分布在缅甸、不丹、锡金、尼泊尔、印度、巴基斯坦等地。
2011年语言学纲要真题
人民大学2011语言学及应用语言学真题完整抄录版真题, 汉语语法, 名词解释, 世界语, 语言学本人把卷子炒出来了，文学史的卷子让我抄在另一张纸上，一时半会找不到了，找到再来发一填空（1’*10）1.、影响汉语声调最主要的因素是语音四要素中的_________2、汉语辅音中______不能做声母3、“学习文件”是歧义结构，产生歧义的原因是________4、汉语语法的递归性是指__________5、“不如早为之所”是_____结构，“为”是______词6、某一语言社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象叫做__________7、按照语法结构类型分类，日语属于______语言8、柴门霍夫创立的世界语属于__________语言9、表音文字根据代表的语言单位不同分为__________文字和音位文字两类二名词解释（5'*3)1、区别性特征2、语法范畴3、语流音变三分析(15'*3)1、分析下列汉字属于哪种造字法并简要分析贼益雅向取2、给下列辅音分类并说明分类标准[p] [g] [n] [k] [t] [m] [d]3、下面几个短语都是“形容词+数词”结构，请指出它们分别是什么词组，表达了什么意义（注意A组有歧义），以及造成这种区别的原因A1重8斤B1重了8斤A2高5米B2高了5米A3宽3米B3宽了3米四简答题（20’*2）1、根据例子简要分析词类划分的目的和标准2、根据例子简要说明语言随社会发展而发展五将下列短文抄写下来，并加上现代汉语标点，翻译（40'*1)（选段为《吕氏春秋》中的成语梁丘丈人的出处，文章我没找到全的...）梁北有黎丘部，有奇鬼焉，喜效人之子侄昆弟之状。
邑丈人有之市而醉归者，黎丘之鬼效其子之状扶而道苦之。
……丈人智惑于似其子者而杀其真子。
--本文转自中国人民大学考研论坛，更多内容参看:/thread-26420-1-1.html2011中国人民大学文学院813汉语言基础真题回忆版--转填空题, 普通话, 文学院, 汉语言, 人民大学第一部分是填空题，一个一分，共十分，比较简单，记不太全了。
语言学复习要点：分析题
《语言学概论》期末复习要点---人文06中文（3杰）2008.061．用义素分析法分析下列各组词的义素结构：{上来}=[物体，朝向参照点，从下面，移动，到上面]{上去}=[物体，背向参照点，从下面，移动，到上面]{凉}=[物体或气候，温度，比较，低]{冷}=[物体或气候，温度，相当，低]兄：[+人+亲属+同胞+年长+男]弟：[+人+亲属+同胞—年长+男]姐：[+人+亲属+同胞+年长—男]妹：[+人+亲属+同胞—年长—男]煎：[ －油量大＋不断翻动＋长时间]炒：[ －油量大＋不断翻动－长时间]烹：[ －油量大－不断翻动＋长时间]炸：[ ＋油量大－不断翻动－长时间]{父亲}=【+男性→生育关系 +亲属】{出来}=【物体、朝向参照点、从外面、移动、到外面】[进来]=[物体、朝向参照点、从外面、移动、到里面]灌木［＋矮小］［＋丛生］［＋木本］［＋植物］乔木［－矮小］［－丛生］［＋木本］［＋植物伯伯［＋父系血亲］［＋长辈］［＋男性］［＋长于父］叔叔［＋父系血亲］［＋长辈］［＋男性］［－长于父］姑姑［＋父系血亲］［＋长辈］［－男性］［＋－长于父］3．用句法变换分析以下两个句子他卖了一头猪他死了一头猪答：用句法变换分析，可以发现这两个句子内部的语义关系是不同的。
前一句可以通过移位变成“他把一头猪卖了”或“一头猪他卖了”。
后一句不能照样变成“他把一头猪死了”或“一头猪他死了”。
前一句“他”是“卖”的施事，后一句“他”不是“死”的施事，只是“猪”的领属者。
1、分析（1）老刘买菜（2）小王穿鞋（3）陈兵喝酒三个句子中语言单位之间是否具有聚合关系？答：具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系，就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
上述三个句子中，“老刘、小王、陈兵”三个语言单位有相同的组合功能，都充当主语；“买、穿、喝”也有相同的组合功能，都充当述语；“菜、鞋、酒”也有相同的组合功能，都充当宾语。
那么，“老刘、小王、陈兵”之间，“买、穿、喝”之间，“菜、鞋、酒”之间，都有聚合关系。
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一、英汉术语翻译二、术语简述（60个单词以上）1.The linearisation problem发话者、写作者选择某种顺序将单个的词排列成句、句排列成章的过程即为“线性化问题”One of the constraints on the speaker/writer is that he can produce only one word at a time. When he orders these single words into sentences, and those sentences into texts, he confronts what has been called The linearisation problem2.Subsititution The process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structure is called substitution. A: I‟ve lost my dictionary. B: Get a new one. (one = dictionary)3.Cotext4.CohesionCohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis. It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence. It actually concerns the question of how sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds of overt devices.5.themeTheme refers to a formal category in the analysis of sentences (or clause in a complex or compound sentence). It is the left-most constituent of the sentence. It has two main functions: first, connecting back and linking in to the previous discourse maintaining a coherent point of view; second, serving as a point of departure for the future development of the discourse.6. endophoric relations7. referenceTraditionally, the relationship which holds between words and things is the relationship of reference: words refer to things. The discourse analyst appeals to the view that it is that the speaker refers by using some appropriate expression: he invests the expression with reference by the act of referring; in discourse analysis, reference is treated as an action on the part of the speaker or writer.8. displaced context9. transactional functionThe function which language serves in the expression of content will be described as transactional function. Linguists, philosophers of language and psycho-linguists pay particular attention to the use of language for the transmission of factual or propositional information and they make the general assumption that the most important function is the communication of information. The language which is used to convey “factual of propositional information”is called primarily transactional language.10.hyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. It is the relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other. The more general term is called the super-ordinate and a super-ordinate term can have many hyponyms. In conclusion, hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.11.ImplicatureThe term implicature is used by Grice to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says. There are generally two kinds of implicatures: conventional implicture which are determined by “the conventional meaning of the words used”, and conversational implicature which is derived from a general principles of conversation plus a number of maxims which speakers will normally obey.12.paralinguistic cuesnonverbal elements, such as intonation, body posture, gestures, and facial expression, that modify the meaning of verbal communication.13.ThematizationThematisation refers to the linear organization of text. It is the discourse process by which a referent comes to be developed as the central subject of the discourse. We may talk in general of thematisation as a discoursal rather than simply a sentential process. What the speaker or writer puts first will influence the interpretation of everything that follows.14.utterancea unit of analysis in speech which has been defined in various ways but most commonly as a sequence of words within a single person's turn at talk at that falls under a single intonation contour. Utterances may sometimes consist of more than one sentence, but more commonly consist of stretches of speech shorter than sentences.15.inferenceSi nce the discourse analyst, like the hearer, has no direct access to a speaker‟s intended meaning in producing an utterance, he often has to rely on a process of inference to arrive at an interpretation for utterance or for the connections between utterances. There are different kinds of inferences. We are capable of deriving a specific conclusion from specific premises and via deductive inference.16.genrea type of discourse that occurs in a particular setting, that has distinctive and recognizably patterns and norms of organization and structure, and that has particular and distinctive communicative functions.17.registera speech variety used by a particular group of people , usually sharing the same occupation or the same interests. A particular register often distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases ina particular way, and sometimes by special grammatical constructions.18..principle of local interpretationIt is one of principles to help hearers specify what aspects of the apparently illimitable features of context are to be taken into account in the interpretation of discourse. It can enable the hearer to determine a relevant and reasonable interpretation of an expression on a particular occasion of utterance. This principle instructs the hearer not to construct a context any larger than he needs to arrive at an interpretation.19.critical discourse analysis 批评话语分析It studies the relationship between discourse events and sociopolitical and cultural factors, especially the way discourse is ideologically influenced by, and can it influence , power relations in society.20.V an Dijk’s normal ordering of descriptionAccording to Van Dijk, the descriptions of states of affairs will be determined by perceptual salience so that the more salient entity will be mentioned first. He suggests that normal ordering will conform to the following patterns: general-particular; whole-part/component;set-subject-element; including-included; large-small; outside-inside; possessor-possessed.三、问答题（每题不少于250英语单词）(答案不拘泥于教科书，可包括（但不限于）定义，分类，功能，与相关术语关系及在法律语言和翻译中的运用等。