中级微观经济学-范里安版本
中级微观经济学-范里安版本
如果允许自由处置，则称生产技术具有单 调性： 单调性：如果x 在 V（y）中，并且 x' x 则 x ' 也在 V（y）中。 思考自由处置的现实背景：处置或储藏 不需要成本，至少不能影响到原有技术的 施行。
• 凸技术 思想：我们想要生产“大”量的产出， 并且可以复制“小”的生产过程
定义：凸性 如果x 和 x ' 都在V（y）中，那么，对 ' tx (1 t) x 所有0≤t≤1的t 而言， 在V（y） 中。那就是，V（y）是一个凸集。
• 取极限形式后，写成
TRS d x2 / x1 x2 / x1 dTRS
经济含义：可以通过厂商追求成本最小化的一阶 条件来重新审视替代弹性的含义。
• 使用对数微商，可以重新写为 d ln x2 / x1
d ln | TRS |
例：柯布道格拉斯生产函数的替代弹性
a x2 TRS 1 a x1 x2 1 a TRS x1 a
x2 1 a ln ln ln | TRS | x1 a
d ln x2 / x1 1 d ln | TRS |
• 规模报酬 前面“复制”生产过程的例子实际上是“按 比例增加”投入，那么规模报酬不变意味着： 下列任何一个条件被满足，即称为规模报酬 不变 1．对所有非负t；y在Y 中意味着ty 在Y 中 2．x在V（y）中意味着tx在V（y）中，对所 有t≥0 ？ 3． f (tx) tf(x) ，对于所有t≥0。即生产函 数f(x)是一次齐次的。 那么，何时规模报酬不变会被违反？
V（y） = x在R n -x Y中 +中：（y，）在
等产量线：等产量线给出所有刚好生产y 单位产出的投入束。
， ， Q（y） = x在R n 中： x 在 V(y) 中并且 x 不在 V （ y ）中， y >y +
范里安_中级微观经济学Ch16
均衡
市场均衡
当所有买者的总需求量等于所有卖者的
供给量时，我们称市场达到均衡状态。
市场均衡
p衡
p 市场供给 q=S(p)
S(p)
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p)
q=D(p) D(p), S(p)
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p)
p D
* 1
(q ) S
*
1
ac (q ) . bd
*
市场均衡
D-1(q), 市场需求 S-1(q)
市场供给 S-1(q) = (-c+q)/d
p ac bd
D-1(q) = (a-q)/b
*
ad bc q bd
*
q
市场均衡
两种特殊情况:
供给量固定，与市场价格无关 或者供给量对市场价格相当敏感。
*
供给量固定，与市场价格无关
ac p b
*
q* c.
市场均衡
两种特殊情况
供给量固定，与市场价格无关 供给量对市场价格十分敏感。
市场均衡
p 供给量对市场价格十分敏感
q
市场均衡
p 供给量对市场价格十分敏感 S-1(q) = p*. p*
q
市场均衡
p 市场需求 供给量对市场价格十分敏感 S-1(q) = p*. p* D-1(q) = (a-q)/b q
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p) p’ p* q=D(p) D(p’) S(p’) D(p), S(p) D(p’) < S(p’); 供给量大于 需求量
市场价格会下降至p*
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p) D(p”) > S(p”); 需求量大于 供给量 p* p” S(p”) D(p”) q=D(p) D(p), S(p)
(2024版)中级微观经济学教学大纲
可编辑修改精选全文完整版《中级微观经济学》课程教学大纲课程代码：50140035课程名称：中级微观经济学课程基本情况：1．学分：3学分学时：48学时2．课程性质：必修3．适用专业：经济学适用对象：本科4．先修课程：经济学原理、高等数学5．首选教材：范里安著，费方域译，《微观经济学：现代观点》第六版，上海：上海人民出版社。
二选教材：平新乔著，《微观经济学十八讲》，北京：北京大学出版社，2001。
参考书目：[1]、高山晟著，刘振亚译，《经济学中的分析方法》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，2001；[2]、张维迎著，《博弈论与信息经济学》，上海：上海三联出版社、上海人民出版社，1999；[3]、Hal Varian, Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach, sixth edition,W.W.Norton & Co., 2005；[4]、曼昆著，梁小民译，《经济学原理》（第3版·上、下册），北京：机械工业出版社，2003。
[5].平狄克、鲁宾费尔德著张军译，《微观经济学》第四版，北京：中国人民大学出版社，2002；[6].曼斯费尔德著，黄险峰等译，《微观经济学》（第九版），北京：中国人民大学出版社，2003；6．考核形式：闭卷考试+平时表现（期末闭卷考试占70%；平时表现占30%）7．教学环境：要具备必要的现代化教学工具，如多媒体教室。
课程教学目的及要求：微观经济学是学习和掌握现代主流经济学的基础课程，是迈进经济学殿堂的重要阶梯。
现代经济学已经发展出一整套可经证伪的理论体系，与其他社会科学相比，它更趋近于自然科学，因而是一门更为“科学”的社会科学。
本课程旨在讲述两百年来经济学关于资源配置的解释性逻辑框架，演绎新古典经济学的理论架构，培养学生经济学的思维方式，使得他们能够像经济学家那样去思考现实中的各类经济问题。
学生通过学习，一方面需要把握微观经济理论的框架体系，弄清微观经济理论的基本内容，掌握其分析方法，了解其最新发展；另一方面，也是极为重要的，需要学会如何用所学到的理论分析工具，解释和分析现实中的经济问题。
中级微观经济学-范里安版本
中级微观经济学-范里安版本xx年xx月xx日contents •消费者理论•生产者理论•市场理论•福利经济学•微观经济政策•中级微观经济学的前沿进展目录01消费者理论消费者对不同商品或商品组合的喜好程度，用于排序各种商品或商品组合的效用水平。
偏好消费者从消费某种商品或商品组合中获得的满足程度，取决于消费者的偏好。
效用偏好与效用优化选择与需求优化选择在给定预算约束和各种商品价格的情况下，消费者会选择最大化自己效用的商品组合。
需求消费者在特定价格下愿意购买的商品数量，取决于消费者的偏好和价格。
消费者剩余消费者购买商品时愿意支付的价格与实际支付价格之间的差额，取决于消费者的偏好和价格。
需求弹性消费者对价格变动的反应程度，即需求量变动百分比与价格变动百分比的比率，分为需求收入弹性和需求价格弹性。
消费者剩余与需求弹性02生产者理论介绍生产函数和要素投入之间的关系，包括线性生产函数和非线性生产函数。
根据利润函数，推导厂商最优产量和最优要素投入量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的利润情况。
生产技术利润最大化生产技术与利润成本最小化根据成本函数，推导厂商最优要素投入量和产出量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的成本情况。
产出最大化根据收益函数，推导厂商最优产出量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的收益情况。
成本最小化与产出最大化完全竞争市场中的厂商行为完全竞争市场介绍完全竞争市场的特点和基本假设，包括同质产品、自由进入和退出等。
厂商行为根据市场需求和供给，推导厂商最优产量和价格的选择，以及在完全竞争市场中的市场份额和利润情况。
03市场理论完全竞争市场的价格与产总结词：价格接受者详细描述：在完全竞争市场中，每个厂商都是价格接受者，即他们只能被动接受市场决定的价格，因此，每个厂商的边际收益等于市场价格。
总结词：市场出清详细描述：由于每个厂商都是价格接受者，因此，他们将生产直至边际收益等于零，即市场将出清。
总结词：平均成本与利润详细描述：在完全竞争市场中，每个厂商的平均收益等于平均成本，因此，他们只能获得正常利润。
（完整版）范里安中级微观经济学
（完整版）范⾥安中级微观经济学中级微观经济学1. 维克⾥拍卖定义：维克⾥拍卖的⽅式类似密封拍卖，但有⼀个重要区别：商品由报价最⾼的竞价⼈获得，但他只需要按第⼆⾼的报价⽀付。
换句话说，报价最⾼的投标⼈得到了拍卖商品，但是他不需要按照他⾃⾝的报价⽀付，⽽是按照报价第⼆⾼的⼈的报价⽀付。
特点：密封报、同时报价、价⾼者得、赢家⽀付次⾼价分析：我们分析⼀个只有两个投标⼈的特殊情形。
这两⼈的对商品的评价分别为 1v 和2v ，他们在纸条上写下的报价分别为1b 和2b 。
投标⼈1的期望收益为：如果21v ＞v ，最⼤化胜出的概率；也就是设置11v b =。
如果21v ＜v ，最⼩化胜出的概率；也就是设置11v b =。
任意情况，Telling the truth is best 。
2. 帕累托有效率如果可以找到⼀种配置，在其他⼈的境况没有变坏的情况下，的确能使⼀些⼈的境况变得更好⼀些，那么，这就叫做帕累托改进；如果⼀种配置⽅法存在帕累托改进，他就称为帕累托低效率；如果⼀种配置⽅法不存在任何的帕累托改进，他就称为帕累托有效率的。
3. 价格歧视，第⼀、⼆、三级价格歧视1.价格歧视：按不同价格销售不同单位产品的做法称为价格歧视 2.⼀、⼆、三级价格歧视：第⼀级价格歧视：是指垄断企业按不同价格出售不同产量，⽽且这些价格可能因⼈⽽异。
这种价格歧视有时⼜称为完全价格歧视。
第⼆级价格歧视：是指，垄断企业按不同价格出售不同产量，但是购买相同数量的每个⼈⽀付价格是相同的。
因此，价格按购买数量制定，⽽不是因⼈⽽异。
最常见的情形是⼤宗购买时可以享受折扣。
第三级价格歧视：是指垄断企业的销售价格因⼈⽽异，但对于同⼀个⼈来说，每单位产品的售价是相同的。
这种价格歧视最常见。
例如:对⽼年⼈打折，对学⽣打折等。
4. 消费者剩余消费者剩余：是指购买者的⽀付意愿减去购买者的实际⽀付量。
消费者剩余衡量了购买者⾃⼰感觉到所获得的额外收益。
5. 显⽰偏好原理1.显⽰偏好：假定：（1）所有消费者的偏好都是严格凸性的，因此对于⼀个预算线来说都有且只有⼀个最优消费束。
中级微观经济学范里安版本
中级微观经济学范里安版本xx年xx月xx日•导言与背景介绍•微观经济学基本概念与原理•消费者行为理论•生产者行为理论•市场结构与竞争策略•价格、产出与就业•中级微观经济学前沿问题与发展趋势目录01导言与背景介绍中级微观经济学是经济学的一个分支，主要研究个体经济行为以及市场均衡的形成，包括消费者行为、生产者行为、市场结构、价格形成等。
定义中级微观经济学是经济学的基础学科之一，对于理解整个经济系统的运行和个体经济角色的决策制定有着重要的作用。
它为政策制定者提供了理论依据，也为经济学家提供了研究工具。
重要性中级微观经济学的定义与重要性背景范里安是当代最有影响力的微观经济学家之一，他的《中级微观经济学》是经济学领域的经典著作之一，被广泛采用为大学经济学课程的主要教材。
特点该书系统地介绍了中级微观经济学的基本概念、理论和方法，内容全面、丰富，同时注重理论与实践的结合，具有很好的可读性。
范里安《中级微观经济学》的背景与特点目的学习中级微观经济学可以帮助我们深入理解经济系统的运行机制和个体经济角色的决策过程，掌握中级微观经济学的基本理论和方法，为进一步学习高级微观经济学和其他经济学分支打下坚实的基础。
要点一要点二意义通过学习中级微观经济学，我们可以更好地理解现实经济生活中的各种问题，提高自己的综合素质和决策能力，同时也可以为未来的学术研究和职业发展提供有力的支持。
学习中级微观经济学的目的与意义02微观经济学基本概念与原理需求与供给消费者在不同价格水平上愿意并能够购买的商品或服务的数量。
需求供给均衡价格价格机制生产者在不同价格水平上愿意并能够提供的商品或服务的数量。
市场供求平衡时的价格。
通过价格变动调节供求关系，以实现市场均衡。
市场均衡与价格机制均衡状态市场供给和需求达到平衡的状态。
均衡价格的形成通过价格机制，调节供给和需求的平衡。
价格对经济的调节作用通过价格信号，引导消费者和生产者的行为，实现资源的最优配置。
中级微观经济学-范里安版本
2023中级微观经济学-范里安版本contents •中级微观经济学导论•中级微观经济学的基本内容•中级微观经济学的进一步深化•中级微观经济学的实际应用•中级微观经济学的未来发展目录01中级微观经济学导论中级微观经济学是一门研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业、市场等）行为的学科，运用微观经济学理论和方法，分析个体经济单位的经济行为和决策。
中级微观经济学主要关注市场机制下的资源配置和产出问题，研究市场机制的缺陷和政府干预的必要性。
什么是中级微观经济学VS初级微观经济学主要研究基本的经济学概念和原理，如需求、供给、市场均衡、价格机制等。
中级微观经济学则更加深入地研究个体经济单位的经济行为和决策，包括消费者行为、生产者行为、市场结构、价格歧视、寡头垄断等。
中级微观经济学与初级微观经济学的区别中级微观经济学是连接初级微观经济学和高级微观经济学的桥梁，为进一步深入学习高级微观经济学打下基础。
中级微观经济学对于理解和分析现实经济问题具有重要的应用价值，可以帮助我们更好地理解市场机制、政府干预、资源配置和产出等问题。
中级微观经济学的重要性VS02中级微观经济学的基本内容消费者偏好研究消费者对商品和服务的偏好，以及如何用无差异曲线和预算约束线来表示。
要点一要点二消费者选择研究消费者如何在各种可能的商品和服务组合中选择最优解，包括无差异曲线和预算约束线的切点。
边际效用理论该理论解释了消费者对商品的购买量随着其价格的增加而减少的规律。
要点三生产函数研究一个生产者如何将各种生产要素（如劳动、资本、土地等）组合起来生产出商品和服务。
成本函数研究生产者如何计算和使用各种成本，包括固定成本和可变成本，以及平均成本和边际成本。
收益函数研究生产者如何将商品和服务销售给消费者，以实现利润最大化。
010203完全竞争市场这是一个理想化的市场，每个生产者和消费者都是价格接受者，市场上存在大量的买者和卖者。
垄断市场这是一个只有一家生产者的市场，该生产者可以根据自己的意愿定价，以实现利润最大化。
中级微观经济学范里安版本
博弈论初步：纳什均衡与囚徒困境
企业行为
在寡头市场中，企业通常会采取价格领导、限制性定价、成本加成等策略来最大化利润。
市场结果
由于寡头市场的竞争性，市场结果通常表现为市场价格较高、企业利润较大，但消费者选择较少。此外，市场结果也可能受到政策干预的影响。
寡头市场的企业行为与市场结果
不确定性、风险与信息经济学初步
垄断市场的福利效应与价格歧视不完全相同。在某些情况下，垄断可能会带来更高的产量和更低的价格，从而增加消费者福利；而在其他情况下，垄断可能会减少产量并提高价格，导致社会总福利水平下降。因此，对于垄断市场，需要进行具体分析以确定其福利效应。
福利效应对比
寡头垄断与博弈论初步
04
寡头垄断是一种市场结构，其中少数几家大公司占据了市场的大部分份额，其他小企业市场份额较小。
价格歧视与垄断
03
价格歧视定义
指厂商根据消费者对同一产品的不同支付能力和需求，有区别地制定价格以获取更大利润。
价格歧视分类
一级、二级和三级价格歧视。一级价格歧视是对每个消费者都收取不同的价格；二级价格歧视是根据消费者购买量的不同，制定不同的价格；三级价格歧视是根据消费者的不同特征，如种族、性别、地区等来制定不同的价格。
单一卖者、无相近替代品、其他企业进入该市场不易等。
假设条件
垄断企业的需求曲线是市场上全部消费者的需求曲线的水平加总。
需求曲线
在给定产量下，通过选择相应的价格来实现利润最大化。
利润最大化
垄断市场的基本模型
垄断的福利效应与价格歧视的对比
在垄断市场上，厂商可能会利用其市场支配地位进行价格歧视。
垄断与价格歧视的关系
微观经济学在金融领域的应用
范里安中级微观经济学课件_原版
pe 100
QD,QS
Market Equilibrium
p Higher supply
pe 100
QD,QS
Market Equilibrium
p Higher supply causes a lower market price and a larger quantity traded.
pe 100
Is any of the tax “passed” to renters?
Taxation Policy Analysis
Market supply is unaffected. Market demand is unaffected. So the competitive market
apartments? A: Those least willing to pay. So the competitive market allocation
is by “willingness-to-pay”.
Comparative Statics
What is exogenous in the model? – price of distant apartments – quantity of close apartments – incomes of potential renters.
desirable in any sense?
How can we construct an insightful model to answer these questions?
Economic Modeling Assumptions
Two basic postulates: – Rational Choice: Each person tries to choose the best alternative available to him or her. – Equilibrium: Market price adjusts until quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.
中级微观经济学(范里安)第二十二章 厂商供给(22章)
问题： y1和y2哪个是最优产量？ 在y1 处，额外一单位产量要花费的额外成 本将减少，市场价格不变，因此利润将增 加。这说明y1不是使竞争性厂商利润最大化 的产量水平。 竞争性供给曲线应取边际成本曲线向上倾 斜的部分。
厂商短期供给决策数学表达
利润最大化的一阶是：
d s ( y ) p MCs ( y ) 0. dy
不是
将利润最大化选择与零产量选择比较 厂商的利润函数是
s ( y ) py cs ( y ) py F c v ( y ).
当厂商产量y = 0 ，利润是
s ( y ) 0 F c v ( 0 ) F.
厂商的利润要大于零产量时的利润，否则就 不要生产了。
AVC P CS PS
y*
B、MC曲线上面的面积
MC AC
AVC P
PS
y*
B、MC曲线上面的面积
PS Py MC( y)dy
0
y
C、供给曲线左边的面 积
MC
AC
AVC
P
PS
C、供给曲线左边的面积
MC AC
AVC P
PS
y*
生产者剩余的变动
P’
P＊
y＊
y’
利润＝py-CV(y)-F PS＝py-CV(y) 短期内，生产者剩余的变动量正好等于利润的变 动量。
P
AR＝MR＝P
竞争性厂商追求利润最大化：
max py C ( y )
y
最优化条件： MR(y)＝MC(y)
P＝MC(y)
不论市场价格p是多少，厂商选择的产量都要满足 上述条件。所以，竞争性厂商的供给曲线是它的
范里安中级微观经济学第八版习题
1 BUDGET CONSTRAINT1.A poor person who has an income of $1000 receives $100 worth offood stamps. Draw the budget constraint if the food stamp recipient can sell these coupons on the black market for less than their face value.2.Since 1979, recipients have been given food stamps. Before 1979,however, people bought food stamps at a subsidized rate. For example, to get $1 worth of food stamps, a household paid about 15￠(the exact amount varied by household characteristics and other factors). What is the budget constraint facing an individual if that individual may buy up to $100 per month in food stamps at 15￠per each $1 coupon. 3.During his first year at school, Ximing buys eight new collegetextbooks at a cost of $50 each. Used books cost $30 each. When the bookstore announces a 20% increase in new texts and a 10% increase in used texts next year, Ximing’s father offers him $80 extra. Is Ximing better off, the same, or worse off after the price change? Why?2 PREFERENCES1. Julia consumes cans of anchovies, A, and boxes of biscuits, B. Each ofher indifference curves reflects strictly diminishing marginal rates of substitution. Where A = 2 and B = 2, her marginal rate of substitution between cans of anchovies and boxes of biscuits equals -1. Will sheprefer a bundle with three cans of anchovies and a box of biscuits to a bundle with two of each? Why?2. What assumption or assumptions rule out the following phenomenon:Geoffrey has a bundle consisting of 6 apples and 8 raspberries. He states that if he is given 1 more apple, he will ask for 3 more raspberries to keep him indifferent between his old bundle and the new bundle that he will have after he receives the 1 additional apple.3. Draw indifference curves for the following people:a) John says: “I get no satisfaction from 1 ounce of vermouth or 3 ouncesof gin, but 1 ounce of vermouth and 3 ounces of gin (a martini) really turn me on.”b) Steve says: “I will not cut my hair to please my boss unless she paysme. My price is $300 plus $1 for every 1/8 inch of hair that is cut. In other words, for every $1 above $300 that the boss pays me, I will cut 1/8 inch off my hair.”c) In Part b of this problem, what is the marginal rate of substitutionbetween dollars and hair in the region below and above $300?d) Ann says: “I enjoy beer and pretzels, but after 12 beers, any additionalbeer makes me sick.”4. Jeffrey is five years old. He likes candy and hates spinach. He isallowed 2 candy bars a day, but his mother offers him 1 additional candy bar for every 2 ounce of spinach he eats.a) On these terms, Jeffrey eats 3 ounces of spinach and 3.5 candy barseach day. Using indifference curves, illustrate his optional choice.b) Suppose that Jeffrey’s mother does not give him 2 “free” candy barseach day but still gives him 1 candy bar for every 2 ounce of spinach he eats. Would his spinach consumption be greater or smaller than in Part a? Explain your answer.4 CHOICE1. Tara has a utility function U(B, Z) = ABαZβ, Where A, α, andβareconstraints, B is burritos, and Z is pizzas. If the price of burritos, p B is $2 and the price of pizzas, p Z is $1, what is Tara’s optimal bundle?2. Assume that there are two goods in the world: apples and raspberries.Say that Geoffrey has a utility function for these goods of the following type, where r denotes the quantity of raspberries and a the quantity if apples: U = r·a.a)Draw an indifference curve that is defined by this utility function andhas a utility level of 2500.b)What is the marginal rate of substitution between the raspberries andthe apples when Geoffrey consumes 50 raspberries and 50 apples?What is the marginal rate of substitution between these two goods when Geoffrey consumes 100 raspberries and 50 apples?c)If the price of raspberries is $1 per unit and the price of apples is $1per unit and Geoffrey has $100 to spend, what bundle of raspberries and apples will he buy? Is the marginal rate of substitution equal to the ratio of the prices of these goods in the optimal bundle? If not, why not?d)If the unit prices of the raspberries and the apples are $4 and $3,respectively, what bundle of raspberries and apples will Geoffrey buy with his income of $100?3. Steve’s utility function is U = BC, where B = veggie burgers per weekand C= packs of cigarettes per week. What is his marginal rate of substitution if veggie burgers are on the vertical axis and cigarettes are on the horizontal axis? Steve’s income is $120, the price of a veggie burger is $2, and that of a pack of cigarettes is $1. How many burgers and how many packs of cigarettes does Steve consume to maximize his utility? When a new tax raises the price of a burger to $3, what is his new optimal bundle? Illustrate your answers in a graph.5 DEMAND1.Roger’s utility function is U = B1/4Z3/4, his income is Y, the price of Bis p B, and the price of Z is p Z. Derive his demand curves.2.Derive Roger’s Engel curve for B for the utility given in problem 2.7 CONSUMER’S SUPPLUS1.If the inverse demand function is p = a–bQ, what is the consumersurplus if price is a/2?2.If the supply function is Q = Apη, what is the producer surplus if priceis p*?9 EQUILIBRIUM1.In 1998, a virus killed more than half the oysters used to producepearls in the world’s busiest undersea factory. Use a diagram to indicate why the price of pearls rose 18%. How did the equilibrium quantity change?2.Increasingly, instead of advertising in newspapers, individuals andfirms use Web sites that offer free classified ads, such as , , , and portals like Yahoo and America Online.Using a supply-and-demand model, explain what will happen to the equilibrium levels of newspaper advertising as the use of the Internet grows. Will the growth of the Internet affect the supply curve, the demand curve or both? Why?3.The U.S. supply of frozen orange juice comes from Florida and Brazil.What is the effect of a freeze that damages oranges in Florida on the price of frozen orange juice in the U.S. and on the quantities of orange juice sold by Floridian and Brazilian firms?4.The supply of corn by the U.S. is Q a= a + bp, and the supply by therest of the world is Q r = c + ep. What is the world supply?5. A rent control law limits the price of an apartment. What is the likelyeffect of such a law in the short run? What is the likely effect of the law in the long run? Be sure to discuss the quantity and quality of apartments available for rent.6.The government wants to drive the price of soybeans above theequilibrium price, p1 to p2. It offers growers a payment of x to reduce their output from Q1(the equilibrium level) to Q2, which is the quantity demanded by consumers at p2. How large must x be for growers to reduce output to this level? What are the effects of this program on consumers, farmers, and total welfare? Compare this approach to (a) offering a price support of p2, (b) offering a price support and a quota set at Q1, and (c) offering a price support and a quota set at Q2.10 TECHNOLOGY1.Michelle’s business produces ceramic cups using labor, clay, and akiln. She can manufacture 25 cups a day with one worker and 35 with two workers. Does her production process illustrate diminishing returns to scale or diminishing marginal returns to scale? What is the likely explanation for why output doesn’t increase proportionatelywith the number of workers?2. Suppose that the production function is q = L 3/4K 1/4.a. What is the average product of labor ，holding capital fixed at K ?b. What is the marginal product of labor?c. Does this production function have increasing, constant, or decreasing returns to scale?3. A good recipe for a French dish called ceviche requires 16 ounces of fillet of red snapper, 3 ounces of lime juice, 1 ounce of coriander, and 8 ounces of Bermuda onion. This combination of inputs is expressed in the following production function:1243min ,,,1638z z z y z ⎧⎫=⎨⎬⎩⎭ In this production function, z 1 is fillet of red snapper, z 2 is lime juice, z 3 is coriander, and z 4 is Bermuda onion. The unit of measure for each input is the ounce, and the unit of measure for ceviche (the output) is the quantity produced by the recipe. If a restaurant has on hand 32 ounces of snapper, 9 ounces of lime juice, 5 ounces of coriander, and 48 ounces of onion, how many “units ” of ceviche can it produce?4. Construct a total product curve for a function that exhibits diminishing marginal product throughout. Then construct another total product curve for a function that exhibits initially constant and subsequently diminishing marginal product. Below the graphs of these two total products curve, derive the corresponding average and marginalfunctions. Check to see that the curves you have drawn are consistent with what you know about the relationship between the average and marginal product curves.11 PROFIT MAXIMIZATION1.You have 60 minutes to take an exam with two questions. You want tomaximize your score. Toward the end of the exam, the more time you spend on either question, the fewer extra points per minutes you get for that question. How should you allocate time between the two questions?(Hint: Think about producing an output of a score on the exam using inputs of time spent on each of the problem)2. A competitive firm’s production function is y = L + 2LK + K. What isits marginal revenue product of labor?3.A firm’s production function is y = ALαKβ. What is the firm’s marginalrevenue product of labor?1L2, 4.A competitive firm has the production of function Q= 20L–4 where Q is the number of units of output produced and L is the number of units of labor (the only input) used. The output price is $2, the wage rate is $1, and the firm faces a fixed cost of $100.a)What is the profit-maximizing quantity of labor demanded by thefirm?b)What is the firm’s profit in the short run?c)If, in the long run, the output price changes so that profits are zero,what is the quantity of labor demanded in the long run?5.A competitive firm has the production function. Q = LαKβ, where Q isthe number of units of output produced, L is the number of units of labor used, and K is the number of units of capital used. The output price p, the wage rate w, and the cost of capital r are given. Assume that α > 0, β > 0, and 0 < ( α + β ) < 1.a)What is the firm’s profit-maximizing quantity of labor if the quantityof capital is fixed at K?b)What is the firm’s profit-maximizing level of capital if both capitaland labor are variable? (Hint: Use the profit-maximizing capital-labor ratio K/L to substitute for the level of labor.)12 COST MINIMIZATION1.Assume that a firm produces 90 units of output using 9 units of inputX and 9 units of input Y. The f irm’s technological possibilities can be represented by the production function Q = 10X1/2Y1/2.a)If the price of X is $8 and the price of Y is $16, is the inputcombination of 9 units of X and 9 units of Y the most efficient way to produce 90 units of output?b)What must the ratio of input prices be for this input combination to beefficient?c)Assume that the price of X is $1 and the price of Y is $2. Derive theleast-cost way to produce 400 units of output.2.A medical center produces health services using two inputs: hospitalbeds and labor. There is a government regulation restricting the number of beds to B. Assume that the medical center is currently usingB beds and L units of labor to produce Q1 units of health services. Alsoassume that the medical center plans to expand its output to Q2 units of health services. Prepare a diagram to show how this government regulation restricting the number of hospital beds would affect the efficiency of delivering health services.3.A trucking firm’s output is measured by the number m of truck-milesmoved per day. The firm’s operating costs are as follows:i.wages of trucks, $w per hourii.cost of gasoline, $p per galloniii.fuel consumption, g= A+ Bs, where g is gallons of gasoline per truck-mile, s is the speed at which a truck is driven, and A and B are constantsa)Derive the total variable cost function of the firm if it has an unlimitednumber of trucks.b)What does the cost function look like if the firm has only one truckand that truck can be driven for a maximum of ten hours per day?4.A college student is considering whether to operate a lawn-mowingbusiness for the summer or work in a business owned by her family.Her time is worth $w1 per hour and she can work as many hours as she chooses in the family business at this rate. If she starts her own business, she will have to buy gasoline for her lawn mower at a price of $w2 per gallon. She can rent a small mower for $w3 per hour. The mower cuts a 12-inch swath of lawn and uses 1/3 gallon of gasoline per hour. With this mower, she can cut 10,000 square feet of lawn in an hour. (Use 10,000 square feet as the units of measurement for output.) Our college student can rent a large mower for $w4 per hour.This mower uses 1 gallon of gasoline per hour and cuts 3 units of lawn per hour.a)Verify that the production function for the two mowers are as follows:y = min{z1, 3z2, z3}y = 3min{z1, z2, z4}Assume that z1 is hours of labor, z2 is gallons of gasoline, and z3 and z4are the hours of the small mower and the large mower, respectively.b)Derive the cost functions.c)Show that using the small mower is a cheaper way to cut grass if 2w1 <w4 – 3w3. Why is this result independent of the price of gasoline?d)How high a price must our college student receive for cutting a unit oflawn in order to induce her to set up her own lawn-mowing firm ratherthan work in the family business?e)Assume that a firm uses two types of input in the production of acertain commodity. What is the maximum output if the marginal product of input is MP1 = 100X2 –X1 and the marginal product of input2 is MP2 = 100X1 –X2, the total amount that can be spent on inputs is$1,000, the price of input 1 is $2, and the price of 2 is $5?13 COST CURVES1.The only variable input a janitorial service firm uses to clean offices isworkers who are paid a wage, w, of $8 an hour. Each worker can clean four offices in an hour. Use math to determine the variable cost, the average variable cost, and the marginal cost of cleaning one more office. Draw a diagram to show the average cost, and marginal cost curves.2.Gail works in a flower shop, where she produces 10 floralarrangements per hour. She is paid $10 an hour for the first eight hours she works and $15 an hour for each additional hour she works. What is the firm’s cost function? What are its AC, AVC, and MC functions?Draw the AC, AVC, and MC curves.3.A firm has two plants that produce identical output. The cost functionsare C1 = 10y– 4y2 + y3and C2 = 10y– 2y2 + y3.b.At what output levels does the average cost curve of each plant reachits minimum?c. If the firm wants to produce 4 units of output, how much should it produce in each plant?4. A firm that makes widgets must build a plan that will cost $10,000. The plant will be able to produce up to 10,000 units, at which point its capacity will be reached and a new plant will be needed. The total cost function for each plant (including the fixed cost of building the plant) is C (y ) = 10,000 – x 1/2/100.a) Determine the cost function for this firm.b) Is this cost function subadditive over the range of outputs from 1 unit to 10,000 units? Is it subadditive for all levels of output?14 FIRM SUPPLY1. If a competitive firm ’s cost function is C (y ) = 100 + 10y – y 2 + 31y 3, what is the firm ’s marginal cost function? What is the firm ’s profit- maximizing condition?2. If a competitive firm ’s cost function is C (y ) = a + by + cy 2 + dy 3, where a , b , c , and d are constants, what is the firm ’s marginal cost function? What is the firm ’s profit-maximizing condition?3. Consider a firm with a total cost curve of TC = 1,000 + q 3/3 – 2q 2 + 6q . a) What is the lowest price at which this firm will want to supply a positive amount to the market in the short run?b) At the “lowest price”, how much will be supplied?c) How much will be supplied in the short run if the price is $10?4. What is the effect on firm and market equilibrium of a law requiring afirm to give its workers six months’ notice before it can shut down its plant?15 INDUSTRY SUPPLY1. Each firm in a competitive market has a cost function of C = 16 + y2.The market demand function is Q = 24–y. Determine the equilibrium price, quantity per firm, market quantity, and number of firms.2. Assume that the taxi industry in the town of New City is perfectlycompetitive. Also assume that the constant marginal cost of a taxi ride is $5 per trip and that each taxi is capable of making 20 trips a day. We will let the demand function for taxi rides each day be D(p) = 1,100 –20p.a)What is the perfectly competitive price of a taxi ride?b)How many rides will the citizens of New City make every day?c)How many taxis will operate in New City?Assume that every taxi that operates in New City has a special license. Therefore, the number of such licenses is the same as the number of taxis that you calculated in Part c of this problem. Further assume that the demand for taxi rides has increased and is now D(p) =1,200 - 20p. The cost of operating a taxi is still $5 per ride, and the number of taxis has not changed.d)Calculate the price that will equate demand with supply.e)Calculate the profit that each taxi will earn on a ride.f)Calculate the daily profit of each taxi. (Hint: Continue to assume thateach taxi can make only 20 rides a day)3. A competitive market has an unlimited number of potential suppliersproducing the same output, and each supplier has a long-run average cost function of AC= q2 –4q+ 6 and a long-run marginal cost function of MC = 3q2 – 8q + 6.a) Find the equilibrium quantity q produced by each firm in the long run.b) Find the long-run equilibrium price.4. Assume that a very large number of firms in an industry all have accessto the same production technology. The total cost function associated with this technology is TC(Q) = 40Q–24Q2 + 4Q3. If the demand function for the industry’s product is Q = 19 –P, how many firms will produce positive amounts of output at a competitive (that is, zero profit) equilibrium?5. Assume that a certain small town contains a large number ofwidget-producing firms. All the firms buy oil from the same refinery.Firm 1 is situated very close to the refinery, and the other firms are located 50 miles away. Firm 1 pays $18 per barrel for the oil, while theother firms pay $18 per barrel plus a transportation charge of $.05 cents a mile, or a total of $20.50 per barrel.To produce four widgets, a firm needs 1/10 barrel of oil, 1/2 hour of labor, and the use of one machine. The cost of labor is $10 per hour, and the necessary machine can be rented for $5 per hour. No firm has the capacity to produce more than 100 units of widgets.a)Derive the supply curve for firm1. Derive the supply curve for all theother firms.b)What is the equilibrium price?c)Does any firm earn economic rent (that is, extra economic profit) inthe industry?d)Does firm 1 affect the price of widgets in the industry? If not, whynot?e)Suppose that there is no capacity limit. What will the equilibrium pricebe?f)Will firm 1 affect the price when there is unlimited capacity?16 MONOPOLY1.Show that after a shift in the demand curve, a monopoly’s price mayremain constant but its output may rise.2.When is a monopoly unlikely to be profitable?(Hint: Discuss therelationship between market demand and average cost)3.The inverse demand curve a monopoly faces is p = 100 - Q. The firm’scost curve is C(Q) = 10 + 5Q. What is the profit-maximizing solution?4.How does your answer to Problem 3 change if C(Q) = 100 + 5Q?5.A monopoly’s production function is: y = L1/2K1/2, where L is labor andK is capital. The demand function is p = 100–y. The wage, w, is $1 per hour, and the rental cost of capital, r, is $4.a.Derive the long-run total cost curve equation as a function of y.b.What quantity maximizes this firm’s profit?c.Find the optimal input combination that produces the profit-maximizing quantity. Illustrate with a graph.6. Suppose that a monopolist faces a demand curve of P = 100 - 2Q. Herfirm has costs of C(Q) = 5Q2.a) What is the revenue function for this monopolist?b) What is the marginal revenue function?c) What is the marginal cost function?d) What is the profit-maximizing output for this monopolist?e) What is the maximum profit this firm can make?f) If this monopolist has to pay a permission free of $150 to the stategovernment in order to start the business, will her optimal level of output change? If not, why not?17 FACTOR MARKETS1.A monopsony faces a supply curve: w = 10 + x. What is its marginalexpenditure curve?18 OLIGOPOLY1.What is the duopoly Cournot equilibrium if the market demandfunction is Q = 1000–1000p, and each firm’s marginal cost is $0.28 per unit?2. Consider a duopolistic market with two firms, A and B, facing ademand curve of p = 1 –q A–q B. Assume that initially each firm has access to the same technology with constant returns to scale and that the cost of production is C A = q A/2 for firm A and C B= q B/2 for firm B.a) What is the profit function for each firm?b) Graph the reaction functions for firms.c) What is the equilibrium outputs?d) Assume that the initial output levels of the two firms are given by pointX(3/10, 4/10) and Y(1/10, 2/10). Show in a graph the process of change in the output levels of the two firms and the point at which their output levels converge.3. A duopoly faces a market demand of p= 120–Q. Firm 1 has aconstant marginal cost of MC1 = 20. Firm 2’s constant marginal cost is MC2 = 40. Calculate the output of each firm, market output, and price if there is (a) a collusive equilibrium or (b) a Cournot equilibrium.4. Assume that there are two firms in a market, firm 1 and firm 2. Thetotal demand for the identical product they make is p = 200 – 2(q1 + q2), where q1 is the output of firm 1 and q2 is the output of firm 2. The production costs of firm 1 and firm 2 are C1 = q12and C2 = q22, respectively.a) Assume that firm 2 decides to produce either 20, 40, 60, or 100 units ofoutput. Show the demand curve and the marginal revenue curve facing firm 1 in each of these situations, assuming that the output levels will remain unchanged once they are chosen.b) Define the output that represents the best (the profit-maximizing)response of firm 1 to each of the output levels chosen by firm 2.19 EXCHANGE1.Initially, Michael has 10 candy bars and 5 cookies, and Tony has 5candy bars and 10 cookies. After trading, Michael has 12 candy bars and 3 cookies. In an Edgeworth box, label the initial Allocation A and the new Allocation B. Draw some indifference curves that are consistent with this trade being optimal for both Michael and Tony. 2.In a pure exchange economy with two goods, G and H, the two tradershave Cobb-Douglas utility functions. Amos’s utility is U a =(G a)α(H a)1-α, and Elise’s is U e = (G e)β(H e) 1-β, what are their marginalrates of substitution?3. Continuing with problem 3: between them, Amos and Elise own 100 units of G and 50 units of H . Thus if Amos has G a and H a , Elise has G e =100 – G a and H e = 50 – H a . Solve for their contract curve.4. Arnold and Brigitte are marooned on a deserted island. Arnold has exactly one unit of Xylose and Brigitte has exactly one unit of Yam. Their preferences between these two items are represented by the following two equations:1/32/31/21/2A A AB B B U X Y U X Y =⋅=⋅In these equations, X A and Y A are the consumption of Xylose and Yam by Arnold. Similarly, X B and Y B are the consumption of Xylose and Yam by Brigitte.a) Is the following allocation Pareto-optimal? Explain why or why not.1211,,,2323A AB B X Y andX Y ==== b) If Arnold and Brigitte were to trade between themselves, would they be able to attain this allocation as a competitive equilibrium? What would be the equilibrium price ratio of Xylose to Yam? Would Arnold and Brigitte be able to afford this allocation at the equilibrium prices, given their endowments? If not, what kind of income transfer would be necessary?5. Two people trade two goods that they cannot produce. Suppose that one consumer ’s indifference curves are bowed away from the origin – the usual type of curves – but the other ’s are concave to the origin.In an Edgeworth box, show that a point of tangency between the two consumers’indifference curves is not a Pareto-efficient bundle.(Identify another allocation that Pareto dominates.)6.The demands for two goods depend on the prices of Good 1 and Good2, p1 and p2, Q1 = 15 – 3p1 + p2, Q2 = 6 – 2p2 + p1, but each supply curve depends on only its own price: Q1 = 2 + p1, Q2 = 1 + p2. Solve for the equilibrium: p 1, p2, Q1, and Q2.20 PRODUCTION1. Assume that you have exactly 100 hours of labor to allocate betweenproducing good X and good Y. Your output of goods X and Y depends solely on the hours of labor you spend in the following way:X=and Y=a)If you can sell your output of goods X and Y at the fixed prices P X = 10and P Y= 5, how much of goods X and Y would you produce to maximize your profits?b)Now assume further that you have the following utility function:U=If you can trade a bundle of goods X and Y that you produce in the market at fixed prices of P X = 10 and P Y = 5, what bundle would you produce and what bundle would you consume to maximize your utility?Are you a net demander and a net supplier of the two goods? Draw adiagram to depict what is happening.2. Suppose that the production possibilities frontier for cheeseburgers (C)and milk-shakers (M) is given by C + 2M = 600.a) Graph this function.b) Assuming that people prefer to eat two cheeseburgers with everymilk-shaker, how much of each product will be produced? Indicate this point in your graph.c) Assuming that this fast-food economy is operating efficiently, whatprice ratio (P C/P M) will prevail?21 WELFARE1. Suppose that society used the “opposite”of a Rawlsian welfarefunction: it tried to maximize the well-being of the best-off member of society. Write this welfare function. What allocation maximizes welfare in this society?2. Assume that Bob has a utility function of U = 8X1 + 1X2 – 3X3 and Joanhas a utility function of U = –2X1 + 7X2 + 5X3. Consider the following allocation:a)Is this allocation envy free?b)Is this allocation Pareto-optimal?c)Find a Pareto-optimal allocation, and determine whether it is envyfree.d)Do you think that the allocation in Part c of this problem is desirable?Why or why not?22 EXTERNALITIES1.Suppose that the only way to reduce pollution from paper productionis to reduce output. The government imposes a tax equal to the marginal harm from the pollution on the monopoly producer. Show that the tax may raise welfare.2.Suppose that the inverse demand curve for paper is p = 200–y, theprivate marginal cost (unregulated competitive market supply) is MC p = 80 + Q, and the marginal harm from gunk is MC g = y.a.What is the unregulated competitive equilibrium?b.What is the social optimum? What specific tax (per unit of output orgunk) results in the social optimum?c.What is the unregulated monopoly equilibrium?d.How would you optimally regulate the monopoly? What is theresulting equilibrium?3. A soot-spewing factory that produces steel windows is next to a。
范里安中级微观经济学第六版中文课件20 21
x*1、 x*2是w1,w2, y ’的 函数，记为x*1(w1,w2, y ’), x*2(w1,w2, y ’)称 为有条件的要素需求函数 或派生的要素需求。
f(x1,x2) y’
x 1*
x1
例题1
1 2 生产函数为 y x1 / 3 x2 / 3 投入的价格分别为w1,w2，产量为y。 求各投入的有条件的要素需求函数。
20.1 成本最小化
由目标函数 w1 x1 w2 x2 c
w1 c x2 x1 w2 w2
当我们变换c的数值时可以得到一簇等成本线，一条等成本线 上的每一点都表示同样的成本c，较高的等成本线表示较高的 成本。
x2
Slopes = -w1/w2.
c” w1x1+w2x2
c’ w1x1+w2x2
y
1 ab
1 bw1 a a b a b x2 ( w1 , w2 , y ) ( ) y aw2
w1 a a b w2 a b b a 1 b C ( w1 , w2 , y ) (a b) ( ) ( ) y a b
20.2
显示成本最小化
假定我们考虑两组要素价格(w1t,w2t)和(w1s,w2s)，与 此相关的厂商的选择为(x1t,x2t)和(x1s,x2s) 。假定这组 选择中的每一种都生产同样的产量y。 一个寻求成本最小化的厂商（在产出不能变化时）， 其实际生产选择一定满足：
s 2
1x1 2 x2 0
这说明要素需求曲线有负的(或至少是零的)斜率。 如果x1是变化的，要素价格与对要素的需求一定反 方向变化。
20.3 规模报酬和成本函数
平均成本是生产y单位产量的单位成本。 平均成本函数为：
《中级微观经济学》参考书目
《中级微观经济学》参考书目
一、教材参考书目
1、平新乔，《微观经济学十八讲》，北京大学出版社
2、范里安，《微观经济学：现代观点》，上海三联出版社
二、其他参考书目
1、詹姆斯·M·亨德森，里查德·E·匡特，《中级微观经济理论——数学方法》，北京大学出版社，1989年版
2、萨缪尔森，《经济分析基础》，东北财经大学出版社，2006年版，
3、范里安，《微观经济学》（高级教程），经济科学出版社，2004年版
4、瓦尔特.尼柯尔森《微观经济理论——基本原理与扩展》，北京大学出版社，2008年版
5、安德鲁.马斯—科莱尔等，《微观经济学》（上、下册），中国社会科学出版社，2001年版
6、蒋中一，《数理经济学的基本方法》，商务印书馆，2003年版
7、罗斯·M·斯塔尔，《一般均衡理论》，上海财经大学出版社，2003年版
8、高鸿业，《20世纪西方经济学的发展》，商务印书馆，2004年版
9、瓦尔特·尼克尔森《微观经济理论——基本原理与扩展》，中国经济出版社，1999年版
10、罗伯特·吉本斯《博弈论基础》，中国社会科学出版社，1999年版
11、张维迎《博弈论与信息经济学》，上海人民出版社，2005年版。
中级微观经济学 范里安版本
感谢观看
汇报人：
替代效应和收入效应：范里安解释了替代效应和收入效应的概念，并提供了如何应用这些概念 来理解消费者行为的实例。
消费者剩余：范里安解释了消费者剩余的概念，并提供了如何计算消费者剩余的实例。
生产者行为的应用
生产者行为的基本理论：介绍生产者行为的基本理论，包括生产函数、成本函数等。
生产者行为在市场中的应用：分析生产者在市场竞争中的行为，包括价格策略、产量决策等。
03
范里安中级微观经 济学的理论基础
消费者行为理论
效用最大化：消费者追求效用最 大化，即在预算约束下选择能够 带来最大效用的商品组合
收入效应和替代效应：收入效应 和替代效应是消费者行为理论中 的两个重要概念，它们分别描述 了价格变动对消费者需求的影响
添加标题
添加标题
添加标题
添加标题
边际替代率递减：消费者在保持 效用不变的情况下，随着一种商 品消费量的增加，其边际替代率 递减
一般均衡与福利经济学：范里安对一般 均衡和福利经济学的探讨，包括帕累托 最优、社会福利函数等概念，以及交换 和生产的效率条件等分析工具。
添加 标题
添加 标题
生产者行为理论：范里安对生产者行为 的研究，包括生产函数、成本函数、利 润最大化等概念，以及生产者均衡和等 产量线等分析工具。
分配理论：范里安对分配的研究，包括 生产要素的需求和供给、要素价格决定 等概念，以及洛伦兹曲线和基尼系数等 分析工具。
06
结论与建议
研究结论
范里安中级微 观经济学的理 论框架和主要
观点
范里安中级微 观经济学与初 级微观经济学 的联系与区别
范里安中级微 观经济学在现 实经济中的应
用与局限性
对范里安中级 微观经济学的
范里安中级微观经济学课件第6章
边际替代效应是指消费者在保持效用 水平不变的条件下，增加一种商品的 消费会减少另一种商品的消费。
价格变化和收入变化的效应
1
价格效应
价格效应是指商品价格的变化对消费者 选择的影响。当某种商品价格下降时， 消费者会增加对该商品的消费；反之， 则会减少消费。
2
收入效应
Байду номын сангаас
收入效应是指收入变化对消费者选择的 影响。当收入增加时，消费者会增加对 正常品的消费；当收入减少时，则会减 少正常品的消费。
3
替代效应
替代效应是指由于价格变化导致相对价 格发生变化，从而影响消费者对不同商 品的消费选择。当某种商品价格上涨时 ，消费者会减少对该商品的消费，转而 增加相对便宜的商品的消费。
02
生产者理论
生产函数
生产函数定义
生产函数表示在一定技术条件下，生产要素的投入量与最大产出 量之间的关系。
生产函数的特性
垄断竞争市场
产品差异性
厂商生产的产品具有差异性，每 个厂商的产品都有其独特的特征 或品牌。
厂商数量众多
市场中存在大量的厂商，但每个 厂商的规模都不大，没有一家厂 商能够控制整个市场。
垄断竞争市场
• 价格控制力有限：厂商对价格有一定的控制力，但并不是完全 垄断，因为其他厂商的产品存在差异性，消费者可以根据需求 选择不同的产品。
4 详细描述
完全竞争市场是一种理想化的市场结构，其中每个生产 者都是市场价格的接受者，且产品同质。
垄断市场
1 总结词
垄断市场是指只有一个生产者提供产品的市场结构，垄 断者可以根据市场需求调整价格和产量。
2 详细描述
垄断市场是指只有一个生产者提供产品的市场结构，垄 断者可以根据市场需求调整价格和产量。
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本章内容
一、生产技术的数学刻画 二、单调性 三、凸技术 四、技术替代率与替代弹性 五、规模报酬 六、齐次与位似生产函数 七、CES生产函数
一、生产技术的数学刻画
1、几个相关概念 投入和产出的度量，注意投入和产出都是流 量的概念。 与生产技术相关的几个概念 1）净产出：y y y 生产计划：各种物品的净产出写成一个向量 生产可能性集：所有技术上可行的生产计划 的集合 受限制的或短期生产可能性集：由 来表 示；这由所有与约束水平 相一致的可行的净产 出束组成
• 违反规模报酬不变的情形： 1．向下调整，即细分生产技术不总是可行的 2．非整数数量向上调整也不可行 3．产出加倍后，会有更有效的生产方式—— 对应规模报酬递增的概念。 f (tx) tf(x) ，一 规模报酬递增。如果对所有t>1， 项技术就表现出规模报酬递增。 4．存在不能复制的投入品，此时对应规模报 酬递减的情形
• 正则技术： 对所有y≥0而言，V（y）是一 个非空的闭集 V（y）是非空的假定要求，总存在某种可 想到的方法来生产出任意给定水平的产出。
• 技术替代率（TRS） 思想：假定正在某一个点上进行生产， 如果要增加一种要素而减少另一种要素的 用量，并且保持产出不变。如何决定两种 要素间的替代率？
• 隐函数法推导
V (1) 1, 2 , 2,1
若要生产两单位产出，应使用多少投 入要素？
• 生产方法： 重复两次技术Ａ，或重复两次技术Ｂ， 或使用ＡＢ各生产一次。 则投入要求集为 V (2) 2, 4 , 3,3 , 4, 2
如果更大的产出ｙ，要素组合的选择性更多
T ( y, x1 , x2 ) y min(ax1 , bx2 ) f ( x1 , x2 ) min(ax1 , bx2 )
• 生产技术的组合 技术A：一个单位的要素1和两个单位 的要素2，可以生产一个单位的产出。 技术B：两个单位的要素1和一个单位 的要素2，可以生产一个单位的产出。 写成投入集的形式
如果允许自由处置，则称生产技术具有单 调性： 单调性：如果x 在 V（y）中，并且 x' x 则 x ' 也在 V（y）中。 思考自由处置的现实背景：处置或储藏 不需要成本，至少不能影响到原有技术的 施行。
• 凸技术 思想：我们想要生产“大”量的产出， 并且可以复制“小”的生产过程
定义：凸性 如果x 和 x ' 都在V（y）中，那么，对 ' tx (1 t) x 所有0≤t≤1的t 而言， 在V（y） 中。那就是，V（y）是一个凸集。
x2 1 a ln ln ln | TRS | x1 a
d ln x2 / x1 1 d ln | TRS |
• 规模报酬 前面“复制”生产过程的例子实际上是“按 比例增加”投入，那么规模报酬不变意味着： 下列任何一个条件被满足，即称为规模报酬 不变 1．对所有非负t；y在Y 中意味着ty 在Y 中 2．x在V（y）中意味着tx在V（y）中，对所 有t≥0 ？ 3． f (tx) tf(x) ，对于所有t≥0。即生产函 数f(x)是一次齐次的。 那么，何时规模报酬不变会被违反？
T ( y, x1 , x2 ) y x x
a f ( x1 , x2 ) x1a x1 2
a 1 a 1 2
例子：里昂惕夫技术的特点
Y {( y, x1 , x2 )在R 3中 : y min(ax1 , bx2 )}
2 V ( y ) {( x1 , x2 )在R 中 : y min(ax1 , bx2 )} 2 Q( y ) {( x1 , x2 )在R 中 : y min(ax1 , bx2 )}
j o j i j
• 内固定 k=k 则短期可能性集写为
Y (k) (y, l, k)在Y中：k=k
产出只有一种时，定义生产函数
f（x） = y在R中：y是在Y中与-x相关联的最大产出
• 例子：净产出束为（y，-x），其中x是可 以生产y 单位产出的一个投入向量。 相关概念： 投入要求集：至少可以生产y 单位产出的 所有投入束的集合
V（y） = x在R n -x Y中 +中：（y，）在
等产量线：等产量线给出所有刚好生产y 单位产出的投入束。
， ， Q（y） = x在R n 中： x 在 V(y) 中并且 x 不在 V （ y ）中， y >y +
• 技术有效： Y 中的生产计划y 是（技术上）有效的：要 求没有用同样的投入生产出更多的产出或用更少 的投入生产出相同产出的方法，生产计划就是有 效的。 表述方式： 变换函数：描述技术上有效的生产计划的集 合 T : Rn R T (y) 0 当且仅当y 有效时，
f ( x1, x2 ( x1 )) y
f ( x*) f ( x*) x2 ( x1*) 0 x1 x2 x1 x2 ( x1*) f ( x*) / x1 x1 f ( x*) / x2
全微分法得出同样的结果
• 练习：柯布-道格拉斯技术的技术替代率 (TRS)使用隐函数法，求得
例子：柯布-道格拉斯技术的特点
a 1-a Y={(y,-x1,-x2 )在R3中:y≤x1 x2 } a 1-a V(y)={(x1,x2 )在R2 中 :y ≤ x + 1x2 } a 1-a Q(y)={(x1,x2 )在R2 中 :y=x + 1x2 } a 1-a Y(z)={(y,-x1,-x2 )在R3中:y≤x1 x2 ,x2 =z}
例子：探讨柯布-道格拉斯生产技术的规模报酬
• 齐次函数的概念： 如果对所有t>0，f (tx) t f(x)则称函数 是k 次齐次的。 • 规模报酬与生产函数的齐次性之间的对应 关系? • 齐次函数的图示如下
k
• 位似函数是一个一次齐次函数的单调变换。 即若函数f(x)是位似的，当且仅当它可以 写作 f (x) g(h(x)) ，其中h 是一次齐次函数， g 是单调函数。 • 位似函数的图示
1 1
0、 - 时，CES生产函数分别趋 • 性质2 当 1、 于线性生产函数、柯布道格拉斯生产函数、 以及里昂惕夫生产函数。
• 课后习题
• 取极限形式后，写成
TRS d x2 / x1 x2 / x1 dTRS
经济含义：可以通过厂商追求成本最小化的一阶 条件来重新审视替代弹性的含义。
• 使用对数微商，可以重新写为 d ln x2 / x1
d ln | TRS |
例：柯布道格拉斯生产函数的替代弹性
a x2 TRS 1 a x1 x2 1 a TRS x1 a
x2 ( x1 ) f / x1 a x2 x1 f / x2 1 a x1
技术替代率测量等产量线的斜率
• 替代弹性：测量等产量线的曲率。替代弹性度量 当产出保持不变时，要素比率的百分比变动除以 技术替代率的百分比变动。
x2 / x1 x2 / x1 TRS TRS
• 性质1 凸生产集意味着凸投入要求集。如果生产 集Y 是一个凸集，那么相联的投入要求集也是一 个凸集。 证明留作练习。 • 性质2 凸投入要求集等价于拟凹生产函数。 V（y）是凸集，当且仅当生产函数f（x）是一个 拟凹函数。 证明要点：拟凹函数等价定义：上等值集是凸集。 • V (y) x : f(x) y 是凸集正是构建这样一个上等值集。
• 性质：齐次函数和位似函数的替代率都独 立于规模。 CES生产函数：
y a1 x1 a2 x2
1
性质：替代弹性不变
x1 1 x2 TRS ( ) , | TRS | x2 x1 d ln x2 / x1 1 d ln | TRS | 1