WTO案例分析日本酒类税案
【YES案例材料】
Mission: A heart for the teams, A head for the growth 中国人民大学 赛扶(国际大学生企业家联盟)团队 SIFE(Students in Free Enterprises) Renmin University of China 地址:北京市海淀区中关村大街59号Add : No.59 Zhongguancun Avenue, Haidian District, Beijing邮编:100872 Post :100872 /Youth Economic Summit (YES )青年经济峰会案例材料SIFE RUC赛扶(国际大学生企业家联盟)中国人民大学团队韩国烧酒案例第一部分背景材料一、案情简介(一)关于欧盟首先向日韩提出质疑的背景韩国对国内国外烧酒征税的税率不同,对国内征税的国内税率低于对国外征税的税率。
欧盟认为:1、韩国对本国酒类和外国酒类实施多种征税体制,对本国酒类征收的税率低于对外国酒类征收的税率,违反了国民待遇原则。
要求韩国严格遵守世贸组织规则中的国民待遇原则,下调对国外酒类征收的税率。
2、韩国对外国酒类征收的税率不一致。
在本案例中,假定韩国对外国进口酒类征收的税率实行多重标准。
其中,对日本的酒类征税最低,对中、美两国的酒类征税次之,而对欧盟酒类征收的税率均高于其他各国,因此欧盟认为韩国这种税率机制违反了世贸规则中的最惠国待遇原则,要求韩国对国内国外烧酒征收同样的税率。
3、日韩之间各自对对方酒类进口征税税率低于对欧美等其他国家进口酒类的征税标准。
基于以上事实,欧盟向日本和韩国提出了质疑。
(二)关于中美两国既欧盟之后参与到这场争端中来的背景中国方面:中国向欧盟日韩各国出口的酒类主要是五粮液、茅台等烧酒类酒品,与韩国烧酒、日本烧酒同属于烧酒类。
而日韩之间的酒税互惠并无同等给予贸易同样酒类的中国。
因此中国认为日韩违背了最惠国待遇原则。
美国方面:美国与欧盟秉持同样的态度,要求日韩修改税率,严格遵守国民待遇原则和最惠国原则。
WTO案例分析日本酒类税案
WTO案例分析日本酒类税案概述2019年4月1日,世界贸易组织(WTO)最终确认了日本对进口酒类产品征收高额消费税的做法违反了贸易自由化的原则。
此案件中,WTO一致认定日本关于进口啤酒、葡萄酒等酒类征收20%消费税,与国产酒征收8%消费税的做法在国际贸易中违反了贸易平等的原则。
背景在此案件之前,日本一直采取这种差别对待进口酒类的政策。
然而,在2015年,欧盟向WTO提起了对日本这种做法的投诉。
欧盟认为,日本的消费税规定歧视性很强,不仅对欧盟酒类产品实行了高税负,而且在国内市场,日本对于自家产品采取更为宽松的税收政策,这使得欧盟的酒类产品在日本市场上受到不公平的竞争。
欧盟要求WTO裁定,日本应该取消对进口酒类产品的不合理税收规定。
由于日本政府不能完全排除这种歧视性差别对待的情况,双方在WTO层面上进行了一系列谈判,这最终导致WTO就此案进行了诉讼。
WTO裁定,日本对于进口酒类产品征收高额消费税的做法已经违反了WTO自由贸易的原则。
案例分析在WTO的判决中,日本的主要辩护理由之一是:消费税是一种内部税收政策,税务主权基本上都被保留给了国家政府。
因此,日本有权利自由选择对税收的规定和征收方式,这不需要得到其他国家的认可。
WTO并不否认这种主权理论,但他们认为,带有贸易效应的差别对待是不被允许的。
在这种情况下,差别是基于产品的国别而不是产品本身的质量、特征或类别,这是导致判决的一个重要因素。
在WTO的判决中,他们认为日本的所采取的税收规定是不合法的。
由于差别对待并不是基于消费税的税种或税费水平的“数量上相似”区别,而是基于商品类别的“质量和特征”区别。
这种差别待遇是违反了GATT条例,并且违反了日本的国际贸易承诺。
结论总的来说,这个案件中,WTO的判决已经发挥了非常积极的作用,有助于促进国际贸易和全球经济的发展。
WTO已经对日本的保护主义和不公平的贸易做法进行了警告,向其他国家强调了平等和自由贸易的重要性。
GATT国民待遇原则中“同类产品”理论类别分析——以韩国酒税案为切入牛杨扬
GATT国民待遇原则中“同类产品”理论类别分析——以韩国酒税案为切入牛杨扬发布时间:2021-09-02T01:21:56.861Z 来源:《中国科技人才》2021年第14期作者:牛杨扬[导读]河北科技大学文法学院韩国酒税案发生的导火索是韩国1949年修订了酒税法和教育税法。
1949韩国酒税法主要是根据各个酒的市场销售价格来征税,每种酒销售价格不一样,征税额也不一样。
而1949韩国教育税法主要是根据每种酒缴纳酒税额的一定比例来征收附加税。
对于进口酒,其计算税收的公式是商品的价格加保险费、运费加关税,对国产酒,计算税收的公式是国产酒的生产成本加销售费用(包括广告收入)、利润和额外支出。
因此导致韩国对于国内的烧酒征收35%的税,而对蒸馏酒的征税则是100%。
于是欧共体和美国认为韩国对其传统的韩国烧酒提供了贸易保护,因为韩国的酒税法对进口蒸馏酒征收的税率高于对韩国本土烧酒征收的税率,不符合 GATT1994第3条第2款的规定;给予国产酒的待遇大于比给予某些进口蒸馏酒的待遇优惠,不符合GATT1994第3条第2款的规定。
1997年4月4日,欧洲经济共同体(以下简称欧共体)以韩国酒税法和教育税法与GATT1994第3条第2款规定的国民待遇原则不符为理由,对韩国根据酒税法和教育税法实施的某些酒类税提出了磋商要求。
经过磋商,并未达成一致的解决方案。
1997年9月10日,欧共体要求设立专家组。
在1997年10月16日会议上,WTO争端解决机构(DSB)通过了设立了专家组的申请,决定设立专家组审理该争端。
该专家组也审查了美国对韩国酒类税提出的申诉,加拿大和墨西哥保留作为第三方介入本案的权利。
本案涉及的WTO规则集中在韩国的做法是否违反了国民待遇的原则根据GATTl994第3条第2款的规定,要判定成员方是否违反国民待遇原最重要的问题在于审查进口产品和本国产品是否属于同类产品或直接竞争或可替代的产品;由此可以看出,国民待遇中的同类产品认定在实践中通常是解决案情的关键,进口产品和国内产品属于同类产品或直接竞争或可替代产品,是双方争议的焦点。
WTO争端解决日本饮料酒类案 ppt课件
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相同产品:从严解释
一、产品的物理特性
两个产品在物理特征上基本一致
二、产品的最终用途
相同性是界定同类性的必要但不充分的标准
三、关税分类
产品的统一关税分类在确定同类产品时可能
相关
应该在个案基础上根据特定市场上产品的最终用途、
消费者的偏好习惯、产品的特征、性质和质量和关
税分类从严解释
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在日本销售的酒精含量超过1度的酒都必须缴 纳酒税 酒被分成10类:清酒、清酒混合酒、烧酒、 啤酒、葡萄酒等;对各类酒按每公升含酒精 浓度,规定不同的税率。国产酒在出厂时纳 税,进口酒在提货时纳税。本案中涉及的是 其中的烧酒、威士忌和白兰地、烈性酒的税 率。
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欧共体要求专家组裁定vodka,gin,(white) rum,genever andshochu是相同产品,日本通过 对其他四类征收超过shochu的税收,违反了GATT 第3条第2款第一句。如果专家组不裁定上述产品是 相同产品,欧共体要求专家组裁定他们是直接竞争 或替代产品,日本通过对其他四类征收超过清酒的 税收,没有履行第3条第2款第二句的义务。 欧共体进一步要求专家组裁定whiscky,brandy, liqueurs和shochu是直接竞争或替代产品,日本对 前三类的征税高于第四类,违反了据GATT第3条第
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三.对外国相同产品的征税是否超过对国 内相同产品的征税
即使超过最小的数量也是超过,不受最 小标准的限制,第三条第二款禁止歧视 性征税不以贸易效果为条件 因此违反GATT第三条第1款
韩国酒税案
• 第四个程序问题:是提交材料的时间问题。韩国在第一次会晤 时提交了一份研究报告,作为对此研究报告的回应,欧共体在 第二次会晤时提交了一份市场研究。专家组给韩国一周时间对 此市场研究作出评论和答复。韩国认为给它的时间太短,侵犯 了它答辩的权利。专家组认为韩国的权利没有被侵犯。市场研 究并不复杂,韩国答辩的时间足够,而且研究报告不是申诉方 的关键证据,是对已经提交材料的补充。如果这份材料真的是 关键证据,专家组是会同意韩国延长时间的请求的。各方都希 望给自己的答辩时间越长越好,但专家组从实际出发必须规定 期限。专家组认为,根据该证据的重要性和给予韩国的时间, 其权利没有被侵犯。
款的要求。
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• 第二个程序问题:是磋商是否符合DSU规定。韩国提出,申诉 方磋商时并没有想通过磋商达成解决纠纷的一致意见,缺乏诚 意,把磋商程序变成了提问,这违反了DSU第3条第3款第 7款和第4条第5款。专家组注意到,截止专家组作出报告时, WTO 没有任何一个案件讨论磋商是否充分的问题。只要申诉 方提出了磋商的要求,从要求磋商之日到提出成立专家组的请 求间隔了60天以上,就符合DSU在这方面的要求。至于磋 商期间发生的具体情况,专家组是不需要了解的。专家组指出, 磋商是解决争端的重要步骤,但专家组无权调查磋商是否充分, 因为磋商完全是争议双方的事,DSB、专家组或秘书处都不 介入。
方提出进口产品指所有蒸馏酒。专家组认为,对产品作比 较在本案是重要的,但这是需要根据证据来确定的问题, 不宜在程序阶段决定。在日本酒税案中,上诉庭认为受到 歧视的是所有进口产品。虽然该案的决定对本案没有任何 效力,但申诉方参照该案的决定提出本案的请求也未尝不 可。在某些情况下,申诉方的诉请太笼统、太含糊,被申 诉方确实无法了解争议涉及的产品范围,但在本案中申诉 方明确提出了税目号,考虑到上诉庭在最近审结的欧共体 电脑设备关税税目案件中确认,指明一组产品就满足了D SU第6条第2款的要求,专家组确认,欧共体和美国请 求的具体程度满足了第6条第2
论GATT1994第3条国民待遇原则中“同类产品”的认定——以日本酒税案、智利酒税案、韩国酒税案、欧共体
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原产地规则案例
原产地规则案例【篇一:原产地规则案例】■案由1886年美国在贸易的贝壳案中最早提出了关于产品原产地认定的思路。
该案争论的焦点是进口的经清洗和磨光后的贝壳是否仍为贝壳制品,如果是贝壳制品,按美国当时的应征收35%的从价税;如果不是贝壳制品,则免征进口税。
■裁决美国最高法院最后认定经清洗及磨光后的贝壳仍为贝壳。
与贝壳相比,清洗及磨光后的贝壳并未加工成具有完全不同的名称、特征或用途的一项不同的新产品。
■点评这一贝壳案对于原产地认定的思路对于后来国际贸易中货物原产地的界定产生了重大影响。
目前普遍接受的原产地定义是:经一个以上国家加工制造的产品的原产地,是对该产品施加最后一个实质性改变(形成了一种完全不同的名称、特征或用途的新产品)的国家,而原产地原则的主要作用体现在关税的征收上。
假设有甲、乙两国是wto的成员国,丙国不是wto成员。
丙国生产的服装对乙国出口,再将其出口到甲国,对这一交易甲国打算征收15%的关税。
假设甲国在wto中的承诺关税是10%,是否可以控告甲国违背wto的承诺或是最惠国待遇原则?回答是否定的,因为服装产于丙国,而它不是wto成员国,不受wto规则的约束和保护。
我国在原产地问题上的规定,随着进出口的增加,也在从无到有,不断完善。
但是我国的原产地规则存在很多问题,标准还没有完全和wto及国际惯例接轨,可作性差,在国际贸易中保护本国产业的作用不强。
我国进入wto之后,应尽快完善原产地原则,不但大的框架要改进,甚至对某一种产品的特别规定都要完善。
只有这样,才能保证关税的正常征收和对国内企业的适当保护。
总之一个原则,越是全球化,越要注意运用原产地原则。
■张孝松由国恒久集团鬻虢目前,国际上还没有通行统一的原产地规则,各国都有权利制定自己的原产地规则。
随着区域经济一体化和国际贸易中关税壁垒与非关税壁垒的产生与发展,原产地规则种类越来越繁多,原产地规则的应用范围也随之扩展,使得原产地规则从单纯的海关技术性统计问题转变为各国实施其贸易政策的有力工具,带有浓厚的贸易保护主义的色彩。
案例:一瓶进口葡萄酒在流通的各环节负担的间接税
案例:一瓶进口葡萄酒在流通的各环节负担的间接税从外国进口某品牌的葡萄酒,每瓶到岸价格为15元(人民币,下同),批发价为300元,商店零售价为500元,饭店售价为1000元,试计算1瓶该品牌进口葡萄酒在上述各环节负担的间接税、间接税总额及其结构。
本案例的目的:让消费者从微观角度分析中国市场上的普通进口消费品的间接税负担情况。
解答:一、进口环节的间接税上述进口葡萄酒在进口环节应当分别根据《中华人民共和国关税条例》、《中华人民共和国消费税暂行条例》和《中华人民共和国增值税暂行条例》征收关税、消费税和增值税3种间接税。
(一)关税进口葡萄酒计征关税时,以关税完税价格(即到岸价格)为计税依据,适用最惠国税率为14%,应纳税额计算过程如下:应纳税额=完税价格×适用税率=15元×14%=2.1元(二)消费税进口葡萄酒计征消费税时,以组成计税价格为计税依据,适用税率为10%,应纳税额计算过程如下:组成计税价格=(关税完税价格+关税)÷(1-消费税适用税率)=(15元+2.1元)÷(1-10%)=19元应纳消费税税额=19元×10%=1.9元(三)增值税进口葡萄酒计征增值税时,以组成计税价格为计税依据,适用税率为17%,应纳税额计算过程如下:组成计税价格=关税完税价格+关税+消费税=15元+2.1元+1.9元=19元应纳增值税税额=组成计税价格×适用税率=19元×17%=3.23元上述3种间接税合计为7.23元(2.1元+1.9元+3.23元=7.23元),相当于上述1瓶进口葡萄酒到岸价格的48.2%(7.23元÷15元=48.2%)。
按照税法规定,对于进口货物征收增值税、消费税时不附征城市维护建设税。
二、批发环节的间接税上述进口葡萄酒在批发环节应当分别根据上述增值税暂行条例和《中华人民共和城市维护建设税暂行条例》征收增值税、城市维护建设税2种间接税。
wto案例4--日本影响消费胶卷和相纸的措施
日本影响消费胶卷和相纸的措施一、案情介绍1996年6月13日,对影响进口胶卷和相纸(以下简称胶卷)的经销、许诺销售和国内销售的日本法律、规章和要求,美国提出磋商要求。
美国声称,日本政府通过这些措施给予进口胶卷较差的待遇,违反了GATT1994第3条和第10条。
美国还声称,这些措施使美国的利益受损或丧失(非违反性要求)。
1996年9月20日美国要求设立专家组。
1996年10月16日,专家组设立。
专家组裁定:美国没有证明美国引述的日本“措施”(无论是单个还是集体)使23.1(b)意义上的美国利益丧失或受损;美国没有证明美国引述的日本经销措施授予进口胶卷GATT第3条第4款意义上的较差待遇;美国没有证明日本违反GATT第10条第1款公布一般适用的行政裁定。
专家组的报告于1998年3月31日分发,DSB 于1998年4月22日通过了专家组报告。
1、基本事实(一)日本的胶卷和相纸市场本争端涉及进口消费品胶卷和相纸(以下统称胶卷)在日本的经销。
日本对胶卷的约束关税和适用税率的历史情况如下:胶卷相纸黑白彩色黑白彩色肯尼迪回合前(1964)30%* 40%* 25%* 40%*肯尼迪回合(1967)15.0% 40%* 12.5% 40%*东京回合(1979)7.2% 4.0% 6.6% 4.0%乌拉圭回合(1994)免税免税免税免税直到1970年至1972年,黑白胶卷一直是日本使用的主导产品。
之后主导产品是彩色胶卷。
今天彩色胶卷占日本整个消费品胶卷市场的97%,黑白胶卷仅占3%。
日本的胶卷市场有四个供应商,国内两个,国外两个。
国内的两家分别是富士和柯尼卡,国外的两家分别是美国的柯达和德国的爱克发(Agfa)。
美国提出,外国的胶卷制造商通过其全资的当地销售机构来经销全部胶卷。
三分之二的柯达胶卷卖给了零售商,9%卖给了所谓的二级批发商,剩余的通过与柯达关联的洗印厂。
爱克发的当地附属机构销售了90%的胶卷给零售商,其余的卖给了二级批发商。
国际贸易纠纷案例
WTO规则:十大贸易案例提起中国入世,我们的第一反应往往是“进口车什么时候降价?进口商品会不会更便宜?”这没有错。
但我们常常忽略一个事实:全球化中的中国不应只扮演消费者的角色,还应是有竞争力的生产者。
因此,对中国企业来说,重要的是正视现实,最大限度地利用规则为自己争取利益。
入世时刻,解读曾经发生过的贸易纠纷,或许会对我们有所帮助。
一、柯达攻击富士■案由故事发生在一个极端的背景条件下———乌拉圭回合。
日本对彩色和黑白胶卷的进口关税承诺降到了零,即外国产品,如美国柯达进入日本市场已经不存在任何障碍。
富士和柯达是世界上胶卷业的两个霸主,在日本市场上,柯达每时每刻都在寻找机会击败对手。
在市场准入问题上,柯达很难挑剔日本。
那么如何利用WTO规则寻找打败对手的突破点呢?柯达使用了GATT第23条1款。
美国说日本并没有违背WTO的某一特别的义务条款,日本实现了其在历次回合中关于关税减让的承诺。
但是,日本政府关于胶卷销售的措施,却使美国因日本在肯尼迪回合、东京回合和乌拉圭回合中所作的关税减让而应带来的好处正在丧失或减损,这一点违背了GATT第23条1款。
具体地说,美国指责的日本限制流通的措施,鼓励并促进了日本胶卷市场销售体制从多种商标的大商场出售转变到单一商标的专卖销售,从而制约了进口胶卷的销售能力,妨碍了柯达的市场开拓能力。
■裁决美国在该案中败诉。
WTO专家组认为,要确定某一情况在谈判时是否可以预见,最简单的办法就是看这一情况是在谈判前出现的还是在谈判后出现的。
日本用充分的材料证明了在谈判过程中,专卖销售体制已经存在。
■点评这一案例说明,即使在零关税下,企业依然需要像柯达那样运用规则争取市场,也能够像富士那样运用规则抵制冲击。
二、美日汽车贸易战■案由(一)美日汽车贸易摩擦由来已久日本对美国出口汽车早就受到的自动出口限制。
1977 年到1981年,美国汽车产量下降三分之一,进口汽车比例从18%提高到25% 。
1980年三大汽车公司共亏损40亿美元。
案例分析酒类生产企业消费税征税环节复合计税
【tips】本税法知识是由梁志飞老师精心收编整理!案例分析酒类生产企业消费税征税环节复合计税
酒类生产企业由于其消费税征税环节复合计税等特点,给实务操作带来了许多困难,现结合案例作一简要分析:
宏富公司是从事各种酒类生产和销售的企业,为一般纳税人,2009年6月发生以下业务:
1.进口某外国品牌黄酒400吨,假设每吨到岸价格为2000元,黄酒的关税税率为15%,啤酒的消费税税额为220元/吨。
解析:关税完税价格=400×2000=800000(元)
应纳关税=800000×15%=120000(元)
应纳消费税=400×220=88000(元)
应纳增值税=(800000+120000+88000)×17%=171360(元)
请注意:进口从量定额征税的应税消费品,必须先计算出应纳消费税后才能计算应纳增值税,这是与从价征税消费品的不同。
会计处理:
由于进口货物在海关交税,与提货联系在一起,即交税后方能提货。
为了简化核算,关税、消费税可以不通过“应交税费”账户,直接贷记“银行存款”账户。
若特殊情况下,先提货后交税时,可以通过“应交税费”账户。
借:材料采购836640
应交税费——应交增值税(进项税额)171360
贷:应付账款800000
银行存款208000(120000+88000)
2.从农业生产着手中收购粮食50万斤,收购凭证上注明收购金。
国际贸易与关税法律实务案例研究
国际贸易与关税法律实务案例研究导言:国际贸易与关税法律实务是现代国际经济合作中不可或缺的一部分。
在全球化进程中,各国之间的贸易往来与合作日益频繁。
而贸易活动中的各种法律问题和法规制约也日益显得重要。
本文将通过分析一些关税法律实务案例来探讨国际贸易中的相关问题和解决方案。
案例一:中国对美国进口飞机进行关税反制背景:2018年,美国政府对来自中国的数百亿美元的商品征收高额关税。
对此,中国政府采取了反制措施,对来自美国的进口商品进行关税反制。
问题:中国政府对美国进口飞机进行关税反制是否符合国际贸易规则?分析:根据世界贸易组织(WTO)的规定,成员国有权在贸易争端中采取必要的反制措施,以维护自身国家利益。
中国作为WTO的成员国,对美国进口飞机进行关税反制是合法的。
然而,这必须符合WTO的规定,遵守贸易争端解决的程序和要求。
解决方案:中国政府在对美国进口飞机进行关税反制时,应确保所采取的措施符合WTO规定,并通过WTO的纠纷解决机制进行合法化的程序。
案例二:日本对韩国零部件出口管制的影响背景:2019年,日本政府对韩国的高科技材料出口实施了严格的管制。
这一举措对韩国的电子产品制造业产生了严重的影响。
问题:日本对韩国零部件出口管制是否符合国际贸易规则?分析:根据WTO的规定,成员国之间应遵守最惠国待遇和国民待遇原则,不得对其他成员国实施歧视性的贸易措施。
日本对韩国的零部件出口管制被认为违反了这些原则,因为其采取的措施是基于政治因素而不是贸易问题。
解决方案:韩国可以向WTO投诉日本的零部件出口管制,以维护自身权益。
同时,各方应通过对话和协商,寻求解决争端的方式,避免进一步升级。
案例三:美国对中国钢铝产品加征关税背景:2018年,美国政府宣布对来自中国的钢铝产品加征关税,以保护本国工业。
问题:美国对中国钢铝产品加征关税是否符合国际贸易规则?分析:美国对中国钢铝产品加征关税属于贸易保护措施。
根据WTO的规定,成员国可以在某些情况下采取合法的贸易保护措施,但必须符合相关的要求和程序。
wto案例分析
wto案例分析在世界贸易组织(WTO)的案例分析中,我们通常会关注贸易争端解决机制(Dispute Settlement Body, DSB)所处理的案件。
这些案件涉及成员国之间的贸易争端,WTO通过其争端解决机构来裁决这些问题,以确保全球贸易的公平性和透明度。
以下是对一个假设的WTO案例的分析。
案例背景假设案例涉及两个WTO成员国,国家A和国家B。
国家A指控国家B实施了不公平的贸易壁垒,具体表现为对国家A的出口商品征收了过高的关税。
国家A认为这种措施违反了WTO的相关规定,并请求WTO进行调查。
案件提交国家A首先向WTO提交了正式的投诉,详细说明了其认为国家B违反的具体WTO协议条款。
随后,WTO的争端解决机构成立了一个专家组(Panel),由来自不同成员国的贸易专家组成,负责审理此案。
专家组审理专家组在审理过程中,会对双方提交的证据和论点进行详细的分析。
专家组还会举行听证会,允许双方陈述自己的观点,并有机会对对方的论点进行反驳。
此外,专家组还会考虑WTO的相关协议和先前的案例裁决,以确保裁决的一致性和合法性。
裁决结果经过数月的审理,专家组最终做出了裁决。
专家组认为国家B的关税措施确实违反了WTO的相关规定,并建议国家B立即采取措施,调整其关税政策,以符合WTO的要求。
上诉阶段如果国家B对专家组的裁决不满意,它可以向WTO的上诉机构(Appellate Body)提起上诉。
上诉机构将对专家组的裁决进行复审,但仅限于法律问题和法律解释。
上诉机构的裁决是最终的,对所有WTO 成员国都具有约束力。
执行和监督一旦裁决生效,国家B有义务遵守WTO的裁决,调整其贸易政策。
WTO的争端解决机构会监督执行过程,确保裁决得到妥善执行。
如果国家B 未能在规定时间内执行裁决,国家A可以要求WTO授权采取报复性措施,如对国家B的商品征收额外关税。
案例影响此案例的裁决不仅对当事双方有直接影响,也可能对全球贸易环境产生深远影响。
WTO争端解决机制-日本酒税案上诉机构报告
Dispute Settlement Commentary (DSC)Appellate Body ReportJapan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages(WT/DS8,10,11/AB/R) / DSR 1996:I, 97Timeline of Dispute ParticipantsAppellant/Appellee: Japan Appellant/Appellee: U.S. Appellees: Canada, ECThird Participants: None Appellate Body Division Lacarte-Muró (Presiding Member), Bacchus, El-NaggarPanel Request (EC): September 14, 1995Panel Request (Canada): September 14, 1995Panel Request (U.S.): September 14, 1995Panel Established: September 27, 1995Panel Composed: October 30, 1995Interim Report Issued: May 20, 1996Final Report Circulated: July 11, 1996Notice of Appeal: August 8, 1996AB Report Circulated: October 4, 1996Adoption: November 1, 1996 Table of ContentsBACKGROUND (2)SUMMARY OF APPELLATE BODY'S FINDINGS (4)P ROCEDURAL AND S YSTEMIC I SSUES (4)Treaty Interpretation (4)Status of Prior Panel Reports (4)Terms of Reference (5)S UBSTANTIVE I SSUES (5)GATT Article III - General (5)GATT Article III:1 (6)GATT Article III:2, first sentence (6)GATT Article III:2, second sentence (7)COMMENTARY (8)Status of Prior Panel Reports (8)GATT Article III:2 (9)Key Findings•Reversed Panel's conclusion that adopted panel reports constitute "subsequent practice" or "other decisions" that "must" be taken into account. Instead, found that adopted panel reports, while not binding on future panels, create "legitimate expectations" among WTO Members, and therefore "should" be taken into account where they are relevant to a dispute.•Upheld Panel's finding that Article III:2, first sentence requires an examination of the conformity of an internal tax measure by determining, first, whether the taxed imported and domestic products are "like" and, second, whether the taxes applied to the imported products are "in excess of" those applied to the like domestic products. Upheld Panel's finding that vodka is taxed in excess of shochu, in violation of Article III:2, first sentence.•Article III:2, second sentence requires an examination of whether: (1) the imported products and the domestic products are "directly competitive or substitutable products" which are in competition with each other; (2) the directly competitive or substitutable imported and domestic products are "not similarly taxed";and (3) the dissimilar taxation of the directly competitive or substitutable imported products is "applied …so as to afford protection to domestic production."•Upheld the Panel's finding that shochu and certain "directly competitive or substitutable" products are not similarly taxed so as to afford protection to domestic production in violation of Article III:2, second sentence.BACKGROUNDThis dispute concerns the Japanese Liquor Tax Law (Shuzeiho), Law No. 6 of 1953, as amended. This law established a system of internal taxes applicable to all liquors, defined as domestically produced or imported beverages having an alcohol content of not less than one degree and intended for consumption in Japan. The Liquor Tax Law classifies the various types of alcoholic beverages into ten categories (as well as additional sub-categories): sake, sake compound, shochu (group A, group B), mirin, beer, wine (wine, sweet wine), whisky/brandy, spirits, liqueurs and miscellaneous (various sub-categories).Different tax rates are applied at the wholesale level to each of the various categories and sub-categories defined by the Liquor Tax Law. The rates are expressed as a specific amount in Japanese Yen ("¥") per litre of beverage. For each category or sub-category, the Liquor Tax Law sets out a specific alcohol content per litre for that beverage and the corresponding tax rate. Under this methodology, the liquors covered by the dispute are subject to the following tax rates:Shochu A (shochu distilled with a continuous still)Alcohol Strength Tax Rate (per 1 kilolitre)(1) 25 to 26 degrees ¥155,700(2) 26 to 31 degrees ¥155,700 plus ¥9,540 for each degree above 25(3) 31 degrees and above ¥203,400 plus ¥26,230 for each degree above 30(4) 21 to 25 degrees ¥155,700 minus ¥9,540 for each degree below 25 (fractionsare rounded up to 1 degree)(5) below 21 degrees ¥108,000Shochu B (other shochu)Alcohol Strength Tax Rate (per 1 kilolitre)(1) 25 to 26 degrees ¥102,100(2) 26 to 31 degrees ¥102,100 plus ¥6,580 for each degree above 25(3) 31 degrees and above ¥135,000 plus ¥14,910 for each degree above 30(4) 21 to 25 degrees ¥102,100 minus ¥6,580 for each degree less than 25(fractions are rounded up to 1 degree)(5) below 21 degrees ¥69,200WhiskyAlcohol Strength Tax Rate (per 1 kilolitre)(1) 40 to 41 degrees ¥982,300(2) 41 degrees and above ¥982,300 plus ¥24,560 for every degree above 40(3) 38 to 40 degrees ¥982,300 minus ¥24,560 for each degree below 40(fractions are rounded up to 1 degree)(4) below 38 degrees ¥908,620SpiritsAlcohol Strength Tax Rate (per 1 kilolitre)(1) below 38 degrees ¥367,300(2) 38 degrees and above ¥367,300 plus ¥9,930 for each degree above 37LiqueursAlcohol Strength Tax Rate (per 1 kilolitre)(1) below 13 degrees ¥98,600(2) 13 degrees and above ¥98,600 plus ¥8,220 for each degree over 12A special formula is applied to determine the tax rate for beverages having an alcohol strength below 13 degrees or, in the case of "liqueurs," below 12 degrees.(Panel Report, paras. 2.1-4)The complaining parties claimed that this system violates GATT Article III:2, first sentence and Article III:2, second sentence because it taxes shochu at a lower rate than the other products. The Panel found violations of both of these provisions.On appeal, Japan argued that the Panel erred in finding violations of these provisions. The United States, although it agreed with the Panel's ultimate conclusions with regard to these provisions, cross-appealed certain aspects of the Panel's legal reasoning, relating to both the interpretation of Article III:2 and the Panel's statements on the status of adopted panel reports.SUMMARY OF APPELLATE BODY'S FINDINGSP ROCEDURAL AND S YSTEMIC I SSUESTreaty InterpretationThe Appellate Body first addressed the issue of "Treaty Interpretation." It noted that DSU Article 3.2 directs the Appellate Body to clarify the provisions of GATT and the other "covered agreements" of the WTO Agreement "in accordance with customary rules of interpretation of public international law." Further, the Appellate Body recalled that in U.S. - Gasoline it had stressed the need to achieve such clarification by reference to the fundamental rule of treaty interpretation set out in Article 31(1) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties ("VCLT"), as this general rule of interpretation "has attained the status of a rule of customary or general international law." Article 31(1) provides:A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinarymeaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in thelight of its object and purpose.The Appellate Body stated that Article 32 of the VCLT, dealing with the role of supplementary means of interpretation, has also attained the same status. (Pages 10-12)Status of Prior Panel ReportsIn response to an appeal by the United States, the Appellate Body next examined the issue of the "Status of Adopted Panel Reports." The Panel had found that "panel reports adopted by the GATT CONTRACTING PARTIES and the WTO Dispute Settlement Body constitute subsequent practice in a specific case" under VCLT Article 31(3)(b), and that adopted panel reports in themselves constitute "other decisions of the CONTRACTING PARTIES to GATT 1947" for the purposes of "Article 1(b)(iv) of GATT 1994."The Appellate Body reversed the Panel's findings. According to the Appellate Body, the CONTRACTING PARTIES to the GATT, when adopting a panel report, did not intend that their decision would constitute a "definitive interpretation" of the GATT provision at issue, nor is this contemplated under the WTO Agreement. The Appellate Body noted that WTO Agreement Article IX:2 provides: "The Ministerial Conference and the General Council shall have the exclusive authority to adopt interpretations of this Agreement and of the Multilateral Trade Agreements." In the Appellate Body's view, the fact that such an "exclusive authority" in interpreting the treaty has been established so specifically in the WTO Agreement is reason to conclude that such authority does not exist. (Page 13)However, the Appellate Body made clear that it does not view prior adopted panel reports as having no relevance whatsoever. The Appellate Body stated that WTO Agreement Article XVI:1 and paragraph 1(b)(iv) of the language of Annex 1A incorporating the GATT 1994 into the WTO Agreement affirm the importance of the experience acquired by the CONTRACTING PARTIES to the GATT. According to the Appellate Body:Adopted panel reports are an important part of the GATT acquis. They areoften considered by subsequent panels. They create legitimateexpectations among WTO Members, and, therefore, should be taken intoaccount where they are relevant to any dispute. However, they are notbinding, except with respect to resolving the particular dispute between theparties to that dispute.(Page 14) Then, in a footnote, the Appellate Body said, "[i]t is worth noting that the Statute of the International Court of Justice has an explicit provision, Article 59, to the same effect. This has not inhibited the development by that Court (and its predecessor) of a body of case law in which considerable reliance on the value of previous decisions is readily discernible." (Page 14) On this basis, the Appellate Body considered the Panel's conclusion that adopted panel reports constitute "subsequent practice" and "other decisions" to be in error, but at the same time found that such reports create "legitimate expectations" which should be taken into account.Finally, the Appellate Body agreed with the Panel's conclusion that unadopted panel reports "have no legal status in the GATT or WTO system since they have not been endorsed through decisions by the CONTRACTING PARTIES to GATT or WTO Members." Likewise, the Appellate Body agreed that "a panel could nevertheless find useful guidance in the reasoning of an unadopted panel report that it considered to be relevant." (Pages 14-15)Terms of ReferenceIn the context of its findings related to "directly competitive or substitutable products," the Appellate Body noted that the Panel's conclusions on "like products" and on "directly competitive or substitutable products" "fail to address the full range of alcoholic beverages included in the Panel's Terms of Reference." The Appellate Body "consider[ed] this failure to incorporate into its conclusions all the products referred to in the Terms of Reference … to be an error of law by the Panel." (Page 26)S UBSTANTIVE I SSUESGATT Article III - GeneralIn its appeal, Japan claimed that the Panel's findings that the Liquor Tax Law violates GATT Article III:2, first sentence and second sentence, were in error.The Appellate Body began with a general examination of Article III, which is titled "National Treatment on Internal Taxation and Regulation," and provides:1. The contracting parties recognize that internal taxes and otherinternal charges, and laws, regulations and requirements affecting theinternal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or useof products, and internal quantitative regulations requiring the mixture,processing or use of products in specified amounts or proportions, shouldnot be applied to imported or domestic products so as to afford protectionto domestic production.2. The products of the territory of any contracting party importedinto the territory of any other contracting party shall not be subject,directly or indirectly, to internal taxes or other internal charges of any kindin excess of those applied, directly or indirectly, to like domestic products.Moreover, no contracting party shall otherwise apply internal taxes orother internal charges to imported or domestic products in a mannercontrary to the principles set forth in paragraph 1.*The asterisk to paragraph 2 refers to a note, which provides:A tax conforming to the requirements of the first sentence of paragraph 2would be considered to be inconsistent with the provisions of the secondsentence only in cases where competition was involved between, on theone hand, the taxed product and, on the other hand, a directly competitiveor substitutable product which was not similarly taxed.(Pages 15-16) The Appellate Body first discussed GATT Article III and the National Treatment obligation generally. It asserted that: "The broad and fundamental purpose of Article III is to avoid protectionism in the application of internal tax and regulatory measures." (Page 16) In this regard, the Appellate Body made clear that the scope of Article III is not limited to products that are the subject of tariff concessions under Article II.GATT Article III:1The Appellate Body examined the first paragraph of Article III. It agreed with the Panel that Article III:1 articulates a general principle that internal measures should not be applied so as to afford protection to domestic production, and considered that this general principle informs the rest of Article III. The Appellate Body also agreed with the Panel that there is a distinction between Article III:1, which "contains general principles," and Article III:2, which "provides for specific obligations regarding internal taxes and internal charges." (Pages 17-18)The Appellate Body added that Article III:1 constitutes part of the context of Article III:2, in the same way that it constitutes part of the context of each of the other paragraphs in Article III. However, the Appellate Body concluded that because of the textual differences in the two sentences, Article III:1 informs the first sentence and the second sentence of Article III:2 in different ways. (Page 18)GATT Article III:2, first sentenceThe Appellate Body first interpreted Article III:2, first sentence. It began its analysis by noting that while Article III:1 informs Article III:2 as a whole, Article III:2, first sentence does not specifically refer to Article III:1. Based on this omission, the Appellate Body concluded that the presence of a "protective application" need not be established as a separate element under the first sentence. The Appellate Body stated that the first sentence of Article III:2 is, in effect, an "expression of" the general principle set forth in Article III:1. (Page 18) In this regard, the Appellate Body observed that the text of Article III:2, first sentence confirms this interpretation. That sentence requires a determination of only two elements: (1) whether the taxed imported and domestic products are "like"; and (2) whether the taxes applied to the imported products are "in excess of" those applied to the like domestic products. If both of these conditions are met, then the measure is inconsistent with Article III:2, first sentence. (Pages 18-19) The Appellate Body therefore turned to an examination of whether the products at issue in this case are "like." Here, the Appellate Body affirmed the Panel's finding that shochu and vodka are "like" products for the purpose of Article III:2, first sentence. The Appellate Body noted that this analysis should be carried out on a "case-by-case" basis, and referred to the GATT working party report on Border Tax Adjustments, in which various criteria were suggested: the product's end-uses in a given market; consumers' tastes and habits, which change from country to country; the product's properties, nature and quality. (Pages 20-21) Moreover, the Appellate Body noted that the concept of "likeness" is "a relative one that evokes the image of an accordion." The accordion of "likeness" "stretches and squeezes" in different places as different provisions of the WTO Agreement are applied. The Appellate Body stated that "[w]e believe that, in ArticleIII:2, first sentence of the GATT 1994, the accordion of 'likeness' is meant to be narrowly squeezed." (Page 21) The Appellate Body also noted the relevance of tariff classifications. (Page 23) For these reasons, the Appellate Body affirmed the Panel's finding that vodka and shochu are "like." (Page 23)With regard to whether taxes on imported products are "in excess of" those on "like" domestic products, the Appellate Body agreed with the Panel's legal reasoning and with its conclusion on this issue that shochu is taxed in excess of vodka. The Appellate Body noted that even the "smallest amount" of excess is too much, and there is no de minimis qualification to the standard. (Page 23)Thus, the Appellate Body found that both required elements under Article III:2, first sentence are present, and therefore upheld the Panel's finding of violation of this provision. (Pages 22-23) GATT Article III:2, second sentenceIn its examination of Article III:2, second sentence, the Appellate Body asserted that Article III:1 plays a more important role here than for Article III:2, first sentence. The Appellate Body noted that unlike Article III:2, first sentence, the text of Article III:2, second sentence specifically invokes Article III:1. Applying Article III:1 along with Article III:2, second sentence, the Appellate Body found that three separate issues must be addressed to determine whether an internal tax measure is inconsistent with Article III:2, second sentence:(1) the imported products and the domestic products are "directlycompetitive or substitutable products" which are in competition with eachother;(2) the directly competitive or substitutable imported and domesticproducts are "not similarly taxed;" and(3) the dissimilar taxation of the directly competitive or substitutableimported domestic products is "applied ... so as to afford protection todomestic production."(Page 24) The Appellate Body looked at each of these issues in turn.The Appellate Body first looked at whether the imported and domestic products at issue are "directly competitive or substitutable". The Appellate Body noted that this category is broader than the category of "like" products, but exactly how broad can only be determined on a "case-by-case" basis. The Appellate Body agreed with the Panel's emphasis on the need to look not only at such matters as physical characteristics, common end-uses, and tariff classifications, but also at the "market place," including the elasticity of substitution between products. (Page 25) Finally, the Appellate Body agreed with the Panel's application of this legal standard to the facts of this case, and therefore upheld the Panel's conclusion that "shochu, whisky, brandy, rum, gin, genever, and liqueurs" are "directly competitive or substitutable." The Appellate Body did add, however, that the Panel erred by failing to address all the products specified in its terms of reference. (Page 26)The Appellate Body then examined whether imported and domestic "directly competitive or substitutable products" are "not similarly taxed." The Appellate Body concluded that the "not similarly taxed" standard is less strict than the "in excess of" standard contained in Article III:2, first sentence. Under the "in excess of" standard, imported and domestic goods must be taxed identically. By contrast, under the "not similarly taxed" standard, the tax burden on imported products must not be heavier, by a more than de minimis amount, than on domestic "directly competitive or substitutable" products. The Appellate Bodyagreed with the Panel's legal conclusion on this issue, but emphasized that the "not similarly taxed" element is separate from the "so as to afford protection" element, and the Panel's blurring of this distinction was in error. (Pages 26-27)Finally, the Appellate Body considered whether the "directly competitive or substitutable" products at issue are taxed "so as to afford protection" to domestic products. The Appellate Body stated first that "[t]his is not an issue of intent." Thus, in deciding this issue, the Appellate Body said, it is not necessary to look at the reasons legislators and regulators have for what they do. (Page 27) However, the Appellate Body noted that "[a]lthough it is true that the aim of a measure may not be easily ascertained, nevertheless its protective application can most often be discerned from the design, the architecture, and the revealing structure of a measure." It emphasized that this is an issue of how a measure is applied. Further, the Appellate Body stated, "[t]he very magnitude of the dissimilar taxation may be evidence of its protective application." (Page 29)Then, although the Appellate Body considered that the Panel erred by blurring the distinction between the "not similarly taxed" element and the "so as to afford protection" element, the Appellate Body upheld the Panel's finding that the Liquor Tax Law had been applied "so as to afford protection." In reaching this conclusion, the Appellate Body quoted with approval the following statement from paragraph 6.35 of the Panel Report:...the combination of customs duties and internal taxation in Japan hasthe following impact: on the one hand, it makes it difficult for foreignproduced shochu to penetrate the Japanese market and, on the other, itdoes not guarantee equality of competitive conditions between shochuand the rest of "white" and "brown" spirits. Thus, through a combinationof high import duties and differentiated internal taxes, Japan manages to"isolate" domestically produced shochu from foreign competition, be itforeign produced shochu or any other of the mentioned white and brownspirits.(Page 31)Based on the analysis above, the Appellate Body upheld the Panel's finding that the Liquor Tax Law violates GATT Article III:2, second sentence.COMMENTARYFor further reading on this case, see:Steve Charnovitz, "The WTO's Alcoholic Beverages Decision," Review of European Community & International Environmental Law, Volume 6, Issue 2, pp. 198-203 (July 1997).Status of Prior Panel ReportsThe Appellate Body's findings on the status of prior panel reports provide useful guidance, but left some questions unanswered. First, in its reasoning on this issue, the Appellate Body did not distinguish between panel reports adopted under the GATT and panel reports adopted under the WTO. Presumably, such reports have the same status. However, it could be argued that different weight should be given to reports adopted before and after the creation of the WTO because of the difference in theadoption process, with adopted GATT panel reports, unlike adopted WTO reports, having been explicitly endorsed by each of the Contracting Parties.Second, the Appellate Body mentioned adopted panel reports, but made no reference to adopted Appellate Body reports. However, in U.S. - Shrimp, Article 21.5, the Appellate Body made clear that its reasoning applied to adopted Appellate Body reports as well. See DSC for U.S. - Shrimp, Article 21.5 (AB).For further reading on this issue, see:Raj Bhala, The Myth about Stare Decisis and International Trade Law, 14 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 4 (1999); Raj Bhala, The Precedent Setters: De Facto Stare Decisis in WTO Adjudication, 9 Florida State U. J. Transnational L. & Policy 1 (1999); Raj Bhala, The Power of the Past: Towards De Jure Stare Decisis in WTO Adjudication, 33 G.W. Int'l L. Rev (3 & 4) (2001).Adrian Chua, The Precedential Effect of WTO Panel and Appellate Body Reports, 11 Leiden Journal of International Law 1 (1998).David Palmeter and Petros Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organization (Kluwer Law International, 1999), at 47 (citing Mohamed Shahabuddeen, Precedent in the World Court (Grotius, 1996), at 238).GATT Article III:2It is often said that GATT Article III is one of the core "non-discrimination" provisions of the GATT. But what exactly is meant by "discrimination"? Because most people have an intuitive understanding of the concept, there is rarely a discussion of its specific elements. However, the approach chosen is of fundamental importance for the application of the principle of non-discrimination, particularly when the measure does not on its face discriminate against imports (note that the measure in this case simply established higher taxes for certain products, and did not refer explicitly to the origin of the products).In general terms, there are two elements that can be used to identify discrimination: (1) the intent to discriminate (also referred to as "aim" or "purpose"), and (2) the effect of discriminating (also referred to as "differential impact"). A finding of discrimination could be based on the existence of either one of these two elements, or on the existence of both elements. The so-called "aim-and-effects" test applied by the GATT panels in U.S. - Malt Beverages and U.S. - Auto Taxes reflects an approach under which discrimination, in the sense of GATT Article III, will be found only when the existence of both discriminatory intent and effect is demonstrated.In the context of GATT Article III:2, the easier of the two elements to understand is intent. In the case at hand, the Panel clearly rejected the use of "aim" under Article III:2, first sentence, and the Appellate Body upheld the Panel's finding. In the context of Article III:2, second sentence, though, it appears that the Appellate Body has relied on "aim" in a limited way. Specifically, the Appellate Body said that the "protective application" of a measure (through its "design," "architecture," and "revealing structure") can be examined, although the subjective intent of the measure (for example, statements of legislators in passing the law) may not. This issue was further clarified by the Appellate Body in Chile – Alcohol, where the "objective" intent, or "statutory purpose," of the measure was examined under this provision. See DSC for Chile - Alcohol (AB). The Appellate Body's insistence on an examination of only "objective" intent -- as evidenced by the words of the measure -- has made the rules on this issue fairly clear, although it is likely that evidence regarding statements made by government officials will still be submitted,。
WTO案例分析日本酒类税案
WTO案例分析日本酒类税案、美国汽油标准案案例日本酒类税案欧共体、加拿大和美国与日本关于酒税的纠纷申诉方:欧共体、加拿大和美国被申诉方:日本上诉方:日本、美国被上诉方:欧共体、加拿大和美国裁决时间:(DSB通过专家组和上诉机构报告)1996年11月1日本案涉及的法律问题:专家组报告的法律地位(性质)有关的WTO协议规定:《马拉喀什建立世界贸易组织协定》第9条第2款:“部长会议和总理事会拥有通过对本协定和多边贸易协定所作解释的专有权力。
……通过一项解释的决定应当由成员的四分之三作出。
”DSU第3条第2款指出:“各成员认识到该体制在为多边贸易体制提供可靠性和可预测性方面是一个重要因素。
各成员认识到该体制适用于保护各成员在适用协定项下的权利和义务,及依照解释国际公法的惯例澄清这些协定的现有规定。
DSB 的建议或裁决不能增加或减少适用协定所规定的权利和义务。
”案情:本案主要涉及日本的酒税体系是否符合国民待遇的原则问题,但选中本案要说明的是专家组在审理案件过程中,对于专家组报告法律性质的认定的争议。
专家组在遵循维也纳公约第31条对GATT第3条进行解释的时候,认为“GATT全体成员方和DSB通过的专家组报告是维也纳公约第31条所说的嗣后的惯例(suBsequent prACtiCe)”(维也纳条约法公约第31条第3款规定:“应与上下文一并考虑的有“1、当事国嗣后关于条约之解释或其规劝之适用的任何协定;2、嗣后在条约适用方面确定各当事国对条约节制之协定之任何惯例;……”),主张在对条约进行解释时应将以往专家组报告作一并考虑。
美国对此提出上诉,认为,专家组把其他案件的专家组报告作为维也纳公约第31条第3款(B)所说的“嗣后的惯例(suBsequent prACtiCe)”是错误的。
美国认为,专家组报告仅仅起到澄清具体纠纷中各方权利义务的作用,DSB通过专家组报告的决议是GATT 协议第1段(B)(iv)所说的“决议”,但专家组报告本身并非“决议”。
WTO案例分析
最惠国待遇条款和国民待遇条款
案例1 欧盟、美国诉韩国酒精饮料税案
案件基本事实: 本案涉及的是韩国1949年酒税法和1982年教育税法。 根据此法令,韩国把酒分为11类,根据酒精饮料的酒精含 量不同征收不同的附加税。其中烧酒征收的税率是35%到 50%,而其他酒的税率一般是80%到100%。对于酒精 税率在80%以上的酒,还要加征30%的教育附加税,税 率在80%以下的教育附加税为10%。在韩国的进口酒中, 除了日本烧酒外,其他进口酒的实际税率都在80%以上, 也都需要加征30%的教育附加税。 据此,欧盟和美国认为,韩国的酒税法对其他酒的税 率高于韩国产的烧酒的税率,不符合GATT第3条第2款 (国民待遇条款)的规定,你支持欧盟和美国的主张吗? 为什么 ?
案例3 美国 欧盟和加拿大诉中国汽车零 部件进口管理措施案
案件基本事实: 本案涉及的是中国汽车进口零部件按整车征税,我国2005年出 台的汽车零部件进口管理办法(简称办法)将进口零部件的价格总和 达到该车型整车总价60%以上的按整车征税。公开资料显示,我国 对进口整车征收25%的关税,对单纯维修用的进口零部件征收 10%的关税。也就是说,对于构成“整车特征”的进口汽车零部件, 我国将征收25%的高关税,比一般关税整整高了15%。自《办法》 制订以来,这一产业政策引发纠纷不断,在欧美一些豪华车生产企 业的游说和推动下,2006年3月,欧盟、美国就此问题诉诸WTO, 与中方开始在WTO争端解决机制下进行磋商,之后加拿大也加入进 来,但磋商没有达成共识。在磋商期间,中国政府曾经于2006年7 月5日作出让步,原定于2005年10月实施的《办法》被推迟到 2006年7月1日起实施,同时,进口零部件价格总和不能超过该车 总价格60%的规定,延期至2008年7月1日实施。 中方的让步并没 有使美国、欧盟和加拿大满意。其对于中国汽车进出口产业政策不 断质疑,要求中方改变零部件关税的“区别性对待”。 试分析中国的汽车进口零部件的价格总和达到该车型整车总价 60%以上的按整车征税的贸易做法是否违背GATT的贸易基本规则? 为什么?
欧盟诉日本关于征收酒精饮料税的纠纷
National treatment
※ The national treatment means that imported and locally produced goods should be treated equally.
Refer to the case: GATT第三条:国内税与国内法规的待遇 ※※ Generally prohibits protectionism(一般禁止保护主义) Exceptions: Government Procurement Domestic Subsidies GATT Article XVIII
1995年6月21日,欧盟要求与日本就日本烈酒税法征收的酒精国 内税进行磋商,美国、加拿大7月加入。
事源该法案将烈酒分为十个大类分别征税,争议涉及日本烧酒、 威士忌、白兰地、烈酒和甜烈酒。欧盟认为包括伏特加酒、杜松子 酒和白朗姆酒在内的烈酒与两种类别的日本烧酒是同类产品或直接 竞争和可替代产品,威士忌、白兰地和甜烈酒则与两种日本烧酒是 直接竞争和可替代产品,该法按对前者征收更高税率违反第3条。 美国和加拿大提出类似诉求,只是列举的具体酒种不同。
European Communities’ claims:
the essential criterion for a "like product" determination is physical characteristics
shochu is also produced in other countries and, therefore, is not an "inherently domestic product"
最惠国待遇
动物保护案
▪ 案由 ▪ 海龟是被70年代《濒危野生动植物物种国际贸易公约》列入最高
级别保护的濒危珍稀动物。以往,海洋拖网捕虾作业中对海龟的误杀 是这一珍稀动物生存的最大威胁。为了保护珍稀的海龟,美国国会在 1973年通过的《濒危物种法案》中将各种占有、加工、加害为海洋 拖网捕虾所误害的海龟视为非法。1989年美国在这一法案的修正中 又增加了推动其他国家使用既能够提升海虾捕获量,又能使误入捕虾 网的海龟得以逃生(逃生率97%)的海龟排离器(TED)的条款 (609条款)。该条款的含义是,推动其他国家使用TED提高海龟的 保护程度。在一定的海域内,如果某国的捕虾网上没有使用海龟排离 器,或没有达到美国保护海龟的标准,美国将禁止从该国进口捕获的 野生虾及虾类制品。1996年美国又将这一禁止扩大到一切国家,由 此引发了贸易争议,20多个国家向世贸组织提出申诉或作为第三方 介入。申诉方认为,美国立法保护海龟值得肯定、支持,但若其他国 家没有类似立法,美国便禁止从这些国家进口捕获的野生虾类产品, 属于国内法律域外适用的单边行为,危害了多边自由贸易的原则,并 给其他国家造成了损失。
减让而应带来的好处正在丧失或减损,这一点违背了GATT第23条1
款。
▪
具体地说,美国指责的日本限制流通的措施,鼓励并促进了日本
胶卷市场销售体制从多种商标的大商场出售转变到单一商标的专卖销
售,从而制约了进口胶卷的销售能力,妨碍了柯达的市场开拓能
力。
Article XXIII Nullification or Impairment
General Most-Favoured-Nation
Treatment
▪ 1. With respect to customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on or in connection with importation or exportation or imposed on the international transfer of payments for imports or exports, and with respect to the method of levying such duties and charges, and with respect to all rules and formalities in connection with importation and exportation, and with respect to all matters referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article III,* any advantage, favour, privilege or immunity granted by any contracting party to any product originating in or destined for any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the like product originating in or destined for the territories of all other contracting parties.
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W T O案例分析日本酒类
税案
Last revision on 21 December 2020
WTO案例分析日本酒类税案、美国汽油标准案
案例日本酒类税案
欧共体、加拿大和美国与日本关于酒税的纠纷
申诉方:欧共体、加拿大和美国
被申诉方:日本
上诉方:日本、美国
被上诉方:欧共体、加拿大和美国
裁决时间:(DSB通过专家组和上诉机构报告)
1996年11月1日
本案涉及的法律问题:
专家组报告的法律地位(性质)
有关的WTO协议规定:
《马拉喀什建立世界贸易组织协定》第9条第2款:“部长会议和总理事会拥有通过对本协定和多边贸易协定所作解释的专有权力。
……通过一项解释的决定应当由成员的四分之三作出。
”
DSU第3条第2款指出:“各成员认识到该体制在为多边贸易体制提供可靠性和可预测性方面是一个重要因素。
各成员认识到该体制适用于保护各成员在适用协定项下的权利和义务,及依照解释国际公法的惯例澄清这些协定的现有规定。
DSB的建议或裁决不能增加或减少适用协定所规定的权利和义务。
”
案情:
本案主要涉及日本的酒税体系是否符合国民待遇的原则问题,但选中本案要说明的是专家组在审理案件过程中,对于专家组报告法律性质的认定的争议。
专家组在遵循维也纳公约第31条对GATT第3条进行解释的时候,认为“GATT全体成员方和DSB通过的专家组报告是维也纳公约第31条所说的嗣后的惯例(suBsequent prACtiCe)”(维也纳条约法公约第31条第3款规定:“应与上下文一并考虑的有“1、当事国嗣后关于条约之解释或其规劝之适用的任何协定;2、嗣后在条约适用方面确定各当事国对条约节制之协定之任何惯例;……”),主张在对条约进行解释时应将以往专家组报告作一并考虑。
美国对此提出上诉,认为,专家组把其他案件的专家组报告作为维也纳公约第31条第3款(B)所说的“嗣后的惯例(suBsequent prACtiCe)”是错误的。
美国认为,专家组报告仅仅起到澄清具体纠纷中各方权利义务的作用,DSB通过专家组报告的决议是GATT协议第1段(B)(iv)所说的“决议”,但专家组报告本身并非“决议”。
上诉机构意见:
上诉机构对这一问题进行了讨论,认为:GATT专家组报告虽然要由GATT缔约方全体通过,但根据1947年GATT,通过专家组报告的决议并不构成缔约方全体的协议。
在GATT 普遍接受的看法是,专家组报告只针对一个案件的具体问题,因而只对当事方有约束力,其他案件的专家组并没有义务根据其分析来决定其他案件。
上诉机构认为,在通过
某个案件的专家组报告时,成员方全体并不想让专家组的意见成为对某一条文的固定解释,而且这也不是GATT的本意。
WTO协议第9条第2款规定:“部长会议和总理事会应当是唯一有权对本协议和多边贸易协议作出解释的机构”,而且“决定应当以四分之三多数通过”,即专家组无权对协议做出有法律效力的解释。
从历史上看,根据1947年GATT第23条通过的专家组报告性质不同于根据第25条由缔约方全体采取的行动;这一精神一直延续到现在,在WTO体制下专家组报告也不同于对协议的解释。
各专家组确实经常引用其他专家组报告中的意见,WTO成员方可以从专家组报告中了解对某一条款的理解。
但专家组报告除了对各自案件的当事方有约束力之外,并没有其他约束力。
然而对于本案专家组提出的“未通过的专家组报告在GATT或WTO没有任何效力”,然而“专家组可以从未通过的报告之分析中找到有用的参考”,上诉机构表示赞同。
上诉机构最终结论是:专家组关于“GATT缔约方全体和WTO的DSB通过的专家组报告构成嗣后的惯例”的结论,在法律上是错误的。
评析:
本案上诉机构对DSB的专家组和上诉机构通过的报告之性质作了很好的诠释:由DSB通过的专家组和上诉机构报告不构成全体成员方通过的决议,也不具有解释WTO各项协议的作用,从这一角度讲,专家组和上诉机构报告不是普通法意义上的判例,它只是针对某个具体案件作出的结论,除了对该案有约束力,对其他案件并无约束力。
然而,作出这样的结论并不等于说这些报告没有其他意义。
专家组和上诉机构的成员都是法律、经济、贸易方面的专家,他们有的长期担任法官,有的是着名教授,都是理论功底深厚、
实践经验丰富的人。
他们在对具体案件的分析中通常都会作出逻辑严密的法律分析,对于理解WTO各项协议的规定具有非常重要的参考价值。