中级微观经济学-范里安版本
范里安_中级微观经济学Ch16
均衡
市场均衡
当所有买者的总需求量等于所有卖者的
供给量时，我们称市场达到均衡状态。
市场均衡
p衡
p 市场供给 q=S(p)
S(p)
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p)
q=D(p) D(p), S(p)
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p)
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市场均衡
D-1(q), 市场需求 S-1(q)
市场供给 S-1(q) = (-c+q)/d
p ac bd
D-1(q) = (a-q)/b
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ad bc q bd
*
q
市场均衡
两种特殊情况:
供给量固定，与市场价格无关 或者供给量对市场价格相当敏感。
*
供给量固定，与市场价格无关
ac p b
*
q* c.
市场均衡
两种特殊情况
供给量固定，与市场价格无关 供给量对市场价格十分敏感。
市场均衡
p 供给量对市场价格十分敏感
q
市场均衡
p 供给量对市场价格十分敏感 S-1(q) = p*. p*
q
市场均衡
p 市场需求 供给量对市场价格十分敏感 S-1(q) = p*. p* D-1(q) = (a-q)/b q
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p) p’ p* q=D(p) D(p’) S(p’) D(p), S(p) D(p’) < S(p’); 供给量大于 需求量
市场价格会下降至p*
市场均衡
p 市场需求 市场供给 q=S(p) D(p”) > S(p”); 需求量大于 供给量 p* p” S(p”) D(p”) q=D(p) D(p), S(p)
中级微观经济学-范里安版本
中级微观经济学-范里安版本xx年xx月xx日contents •消费者理论•生产者理论•市场理论•福利经济学•微观经济政策•中级微观经济学的前沿进展目录01消费者理论消费者对不同商品或商品组合的喜好程度，用于排序各种商品或商品组合的效用水平。
偏好消费者从消费某种商品或商品组合中获得的满足程度，取决于消费者的偏好。
效用偏好与效用优化选择与需求优化选择在给定预算约束和各种商品价格的情况下，消费者会选择最大化自己效用的商品组合。
需求消费者在特定价格下愿意购买的商品数量，取决于消费者的偏好和价格。
消费者剩余消费者购买商品时愿意支付的价格与实际支付价格之间的差额，取决于消费者的偏好和价格。
需求弹性消费者对价格变动的反应程度，即需求量变动百分比与价格变动百分比的比率，分为需求收入弹性和需求价格弹性。
消费者剩余与需求弹性02生产者理论介绍生产函数和要素投入之间的关系，包括线性生产函数和非线性生产函数。
根据利润函数，推导厂商最优产量和最优要素投入量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的利润情况。
生产技术利润最大化生产技术与利润成本最小化根据成本函数，推导厂商最优要素投入量和产出量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的成本情况。
产出最大化根据收益函数，推导厂商最优产出量的选择，以及在完全竞争和垄断市场中的收益情况。
成本最小化与产出最大化完全竞争市场中的厂商行为完全竞争市场介绍完全竞争市场的特点和基本假设，包括同质产品、自由进入和退出等。
厂商行为根据市场需求和供给，推导厂商最优产量和价格的选择，以及在完全竞争市场中的市场份额和利润情况。
03市场理论完全竞争市场的价格与产总结词：价格接受者详细描述：在完全竞争市场中，每个厂商都是价格接受者，即他们只能被动接受市场决定的价格，因此，每个厂商的边际收益等于市场价格。
总结词：市场出清详细描述：由于每个厂商都是价格接受者，因此，他们将生产直至边际收益等于零，即市场将出清。
总结词：平均成本与利润详细描述：在完全竞争市场中，每个厂商的平均收益等于平均成本，因此，他们只能获得正常利润。
范里安中级微观经济学课件第3章ppt
反身性公理
对任意xC，有x x。
第3章 偏好
从使用情况来看，闭胸式的使用比较 广泛。 敞开式 盾构之 中有挤 压式盾 构、全 部敞开 式盾构 ，但在 近些年 的城市 地下工 程施工 中已很 少使用 ，在此 不再说 明。
• 关于偏好的“合意性假设”
－单调性假设：多比少好； －单调性假设意味着所研究商品都是“goods”而不
无差异曲线
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第3章 偏好
从使用情况来看，闭胸式的使用比较 广泛。 敞开式 盾构之 中有挤 压式盾 构、全 部敞开 式盾构 ，但在 近些年 的城市 地下工 程施工 中已很 少使用 ，在此 不再说 明。
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第3章 偏好
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第3章 偏好
从使用情况来看，闭胸式的使用比较 广泛。 敞开式 盾构之 中有挤 压式盾 构、全 部敞开 式盾构 ，但在 近些年 的城市 地下工 程施工 中已很 少使用 ，在此 不再说 明。
传递性公理
对 任 意 x ,y ,z C ， 若 x y ， yz， 则 xz。
第3章 偏好
从使用情况来看，闭胸式的使用比较 广泛。 敞开式 盾构之 中有挤 压式盾 构、全 部敞开 式盾构 ，但在 近些年 的城市 地下工 程施工 中已很 少使用 ，在此 不再说 明。
x1
第3章 偏好
从使用情况来看，闭胸式的使用比较 广泛。 敞开式 盾构之 中有挤 压式盾 构、全 部敞开 式盾构 ，但在 近些年 的城市 地下工 程施工 中已很 少使用 ，在此 不再说 明。
• 偏好的特例
1、完全替代品 2、完全互补品 3、厌恶品 4、中性商品 5、餍足 6、离散商品
范里安中级微观经济学习题集答案
Chapter1NAMEThe MarketIntroduction.The problems in this chapter examine some variations on the apartment market described in the text.In most of the problems we work with the true demand curve constructed from the reservation prices of the consumers rather than the“smoothed”demand curve that we used in the text.Remember that the reservation price of a consumer is that price where he is just indifferent between renting or not renting the apartment. At anyprice below the reservation price the consumer will demand one apartment,at anyprice above the reservation price the consumer will de-mand zero apartments,and exactlyat the reservation price the consumer will be indifferent between having zero or one apartment.You should also observe that when demand curves have the“stair-case”shape used here,there will typically be a range of prices where supplyequals demand.Thus we will ask for the the highest and lowest price in the range.1.1(3)Suppose that we have8people who want to rent an apartment. Their reservation prices are given below.(To keep the numbers small, think of these numbers as being dailyrent pay ments.)Person=A B C D E F G HPrice=402530351018155(a)Plot the market demand curve in the following graph.(Hint:When the market price is equal to some consumer i’s reservation price,there will be two different quantities of apartments demanded,since consumer i will be indifferent between having or not having an apartment.)2THE MARKET(Ch.1)012345678102030406050PriceApartments(b)Suppose the supplyof apartments isfixed at5units.In this case there is a whole range of prices that will be equilibrium prices.What is the highest price that would make the demand for apartments equal to5 units?$18.(c)What is the lowest price that would make the market demand equal to5units?$15.(d)With a supplyof4apartments,which of the people A–H end up getting apartments?A,B,C,D.(e)What if the supplyof apartments increases to6units.What is the range of equilibrium prices?$10to$15.1.2(3)Suppose that there are originally5units in the market and that 1of them is turned into a condominium.(a)Suppose that person A decides to buythe condominium.What will be the highest price at which the demand for apartments will equal the supplyof apartments?What will be the lowest price?Enter y our an-swers in column A,in the table.Then calculate the equilibrium prices of apartments if B,C,...,decide to buythe condominium.NAME3Person A B C D E F G H High price1818181825252525 Low price1515151518151818 (b)Suppose that there were two people at each reservation price and10 apartments.What is the highest price at which demand equals supply?18.Suppose that one of the apartments was turned into a condo-minium.Is that price still an equilibrium price?Yes.1.3(2)Suppose now that a monopolist owns all the apartments and thathe is trying to determine which price and quantity maximize his revenues.(a)Fill in the box with the maximum price and revenue that the monop-olist can make if he rents1,2,...,8apartments.(Assume that he must charge one price for all apartments.)Number12345678 Price403530251815105 Revenue40709010090907040(b)Which of the people A–F would get apartments?A,B,C,D.(c)If the monopolist were required bylaw to rent exactly5apartments, what price would he charge to maximize his revenue?$18.(d)Who would get apartments?A,B,C,D,F.(e)If this landlord could charge each individual a different price,and heknew the reservation prices of all the individuals,what is the maximum revenue he could make if he rented all5apartments?$148.(f)If5apartments were rented,which individuals would get the apart-ments?A,B,C,D,F.1.4(2)Suppose that there are5apartments to be rented and that the cityrent-control board sets a maximum rent of$9.Further suppose that people A,B,C,D,and E manage to get an apartment,while F,G,andH are frozen out.4THE MARKET(Ch.1)(a)If subletting is legal—or,at least,practiced—who will sublet to whomin equilibrium?(Assume that people who sublet can evade the cityrent-control restrictions.)E,who is willing to payonly$10for an apartment would sublet to F,who is willing to pay$18.(b)What will be the maximum amount that can be charged for the sublet payment?$18.(c)If you have rent control with unlimited subletting allowed,which ofthe consumers described above will end up in the5apartments?A,B,C,D,F.(d)How does this compare to the market outcome?It’s the same.1.5(2)In the text we argued that a tax on landlords would not getpassed along to the renters.What would happen if instead the tax wasimposed on renters?(a)To answer this question,consider the group of people in Problem1.1.What is the maximum that theywould be willing to payto the landlordif theyeach had to paya$5tax on apartments to the city?Fill in thebox below with these reservation prices.Person A B C D E F G H Reservation Price35202530513100 (b)Using this information determine the maximum equilibrium price ifthere are5apartments to be rented.$13.(c)Of course,the total price a renter pays consists of his or her rent plusthe tax.This amount is$18.(d)How does this compare to what happens if the tax is levied on the landlords?It’s the same.Chapter 2NAMEBudget ConstraintIntroduction.These workouts are designed to build your skills in de-scribing economic situations with graphs and algebra.Budget sets are a good place to start,because both the algebra and the graphing are very easy.Where there are just two goods,a consumer who consumes x 1units of good 1and x 2units of good 2is said to consume the consumption bun-dle ,(x 1,x 2).Anyconsumption bundle can be represented bya point on a two-dimensional graph with quantities of good 1on the horizontal axis and quantities of good 2on the vertical axis.If the prices are p 1for good 1and p 2for good 2,and if the consumer has income m ,then she can afford anyconsumption bundle,(x 1,x 2),such that p 1x 1+p 2x 2≤m .On a graph,the budget line is just the line segment with equation p 1x 1+p 2x 2=m and with x 1and x 2both nonnegative.The budget line is the boundary of the budget set .All of the points that the consumer can afford lie on one side of the line and all of the points that the consumer cannot afford lie on the other.If you know prices and income,you can construct a consumer’s bud-get line byfinding two commoditybundles that she can “just afford”and drawing the straight line that runs through both points.Example:Myrtle has 50dollars to spend.She consumes only apples and bananas.Apples cost 2dollars each and bananas cost 1dollar each.You are to graph her budget line,where apples are measured on the horizontal axis and bananas on the vertical axis.Notice that if she spends all of her income on apples,she can afford 25apples and no bananas.Therefore her budget line goes through the point (25,0)on the horizontal axis.If she spends all of her income on bananas,she can afford 50bananas and no apples.Therfore her budget line also passes throught the point (0,50)on the vertical axis.Mark these two points on your graph.Then draw a straight line between them.This is Myrtle’s budget line.What if you are not told prices or income,but you know two com-moditybundles that the consumer can just afford?Then,if there are just two commodities,you know that a unique line can be drawn through two points,so you have enough information to draw the budget line.Example:Laurel consumes onlyale and bread.If she spends all of her income,she can just afford 20bottles of ale and 5loaves of bread.Another commoditybundle that she can afford if she spends her entire income is 10bottles of ale and 10loaves of bread.If the price of ale is 1dollar per bottle,how much moneydoes she have to spend?You could solve this problem graphically.Measure ale on the horizontal axis and bread on the vertical axis.Plot the two points,(20,5)and (10,10),that you know to be on the budget line.Draw the straight line between these points and extend the line to the horizontal axis.This point denotes the amount of6BUDGET CONSTRAINT (Ch.2)ale Laurel can afford if she spends all of her moneyon ale.Since ale costs 1dollar a bottle,her income in dollars is equal to the largest number of bottles she can afford.Alternatively,you can reason as follows.Since the bundles (20,5)and (10,10)cost the same,it must be that giving up 10bottles of ale makes her able to afford an extra 5loaves of bread.So bread costs twice as much as ale.The price of ale is 1dollar,so the price of bread is 2dollars.The bundle (20,5)costs as much as her income.Therefore her income must be 20×1+5×2=30.When you have completed this workout,we hope that you will be able to do the following:•Write an equation for the budget line and draw the budget set on a graph when you are given prices and income or when you are given two points on the budget line.•Graph the effects of changes in prices and income on budget sets.•Understand the concept of numeraire and know what happens to the budget set when income and all prices are multiplied bythe same positive amount.•Know what the budget set looks like if one or more of the prices is negative.•See that the idea of a “budget set”can be applied to constrained choices where there are other constraints on what you can have,in addition to a constraint on moneyexpenditure.NAME 72.1(0)You have an income of $40to spend on two -modity1costs $10per unit,and commodity2costs $5per unit.(a)Write down your budget equation.10x 1+5x 2=40.(b)If you spent all your income on commodity 1,how much could you buy?4.(c)If you spent all of your income on commodity 2,how much could you buy?8.Use blue ink to draw your budget line in the graphbelow.02468246x1x28(d)Suppose that the price of commodity1falls to $5while every thing else stays the same.Write down your new budget equation.5x 1+5x 2=40.On the graph above,use red ink to draw your new budget line.(e)Suppose that the amount you are allowed to spend falls to $30,while the prices of both commodities remain at $5.Write down your budget equation.5x 1+5x 2=30.Use black ink to draw this budget line.(f)On your diagram,use blue ink to shade in the area representing com-moditybundles that y ou can afford with the budget in Part (e)but could not afford to buywith the budget in Part (a).Use black ink or pencil to shade in the area representing commoditybundles that y ou could afford with the budget in Part (a)but cannot afford with the budget in Part (e).2.2(0)On the graph below,draw a budget line for each case.8BUDGET CONSTRAINT (Ch.2)(a)p 1=1,p 2=1,m =15.(Use blue ink.)(b)p 1=1,p 2=2,m =20.(Use red ink.)(c)p 1=0,p 2=1,m =10.(Use black ink.)(d)p 1=p 2,m =15p 1.(Use pencil or black ink.Hint:How much of good 1couldyou afford if you spend your entire budget on good 1?)0510152051015x1x2202.3(0)Your budget is such that if you spend your entire income,youcan afford either 4units of good x and 6units of good y or 12units of x and 2units of y .(a)Mark these two consumption bundles and draw the budget line in the graph below.04812164812xy 16(b)What is the ratio of the price of x to the price of y ?1/2.(c)If you spent all of your income on x ,how much x could you buy?16.(d)If you spent all of your income on y ,how much y could you buy?8.(e)Write a budget equation that gives you this budget line,where the price of x is 1.x +2y =16.(f)Write another budget equation that gives you the same budget line,but where the price of x is 3.3x +6y =48.2.4(1)Murphywas consuming 100units of X and 50units of Y .Theprice of X rose from 2to 3.The price of Y remained at 4.(a)How much would Murphy’s income have to rise so that he can still exactlyafford 100units of X and 50units of Y ?$100.2.5(1)If Amyspent her entire allowance,she could afford 8candybars and 8comic books a week.She could also just afford 10candybars and 4comic books a week.The price of a candybar is 50cents.Draw her budget line in the box below.What is Amy’s weekly allowance?$6.0816243281624Candy barsComic books3212 2.6(0)In a small countrynear the Baltic Sea,there are onlythree commodities:potatoes,meatballs,and jam.Prices have been remark-ablystable for the last 50y ears or so.Potatoes cost 2crowns per sack,meatballs cost 4crowns per crock,and jam costs 6crowns per jar.(a)Write down a budget equation for a citizen named Gunnar who has an income of 360crowns per year.Let P stand for the number of sacks of potatoes,M for the number of crocks of meatballs,and J for the number of jars of jam consumed byGunnar in a y ear.2P +4M +6J =360.(b)The citizens of this countryare in general veryclever people,but they are not good at multiplying by 2.This made shopping for potatoes excru-ciatinglydifficult for manycitizens.Therefore it was decided to introduce a new unit of currency,such that potatoes would be the numeraire.A sack of potatoes costs one unit of the new currencywhile the same rel-ative prices applyas in the past.In terms of the new currency ,what is the price of meatballs?2crowns.(c)In terms of the new currency,what is the price of jam?3crowns.(d)What would Gunnar’s income in the new currencyhave to be for him to be exactlyable to afford the same commoditybundles that he could afford before the change?180crowns.(e)Write down Gunnar’s new budget equation.P +2M +3J =180.Is Gunnar’s budget set anydifferent than it was before the change?No.2.7(0)Edmund Stench consumes two commodities,namelygarbage and punk rock video cassettes.He doesn’t actuallyeat the former but keeps it in his backy ard where it is eaten bybillygoats and assorted vermin.The reason that he accepts the garbage is that people payhim $2per sack for taking it.Edmund can accept as much garbage as he wishes at that price.He has no other source of income.Video cassettes cost him $6each.(a)If Edmund accepts zero sacks of garbage,how manyvideo cassettescan he buy?0.NAME 11(b)If he accepts 15sacks of garbage,how manyvideo cassettes can he buy?5.(c)Write down an equation for his budget line.6C −2G =0.(d)Draw Edmund’s budget line and shade in his budget set.0510152051015Video cassettesGarbage 202.8(0)If you think Edmund is odd,consider his brother Emmett.Emmett consumes speeches bypoliticians and universityadministrators.He is paid $1per hour for listening to politicians and $2per hour for listening to universityadministrators.(Emmett is in great demand to help fill emptychairs at public lectures because of his distinguished appearance and his abilityto refrain from making rude noises.)Emmett consumes one good for which he must pay.We have agreed not to disclose what that good is,but we can tell you that it costs $15per unit and we shall call it Good X .In additionto what he is paid for consuming speeches,Emmett receives a pension of $50per week.0255075100255075Politician speechesAdministrator speeches10012BUDGET CONSTRAINT (Ch.2)(a)Write down a budget equation stating those combinations of the three commodities,Good X ,hours of speeches bypoliticians (P ),and hours of speeches byuniversityadministrators (A )that Emmett could afford to consume per week.15X −1P −2A =50.(b)On the graph above,draw a two-dimensional diagram showing the locus of consumptions of the two kinds of speeches that would be possible for Emmett if he consumed 10units of Good X per week.2.9(0)Jonathan Livingstone Yuppie is a prosperous lawyer.He has,in his own words,“outgrown those confining two-commoditylim-its.”Jonathan consumes three goods,unblended Scotch whiskey,de-signer tennis shoes,and meals in French gourmet restaurants.The price of Jonathan’s brand of whiskeyis $20per bottle,the price of designer tennis shoes is $80per pair,and the price of gourmet restaurant meals is $50per meal.After he has paid his taxes and alimony,Jonathan has $400a week to spend.(a)Write down a budget equation for Jonathan,where W stands for the number of bottles of whiskey,T stands for the number of pairs of tennis shoes,and M for the number of gourmet restaurant meals that he consumes.20W +80T +50M =400.(b)Draw a three-dimensional diagram to show his budget bel the intersections of the budget set with each axis.(c)Suppose that he determines that he will buyone pair of designer tennis shoes per week.What equation must be satisfied bythe combinations of restaurant meals and whiskeythat he could afford?20W +50M =320.2.10(0)Martha is preparing for exams in economics and sociology.She has time to read 40pages of economics and 30pages of sociology.In the same amount of time she could also read 30pages of economics and 60pages of sociology.(a)Assuming that the number of pages per hour that she can read of either subject does not depend on how she allocates her time,how many pages of sociologycould she read if she decided to spend all of her time on sociologyand none on economics?150pages.(Hint:You have two points on her budget line,so you should be able to determine the entire line.)(b)How manypages of economics could she read if she decided to spend all of her time reading economics?50pages.2.11(1)HarryHy pe has $5,000to spend on advertising a new kind ofdehydrated sushi.Market research shows that the people most likely to buythis new product are recent recipients of M.B.A.degrees and lawy ers who own hot tubs.Harryis considering advertising in two publications,a boring business magazine and a trendyconsumer publication for people who wish theylived in California.Fact 1:Ads in the boring business magazine cost $500each and ads in the consumer magazine cost $250each.Fact 2:Each ad in the business magazine will be read by1,000recent M.B.A.’s and 300lawyers with hot tubs.Fact 3:Each ad in the consumer publication will be read by300recent M.B.A.’s and 250lawyers who own hot tubs.Fact 4:Nobodyreads more than one ad,and nobodywho reads one magazine reads the other.(a)If Harryspends his entire advertising budget on the business pub-lication,his ad will be read by10,000recent M.B.A.’s and by3,000lawyers with hot tubs.(b)If he spends his entire advertising budget on the consumer publication,his ad will be read by 6,000recent M.B.A.’s and by5,000lawyers with hot tubs.(c)Suppose he spent half of his advertising budget on each publication.His ad would be read by 8,000recent M.B.A.’s and by4,000lawyers with hot tubs.(d)Draw a “budget line”showing the combinations of number of readings byrecent M.B.A.’s and bylawy ers with hot tubs that he can obtain if he spends his entire advertising budget.Does this line extend all the way to the axes?No.Sketch,shade in,and label the budget set,which includes all the combinations of MBA’s and lawyers he can reach if he spends no more than his budget.(e)Let M stand for the number of instances of an ad being read byan M.B.A.and L stand for the number of instances of an ad being read by a lawyer.This budget line is a line segment that lies on the line with equation M +2L =16.With a fixed advertising budget,how manyreadings byM.B.A.’s must he sacrifice to get an additional reading bya lawy er with a hot tub?2.04812164812Lawyers x 1000MBA's x 10001610262.12(0)On the planet Mungo,theyhave two kinds of money ,blue moneyand red money .Everycommodityhas two prices—a red-money price and a blue-moneyprice.EveryMungoan has two incomes—a red income and a blue income.In order to buyan object,a Mungoan has to paythat object’s red-moneyprice in red moneyand its blue-moneyprice in blue money .(The shops simplyhave two cash registers,and y ou have to payat both registers to buyan object.)It is forbidden to trade one kind of moneyfor the other,and this prohibition is strictlyenforced byMungo’s ruthless and efficient monetarypolice.•There are just two consumer goods on Mungo,ambrosia and bubble gum.All Mungoans prefer more of each good to less.•The blue prices are 1bcu (bcu stands for blue currencyunit)per unit of ambrosia and 1bcu per unit of bubble gum.•The red prices are 2rcus (red currencyunits)per unit of ambrosia and 6rcus per unit of bubble gum.(a)On the graph below,draw the red budget (with red ink)and the blue budget (with blue ink)for a Mungoan named Harold whose blue income is 10and whose red income is 30.Shade in the “budget set”containing all of the commoditybundles that Harold can afford,givenNAME 15its ∗two budget constraints.Remember,Harold has to have enough blue money and enough red moneyto payboth the blue-moneycost and the red-moneycost of a bundle ofgoods.0510152051015AmbrosiaGum 20(b)Another Mungoan,Gladys,faces the same prices that Harold faces and has the same red income as Harold,but Gladys has a blue income of 20.Explain how it is that Gladys will not spend its entire blue income no matter what its tastes maybe.(Hint Draw Glady s’s budget lines.)The blue budget line lies strictlyoutside the red budget line,so to satisfyboth budgets,one must be strictlyinside the red budget line.(c)A group of radical economic reformers on Mungo believe that the currencyrules are unfair.“Whyshould every one have to paytwo prices for every thing?”theyask.Theypropose the following scheme.Mungo will continue to have two currencies,everygood will have a blue price and a red price,and everyMungoan will have a blue income and a red income.But nobodyhas to payboth prices.Instead,every one on Mungo must declare itself to be either a Blue-MoneyPurchaser (a “Blue”)or a Red-Money Purchaser (a “Red”)before it buys anything at all.Blues must make all of their purchases in blue moneyat the blue prices,spending onlytheir blue incomes.Reds must make all of their purchases in red money,spending only their red incomes.Suppose that Harold has the same income after this reform,and that prices do not change.Before declaring which kind of purchaser it will be,∗We refer to all Mungoans bythe gender-neutral pronoun,“it.”Al-though Mungo has two sexes,neither of them is remotelylike either of ours.16BUDGET CONSTRAINT (Ch.2)Harold contemplates the set of commoditybundles that it could afford bymaking one declaration or the other.Let us call a commoditybundle “attainable”if Harold can afford it bydeclaring itself to be a “Blue”and buying the bundle with blue money or if Harold can afford the bundle bydeclaring itself to be a “Red”and buy ing it with red money .On the diagram below,shade in all of the attainable bundles.0510152051015AmbrosiaGum202.13(0)Are Mungoan budgets reallyso fanciful?Can y ou think of sit-uations on earth where people must simultaneouslysatisfymore than onebudget constraint?Is moneythe onlyscarce resource that people use up when consuming?Consumption of manycommoditiestakes time as well as money.People have to simultaneouslysatisfya time budget and a moneybudget.Other examples--people mayhave a calorie budget or a cholesterol budget or an alcohol-intake budget.Chapter 3NAMEPreferencesIntroduction.In the previous section you learned how to use graphs toshow the set of commoditybundles that a consumer can afford.In this section,you learn to put information about the consumer’s preferences on the same kind of graph.Most of the problems ask you to draw indifference curves.Sometimes we give you a formula for the indifference curve.Then all you have to do is graph a known equation.But in some problems,we give you only “qualitative”information about the consumer’s preferences and ask you to sketch indifference curves that are consistent with this information.This requires a little more thought.Don’t be surprised or disappointed if you cannot immediately see the answer when you look at a problem,and don’t expect that you will find the answers hiding somewhere in your textbook.The best way we know to find answers is to “think and doodle.”Draw some axes on scratch paper and label them,then mark a point on your graph and ask yourself,“What other points on the graph would the consumer find indifferent to this point?”If possible,draw a curve connecting such points,making sure that the shape of the line you draw reflects the features required by the problem.This gives you one indifference curve.Now pick another point that is preferred to the first one you drew and draw an indifference curve through it.Example:Jocasta loves to dance and hates housecleaning.She has strictly convex preferences.She prefers dancing to anyother activityand never gets tired of dancing,but the more time she spends cleaning house,the less happyshe is.Let us tryto draw an indifference curve that is consistent with her preferences.There is not enough information here to tell us exactlywhere her indifference curves go,but there is enough information to determine some things about their shape.Take a piece of scratch paper and draw a pair of bel the horizontal axis “Hours per dayof housecleaning.”Label the vertical axis “Hours per dayof dancing.”Mark a point a little ways up the vertical axis and write a 4next to it.At this point,she spends 4hours a daydancing and no time housecleaning.Other points that would be indifferent to this point would have to be points where she did more dancing and more housecleaning.The pain of the extra housekeeping should just compensate for the pleasure of the extra dancing.So an indifference curve for Jocasta must be upward sloping.Because she loves dancing and hates housecleaning,it must be that she prefers all the points above this indifference curve to all of the points on or below it.If Jocasta has strictlyconvex preferences,then it must be that if you draw a line between any two points on the same indifference curve,all the points on the line (except the endpoints)are preferred to the endpoints.For this to be the case,it must be that the indifference curve slopes upward ever more steeplyas y ou move to the right along it.You should convince yourself of this by making some drawings on scratch18PREFERENCES (Ch.3)paper.Draw an upward-sloping curve passing through the point (0,4)and getting steeper as one moves to the right.When you have completed this workout,we hope that you will be able to do the following:•Given the formula for an indifference curve,draw this curve,and find its slope at anypoint on the curve.•Determine whether a consumer prefers one bundle to another or is indifferent between them,given specific indifference curves.•Draw indifference curves for the special cases of perfect substitutes and perfect complements.•Draw indifference curves for someone who dislikes one or both com-modities.•Draw indifference curves for someone who likes goods up to a point but who can get “too much”of one or more goods.•Identifyweaklypreferred sets and determine whether these are con-vex sets and whether preferences are convex.•Know what the marginal rate of substitution is and be able to deter-mine whether an indifference curve exhibits “diminishing marginal rate of substitution.”•Determine whether a preference relation or anyother relation be-tween pairs of things is transitive,whether it is reflexive,and whether it is complete.3.1(0)Charlie likes both apples and bananas.He consumes nothing else.The consumption bundle where Charlie consumes x A bushels of apples per year and x B bushels of bananas per year is written as (x A ,x B ).Last year,Charlie consumed 20bushels of apples and 5bushels of bananas.It happens that the set of consumption bundles (x A ,x B )such that Charlie is indifferent between (x A ,x B )and (20,5)is the set of all bundles such that x B =100/x A .The set of bundles (x A ,x B )such that Charlie is just indifferent between (x A ,x B )and the bundle (10,15)is the set of bundles such that x B =150/x A .(a)On the graph below,plot several points that lie on the indifference curve that passes through the point (20,5),and sketch this curve,using blue ink.Do the same,using red ink,for the indifference curve passing through the point (10,15).(b)Use pencil to shade in the set of commoditybundles that Charlie weaklyprefers to the bundle (10,15).Use blue ink to shade in the set of commoditybundles such that Charlie weaklyprefers (20,5)to these bundles.NAME 19010203040102030ApplesBananas 40For each of the following statements about Charlie’s preferences,write “true”or “false.”(c)(30,5)∼(10,15).True.(d)(10,15) (20,5).True.(e)(20,5) (10,10).True.(f)(24,4) (11,9.1).False.(g)(11,14) (2,49).True.(h)A set is convex if for anytwo points in the set,the line segment between them is also in the set.Is the set of bundles that Charlie weakly prefers to (20,5)a convex set?Yes.(i)Is the set of bundles that Charlie considers inferior to (20,5)a convex set?No.(j)The slope of Charlie’s indifference curve through a point,(x A ,x B ),is known as his marginalrateofsubstitutionat that point.20PREFERENCES (Ch.3)(k)Remember that Charlie’s indifference curve through the point (10,10)has the equation x B =100/x A .Those of you who know calculus will remember that the slope of a curve is just its derivative,which in this case is −100/x 2A .(If you don’t know calculus,you will have to take our word for this.)Find Charlie’s marginal rate of substitution at the point,(10,10).−1.(l)What is his marginal rate of substitution at the point (5,20)?−4.(m)What is his marginal rate of substitution at the point (20,5)?(−.25).(n)Do the indifference curves you have drawn for Charlie exhibit dimin-ishing marginal rate of substitution?Yes.3.2(0)Ambrose consumes onlynuts and berries.Fortunately ,he likes both goods.The consumption bundle where Ambrose consumes x 1units of nuts per week and x 2units of berries per week is written as (x 1,x 2).The set of consumption bundles (x 1,x 2)such that Ambrose is indifferent between (x 1,x 2)and (1,16)is the set of bundles such that x 1≥0,x 2≥0,and x 2=20−4√x 1.The set of bundles (x 1,x 2)such that (x 1,x 2)∼(36,0)is the set of bundles such that x 1≥0,x 2≥0and x 2=24−4√x 1.(a)On the graph below,plot several points that lie on the indifference curve that passes through the point (1,16),and sketch this curve,using blue ink.Do the same,using red ink,for the indifference curve passing through the point (36,0).(b)Use pencil to shade in the set of commoditybundles that Ambrose weaklyprefers to the bundle (1,16).Use red ink to shade in the set of all commoditybundles (x 1,x 2)such that Ambrose weaklyprefers (36,0)to these bundles.Is the set of bundles that Ambrose prefers to (1,16)a convex set?Yes.(c)What is the slope of Ambrose’s indifference curve at the point (9,8)?(Hint Recall from calculus the wayto calculate the slope of a curve.If you don’t know calculus,you will have to draw your diagram carefully and estimate the slope.)−2/3.。
（完整版）范里安中级微观经济学
（完整版）范⾥安中级微观经济学中级微观经济学1. 维克⾥拍卖定义：维克⾥拍卖的⽅式类似密封拍卖，但有⼀个重要区别：商品由报价最⾼的竞价⼈获得，但他只需要按第⼆⾼的报价⽀付。
换句话说，报价最⾼的投标⼈得到了拍卖商品，但是他不需要按照他⾃⾝的报价⽀付，⽽是按照报价第⼆⾼的⼈的报价⽀付。
特点：密封报、同时报价、价⾼者得、赢家⽀付次⾼价分析：我们分析⼀个只有两个投标⼈的特殊情形。
这两⼈的对商品的评价分别为 1v 和2v ，他们在纸条上写下的报价分别为1b 和2b 。
投标⼈1的期望收益为：如果21v ＞v ，最⼤化胜出的概率；也就是设置11v b =。
如果21v ＜v ，最⼩化胜出的概率；也就是设置11v b =。
任意情况，Telling the truth is best 。
2. 帕累托有效率如果可以找到⼀种配置，在其他⼈的境况没有变坏的情况下，的确能使⼀些⼈的境况变得更好⼀些，那么，这就叫做帕累托改进；如果⼀种配置⽅法存在帕累托改进，他就称为帕累托低效率；如果⼀种配置⽅法不存在任何的帕累托改进，他就称为帕累托有效率的。
3. 价格歧视，第⼀、⼆、三级价格歧视1.价格歧视：按不同价格销售不同单位产品的做法称为价格歧视 2.⼀、⼆、三级价格歧视：第⼀级价格歧视：是指垄断企业按不同价格出售不同产量，⽽且这些价格可能因⼈⽽异。
这种价格歧视有时⼜称为完全价格歧视。
第⼆级价格歧视：是指，垄断企业按不同价格出售不同产量，但是购买相同数量的每个⼈⽀付价格是相同的。
因此，价格按购买数量制定，⽽不是因⼈⽽异。
最常见的情形是⼤宗购买时可以享受折扣。
第三级价格歧视：是指垄断企业的销售价格因⼈⽽异，但对于同⼀个⼈来说，每单位产品的售价是相同的。
这种价格歧视最常见。
例如:对⽼年⼈打折，对学⽣打折等。
4. 消费者剩余消费者剩余：是指购买者的⽀付意愿减去购买者的实际⽀付量。
消费者剩余衡量了购买者⾃⼰感觉到所获得的额外收益。
5. 显⽰偏好原理1.显⽰偏好：假定：（1）所有消费者的偏好都是严格凸性的，因此对于⼀个预算线来说都有且只有⼀个最优消费束。
范里安中级微观经济学题目
第一部分 消费者选择理论1.有两种商品，x1和x2，价格分别为p1和p2，收入为m 。
当11x x ≥时，政府加数量税t,画出预算集并写出预算线2. 消费者消费两种商品（x1，x2），如果花同样多的钱可以买（4，6）或（12，2），写出预算线的表达式。
3．重新描述中国粮价改革（1）假设没有任何市场干预，中国的粮价为每斤0。
4元，每人收入为100元。
把粮食消费量计为x ，在其它商品上的开支为y ，写出预算线，并画图。
（2）假设每人得到30斤粮票，可以凭票以0。
2元的价格买粮食，再写预算约束，画图。
（3）假设取消粮票，补贴每人6元钱，写预算约束并画图。
4． 证两条无差异曲线不能相交5． 一元纸币（x1）和五元纸币（x2）的边际替代率是多少6． 若商品1为中性商品，则它对商品2的边际替代率7. 写出下列情形的效用函数，画出无差异曲线，并在给定价格（p 1，p 2）和收入（m ）的情形下求最优解。
（1）x 1=一元纸币，x 2=五元纸币。
（2）x 1=一杯咖啡，x 2=一勺糖, 消费者喜欢在每杯咖啡加两勺糖。
8. 解最优选择（1） 21212(,)u x x x x =⋅（2）2u x =+9. 对下列效用函数推导对商品1的需求函数，反需求函数，恩格尔曲线；在图上大致画出价格提供曲线，收入提供曲线；说明商品一是否正常品、劣质品、一般商品、吉芬商品，商品二与商品一是替代还是互补关系。
（1）212x x u +=（2）()212,m in x x u =（3）b a x x u 21⋅=（4） 12ln u x x =+,10. 当偏好为完全替代时，计算当价格变化时的收入效用和替代效用（注意分情况讨论）。
11. 给定效用函数 (,)x y xy =，p x =3，p y =4，m=60，求当p y 降为3时价格变化引起的替代效应和收入效应。
12. 用显示偏好的弱公理说明为什么Slutsky 替代效应为负。
微观经济学第二章(范里安)
3、从量补贴
从量补贴就是政府根据消费者所购买商 品的数量来给予消费者一定的补贴。
商品1的实际支付为： p1x1-sx1 则实际价格就是p1-s。 预算线的方程变为：
(p1-s)x1＋p2x2 ＝ m
4、从价补贴
同样，总额补贴使预算线向外移动。
预算线分别为：p1x1＋p2x2 ＝ m-T
p1x1＋p2x2 ＝ m+m'
X2 X1
6、配给供应
也就是说，有些商品的消费量是受限制 的，不能超过某个数量。（见下图）
x2
预算线
x'1
x1
预算集
有时，税收、补贴和配给是混在一起运 用的。例如，消费者可以p1消费最多为 x‘1数量的商品1，接着他得对超过x’1 的所有消费量支付税收t。
X2 X1
3．m、P1不变，P2
X2
X1
4．m、P2不变，P1
X2
X1
四、计价物
p1x1＋p2x2 ＝ m 与 (p1/p2)x1＋x2 ＝ m/p2 是完全相同的。
不妨假设p2=1，也不会改变预算线。 把商品的价格计为1的那种商品，称做为
计价物商品。
五、税收、补贴和配给
见下图
x2
预算线 斜率为-p1/p2
预算集
斜率为-(t+p1)/p2
x'1
Hale Waihona Puke x1即x2/ x1 ＝- p1 /p2
- p1 /p2正是预算线的斜率。
用预算线的斜率可以计量消费商品1的机
会成本。
三、预算线的变动 X2＝－（P1/P2）X1＋m/P2 （点斜式
中级微观经济学范里安版本
中级微观经济学范里安版本xx年xx月xx日•导言与背景介绍•微观经济学基本概念与原理•消费者行为理论•生产者行为理论•市场结构与竞争策略•价格、产出与就业•中级微观经济学前沿问题与发展趋势目录01导言与背景介绍中级微观经济学是经济学的一个分支，主要研究个体经济行为以及市场均衡的形成，包括消费者行为、生产者行为、市场结构、价格形成等。
定义中级微观经济学是经济学的基础学科之一，对于理解整个经济系统的运行和个体经济角色的决策制定有着重要的作用。
它为政策制定者提供了理论依据，也为经济学家提供了研究工具。
重要性中级微观经济学的定义与重要性背景范里安是当代最有影响力的微观经济学家之一，他的《中级微观经济学》是经济学领域的经典著作之一，被广泛采用为大学经济学课程的主要教材。
特点该书系统地介绍了中级微观经济学的基本概念、理论和方法，内容全面、丰富，同时注重理论与实践的结合，具有很好的可读性。
范里安《中级微观经济学》的背景与特点目的学习中级微观经济学可以帮助我们深入理解经济系统的运行机制和个体经济角色的决策过程，掌握中级微观经济学的基本理论和方法，为进一步学习高级微观经济学和其他经济学分支打下坚实的基础。
要点一要点二意义通过学习中级微观经济学，我们可以更好地理解现实经济生活中的各种问题，提高自己的综合素质和决策能力，同时也可以为未来的学术研究和职业发展提供有力的支持。
学习中级微观经济学的目的与意义02微观经济学基本概念与原理需求与供给消费者在不同价格水平上愿意并能够购买的商品或服务的数量。
需求供给均衡价格价格机制生产者在不同价格水平上愿意并能够提供的商品或服务的数量。
市场供求平衡时的价格。
通过价格变动调节供求关系，以实现市场均衡。
市场均衡与价格机制均衡状态市场供给和需求达到平衡的状态。
均衡价格的形成通过价格机制，调节供给和需求的平衡。
价格对经济的调节作用通过价格信号，引导消费者和生产者的行为，实现资源的最优配置。
中级微观经济学-范里安版本
2023中级微观经济学-范里安版本contents •中级微观经济学导论•中级微观经济学的基本内容•中级微观经济学的进一步深化•中级微观经济学的实际应用•中级微观经济学的未来发展目录01中级微观经济学导论中级微观经济学是一门研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业、市场等）行为的学科，运用微观经济学理论和方法，分析个体经济单位的经济行为和决策。
中级微观经济学主要关注市场机制下的资源配置和产出问题，研究市场机制的缺陷和政府干预的必要性。
什么是中级微观经济学VS初级微观经济学主要研究基本的经济学概念和原理，如需求、供给、市场均衡、价格机制等。
中级微观经济学则更加深入地研究个体经济单位的经济行为和决策，包括消费者行为、生产者行为、市场结构、价格歧视、寡头垄断等。
中级微观经济学与初级微观经济学的区别中级微观经济学是连接初级微观经济学和高级微观经济学的桥梁，为进一步深入学习高级微观经济学打下基础。
中级微观经济学对于理解和分析现实经济问题具有重要的应用价值，可以帮助我们更好地理解市场机制、政府干预、资源配置和产出等问题。
中级微观经济学的重要性VS02中级微观经济学的基本内容消费者偏好研究消费者对商品和服务的偏好，以及如何用无差异曲线和预算约束线来表示。
要点一要点二消费者选择研究消费者如何在各种可能的商品和服务组合中选择最优解，包括无差异曲线和预算约束线的切点。
边际效用理论该理论解释了消费者对商品的购买量随着其价格的增加而减少的规律。
要点三生产函数研究一个生产者如何将各种生产要素（如劳动、资本、土地等）组合起来生产出商品和服务。
成本函数研究生产者如何计算和使用各种成本，包括固定成本和可变成本，以及平均成本和边际成本。
收益函数研究生产者如何将商品和服务销售给消费者，以实现利润最大化。
010203完全竞争市场这是一个理想化的市场，每个生产者和消费者都是价格接受者，市场上存在大量的买者和卖者。
垄断市场这是一个只有一家生产者的市场，该生产者可以根据自己的意愿定价，以实现利润最大化。
《范里安中级微观经济学》期末复习大纲
范里安《微观经济学：现代观点》知识点归纳范里安中级微观经济学复习大纲2、Budget ConstraintDescribe budget constraint– Algebra :x y P X P Y I +=B(p 1, … , p n , m ) ={ (x 1, … , x n ) | x 1 0, … , x n0 and p 1x 1+ … + p n x nm }– Graph ：Describe changes in budget constraintGovernment programs and budget constraints Non-linear budget lines上图是基本的，税收和补贴、Quantity Discount ，Quantity Penalty ，One Price Negative The Food Stamp Program ，Uniform Ad Valorem Sales Taxes ，都可以看做商品价格或收入发生变动，从而预算线斜率，截距发生变动。
3. Preferences●Describe preferences：strict preference; indifference; weak preference●三大公理：完备性，反身性，传递性●Indifference curves ( 无差异曲线)无差异曲线形状很多：良好性状的、完全互补、完全替代等。
●Well-behaved preferences：Monotonicity（单调性）: More of any commodity is always preferred (i.e. no satiation and every commodity is a good).Convexity (凸性):Mixtures of bundles are (at least weakly) preferred to the bundles themselves.●Marginal rate of substitution ( 边际替代率)M R S=d x2/d x1，大概讲就是为放弃一单位x1，需要多少单位x2补偿以保持相同效用。
中级微观经济学范里安版本
博弈论初步：纳什均衡与囚徒困境
企业行为
在寡头市场中，企业通常会采取价格领导、限制性定价、成本加成等策略来最大化利润。
市场结果
由于寡头市场的竞争性，市场结果通常表现为市场价格较高、企业利润较大，但消费者选择较少。此外，市场结果也可能受到政策干预的影响。
寡头市场的企业行为与市场结果
不确定性、风险与信息经济学初步
垄断市场的福利效应与价格歧视不完全相同。在某些情况下，垄断可能会带来更高的产量和更低的价格，从而增加消费者福利；而在其他情况下，垄断可能会减少产量并提高价格，导致社会总福利水平下降。因此，对于垄断市场，需要进行具体分析以确定其福利效应。
福利效应对比
寡头垄断与博弈论初步
04
寡头垄断是一种市场结构，其中少数几家大公司占据了市场的大部分份额，其他小企业市场份额较小。
价格歧视与垄断
03
价格歧视定义
指厂商根据消费者对同一产品的不同支付能力和需求，有区别地制定价格以获取更大利润。
价格歧视分类
一级、二级和三级价格歧视。一级价格歧视是对每个消费者都收取不同的价格；二级价格歧视是根据消费者购买量的不同，制定不同的价格；三级价格歧视是根据消费者的不同特征，如种族、性别、地区等来制定不同的价格。
单一卖者、无相近替代品、其他企业进入该市场不易等。
假设条件
垄断企业的需求曲线是市场上全部消费者的需求曲线的水平加总。
需求曲线
在给定产量下，通过选择相应的价格来实现利润最大化。
利润最大化
垄断市场的基本模型
垄断的福利效应与价格歧视的对比
在垄断市场上，厂商可能会利用其市场支配地位进行价格歧视。
垄断与价格歧视的关系
微观经济学在金融领域的应用
中级微观经济学 范里安 斯勒茨基方程
需求法则
消费者理论并不限制价格变动时需求变动的情 况也不限制收入变动时需求变动的情况，但它 的确限制了这两种变动是如何相互作用的
需求法则：如果一种商品的需求随着收入的增 加而增加那么这种商品的需求一定随着价格的 上升而下降
例题：价格变动的效应分析
例1：设消费者每天对牛奶的需求函数为： x1(p,m)101m 0p1 m 12 ,p10 3,p1'2
（1调整货币收入以保持实际购买力不变
初始均衡点：价格水平为3p2)均衡商品束为(14,x2)，支付的 货币为: m=120=3x14+p2x2
价格变动后：价格水平为(2,p2),均衡商品束为(16,x2’)
要使消费者购买力保持不变，则货币收入应该调整为：
m’=2x14+p2x2
则在价格变动后要保持消费者购买力不变，货币收入的调整 量应为：
因此替代效应 就x 1s 是在商品1的价格变动到p’，同
时货币收入变动到m’的情况下，对商品1的需求所发 生的变化，即：
x1 sx1(p,m )x1(p 1,m )
替代效应又被称为补偿的需求变动，指由于价格上 升，消费者被给予足够的收入作为补偿以购买他原 有的消费束如果价格下降，对他的补偿就是从他那 里取走一些收入购买他原有的消费束。
p1
p1
表示价格变动收入保持不变时需求的 变动率，即总效应；
2、x1s x1(p1',m)x1(p1,m)
p1
p1
表示价格变动收入调整到恰使原消费束能
够支付得起的需求变动率，即替代效应；
3、 xm 1 mx1x1(p1 ',m m ) m x1(p1 ,m )x1
表示价格不变收入作出调整时的需求变动 率，即收入效应
微观经济学第一章(范里安)
（2）实证经济学与规范经济学要解决的问 题不同。
（3）实证经济学的内容具有客观性，所得 出的结论可以根据事实来进行检验。规范经 济学本身则没有客观性，它所得出的结论要 受到不同价值观的影响。
联系：规范经济学要以实证经济学为基础， 而实证经济学也离不开规范经济学的指导。
A.修一个机场，每年收益9000万元；
B.修建大型娱乐中心，每年收益9500万 元；
C.建大型商国外，每年利息为9100万元。
3．阿扁邀请老李参加他的就职典礼，老李接 受了邀请。下面哪一项是老李参加阿扁就职典 礼的机会成本：
（1）老李给阿扁买了价值100元的花篮；
它要回答“ 是什么” 的问题。
实证经济学通常采用模型法。验证理论是否 正确的标准，只能是经验事实。
2．规范经济学
规范经济学以一定的价值判断为基础，提出 某些标准作为分析处理经济问题的标准，树 立经济理论的前提，作为制定经济政策的依 据，并研究如何才能符合这些标准。
它要回答“ 应该是什么”的问题。
3．两者的关系
（2）老李在一周前理发花了10元；
（3）老李在前往阿扁公司的途中吃午餐用了 20元；
（4）为了参加典礼老李放弃了听一次哲学讲 座。
A.（1）； B.（1）和（2）； C.（1）和（4）； D.都是。
7．生产可能性边界（生产可能性曲线）
在既定的经济资源和生产技术条件下所能达到 的最大产量组合的轨迹。
• （1）土地，又称自然资源 • （2）劳动 • （3）资本，也称资本货物（或资本品） • （4）企业家才能
四种经济资源又被称为“ 生产四要素”。
产出就是产品和劳务。
范里安 中级微观经济学Ch22
0
生产者剩余的几种度量
1.利用 利用AVC曲线获得 曲线获得VC 利用 曲线获得
PS = py − cv ( y ) = py − y ⋅ AVC
注意： 注意：生产者剩余也等于 利润加固定成本， 利润加固定成本，矩形中 的两部分之和
p MC AC
π
F
利用MC获得 获得VC 利用 获得
长期供给曲线
长期供给曲线的形状。 长期供给曲线的形状。P=LMC，又由于利润 ， 不会小于0，因此位于LAC最小点以上。 最小点以上。 不会小于 ，因此位于 最小点以上 LMC
长期供给曲线
LAC
y
22.9
长期不变的平均成本
p < cmin , y = 0 厂商的长期供给： p = cmin , y ∈ ( 0, ∞ ) p > c , y = ∞ min
22.3
厂商的供给决策
在市场价格给定的情况下， 在市场价格给定的情况下，利润最大化
一阶条件意味着 : p − c′ ( y ) = 0 max py − c ( y )
二阶条件意味着 : −c′′ ( y ) ≤ 0 即边际收益等于边际成本
完全竞争市场由于价格不变，边际收益等于价格
22.5
停产
如果存在固定成本， 如果存在固定成本，生产时的损失超过 不生产的损失，企业就停止生产。 不生产的损失，企业就停止生产。
生产者剩余
生产者剩余： 生产者剩余：生产者实际获得的超过愿 意接受的最低支付的部分。 意接受的最低支付的部分。供给曲线以 上价格水平线以下的面积。 上价格水平线以下的面积。
PS = ∫ p − M ( z) dz C 0
y
= py − ∫ M ( z) dz C
范里安 中级微观经济学Ch17
二级价格密封拍卖
Sealed-bid second-price auction: – 出价为私人信息 – 投标者同时出价 – 出价最高者获得 – 获得者支付次高价格
17.2
拍卖设计
目标： 目标： 帕累托效率：个人价值最高者获得。 帕累托效率：个人价值最高者获得。 利润最大化
英式拍卖的效率和利润
英国式拍卖
– 投标公开进行 – 出价递增直到没有新的出价 – 出价最高者获胜 – 获胜者支付其出价 获胜者支付其出价.
荷兰式拍卖
– 拍卖者宣布一个最高价格，然后逐步 拍卖者宣布一个最高价格， 减少出价 – 第一个愿意接受该价格的投标者获胜 并支付该价格. ，并支付该价格
一级价格密封拍卖
Sealed-bid first-price auction – 投标者同时出价 – 出价为私人信息 – 最高出价者获胜 – 支付其出价 支付其出价.
第十七章 愿支付价格。 难以发现潜在买者的意愿支付价格。 拍卖揭示买者相关信息。 拍卖揭示买者相关信息。
17.1
拍卖的分类
商品的性质：个人价值拍卖 商品的性质：个人价值拍卖(private value auction)、共同价值拍卖 、 (common value auction) 竞价规则：英式拍卖、荷兰式拍卖、 竞价规则：英式拍卖、荷兰式拍卖、一 级价格密封拍卖、二级价格密封拍卖（ 级价格密封拍卖、二级价格密封拍卖（ 维克里拍卖） 维克里拍卖）
如果不存在保留价格， 如果不存在保留价格，英式拍卖是帕累 托有效的，但不一定是利润最大化。 托有效的，但不一定是利润最大化。 存在（合适的）保留价格时， 存在（合适的）保留价格时，可以实现 利润最大，但可能是帕累托无效的， 利润最大，但可能是帕累托无效的，即 商品无法出售的情况。 商品无法出售的情况。
中级微观经济学 范里安版本
感谢观看
汇报人：
替代效应和收入效应：范里安解释了替代效应和收入效应的概念，并提供了如何应用这些概念 来理解消费者行为的实例。
消费者剩余：范里安解释了消费者剩余的概念，并提供了如何计算消费者剩余的实例。
生产者行为的应用
生产者行为的基本理论：介绍生产者行为的基本理论，包括生产函数、成本函数等。
生产者行为在市场中的应用：分析生产者在市场竞争中的行为，包括价格策略、产量决策等。
03
范里安中级微观经 济学的理论基础
消费者行为理论
效用最大化：消费者追求效用最 大化，即在预算约束下选择能够 带来最大效用的商品组合
收入效应和替代效应：收入效应 和替代效应是消费者行为理论中 的两个重要概念，它们分别描述 了价格变动对消费者需求的影响
添加标题
添加标题
添加标题
添加标题
边际替代率递减：消费者在保持 效用不变的情况下，随着一种商 品消费量的增加，其边际替代率 递减
一般均衡与福利经济学：范里安对一般 均衡和福利经济学的探讨，包括帕累托 最优、社会福利函数等概念，以及交换 和生产的效率条件等分析工具。
添加 标题
添加 标题
生产者行为理论：范里安对生产者行为 的研究，包括生产函数、成本函数、利 润最大化等概念，以及生产者均衡和等 产量线等分析工具。
分配理论：范里安对分配的研究，包括 生产要素的需求和供给、要素价格决定 等概念，以及洛伦兹曲线和基尼系数等 分析工具。
06
结论与建议
研究结论
范里安中级微 观经济学的理 论框架和主要
观点
范里安中级微 观经济学与初 级微观经济学 的联系与区别
范里安中级微 观经济学在现 实经济中的应
用与局限性
对范里安中级 微观经济学的
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全微分法得出同样的结果
15
• 练习：柯布-道格拉斯技术的技术替代率 (TRS)使用隐函数法，求得
x2(x1)f/x1a x2
x1
f/x2 1ax1
技术替代率测量等产量线的斜率
16
• 替代弹性：测量等产量线的曲率。替代弹性度量 当产出保持不变时，要素比率的百分比变动除以 技术替代率的百分比变动。
x2 / x1
思想：假定正在某一个点上进行生产 ，如果要增加一种要素而减少另一种要素 的用量，并且保持产出不变。如何决定两 种要素间的替代率？
14
• 隐函数法推导
f(x1,x2(x1))y
f (x*) f (x*) x2 (x1*) 0
x1
x2
x1
x2 (x1*) f (x*) / x1
x1
f (x*) / x2
个凸集。
证明留作练习。
• 性质2 凸投入要求集等价于拟凹生产函数。 V（y）是凸集，当且仅当生产函数f（x）是一个
拟凹函数。 证明要点：拟凹函数等价定义：上等值集是凸集
V。(y) x : f(x) y
•
是凸集正是构建这样一个上等值集
。
13
• 正则技术： 对所有y≥0而言，V（y）是一
个非空的闭集 V（y）是非空的假定要求，总存在某种可 想到的方法来生产出任意给定水平的产出 。 • 技术替代率（TRS）
产出只有一种时，定义生产函数
f（x）=y在R中：y是在Y中与-x相关联的最大产出
4
• 例子：净产出束为（y，-x），其中x是可 以生产y 单位产出的一个投入向量。
相关概念：
投入要求集：至少可以生产y 单位产出的
所有投入束的集合
V（y）= x在Rn+中：（y，-x）在Y中
等产量线：等产量线给出所有刚好生产y
或使用ＡＢ各生产一次。
则投入要求集为 V (2) 2, 4,3,3,4, 2
如果更大的产出ｙ，要素组合的选择性更多
10
如果允许自由处置，则称生产技术具有单 调性：
单调性：如果x 在 V（y）中，并且 x' x
则 x' 也在 V（y）中。 思考自由处置的现实背景：处置或储藏
不需要成本，至少不能影响到原有技术的 施行。
范里安：《微观经济学》
1
本章内容
一、生产技术的数学刻画 二、单调性 三、凸技术 四、技术替代率与替代弹性 五、规模报酬 六、齐次与位似生产函数 七、CES生产函数
2
一、生产技术的数学刻画
1、几个相关概念
投入和产出的度量，注意投入和产出都是流
量的概念。
与生产技术相关的几个概念
1）净产出：y j
y
o j
那么，何时规模报酬不变会被违反？
19
• 违反规模报酬不变的情形： 1．向下调整，即细分生产技术不总是可行的 2．非整数数量向上调整也不可行 3．产出加倍后，会有更有效的生产方式——
对应规模报酬递增的概念。 规模报酬递增。如果对所有t>1，f (tx) tf(x) ，一
8
• 生产技术的组合 技术A：一个单位的要素1和两个单位
的要素2，可以生产一个单位的产出。 技术B：两个单位的要素1和一个单位
的要素2，可以生产一个单位的产出。 写成投入集的形式
V (1) 1, 2,2,1
若要生产两单位产出，应使用多少投 入要素？
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• 生产方法： 重复两次技术Ａ，或重复两次技术Ｂ，
单位产出的投入束。
Q（y）= x在Rn+中：x在V(y)中并且x不在V（y，）中，y，>y
5
• 技术有效：
Y 中的生产计划y 是（技术上）有效的：要
求没有用同样的投入生产出更多的产出或用更少 的投入生产出相同产出的方法，生产计划就是有 效的。
表述方式： 变换函数：描述技术上有效的生产计划的集 合 T : Rn R
x2 / x1 TRS
TRS
• 取极限形式后，写成
TRS x2 / x1
dx2 / x1
dTRS
经济含义：可以通过厂商追求成本最小化的一阶
条件来重新审视替代弹性的含义。
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• 使用对数微商，可以重新写为
dlnx2 / x1
dln |TRS |
例：柯布道格拉斯生产函数的替代弹性
TRS a x2 1 a x1yFra biblioteki j
生产计划：各种物品的净产出写成一个向量
生产可能性集：所有技术上可行的生产计划
的集合
受限制的或短期生产可能性集：由 来表
示；这由所有与约束水平 相一致的可行的净产
出束组成
3
• 短期生产可能性集 生产计划 y, l, k 资本在短期内固定 k=k 则短期可能性集写为
Y (k) (y, l, k)在Y中：k=k
当且仅当y 有效时，T (y) 0
6
例子：柯布-道格拉斯技术的特点
Y={(y,-x1,-x2)在R3中:y≤x1ax12-a} V(y)={(x1,x2)在R2+中:y≤x1ax12-a} Q(y)={(x1,x2)在R2+中:y=x1ax12-a} Y(z)={(y,-x1,-x2)在R3中:y≤x1ax12-a,x2=z}
T(y, x1, x2) yx1ax12a f (x1,x2)x1ax12a
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例子：里昂惕夫技术的特点
Y{(y,x1,x2)在R3中:ymin(ax1,bx2)} V(y){(x1,x2)在R2中:ymin(ax1,bx2)} Q(y){(x1,x2)在R2中:ymin(ax1,bx2)}
T(y,x1,x2)ymin(ax1,bx2) f(x1,x2)min(ax1,bx2)
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• 凸技术 思想：我们想要生产“大”量的产出
，并且可以复制“小”的生产过程
定义：凸性
如果x 和 x' 都在V（y）中，那么，对 所有0≤t≤1的t 而言，tx (1 t)x' 在V（y）
中。那就是，V（y）是一个凸集。
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• 性质1 凸生产集意味着凸投入要求集。如果生产
集Y 是一个凸集，那么相联的投入要求集也是一
x2 1 a TRS
x1
a
lnx2 ln1aln|TRS|
x1
a
dlnx2 / x1
dln|TRS|
1
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• 规模报酬 前面“复制”生产过程的例子实际上是“按
比例增加”投入，那么规模报酬不变意味着： 下列任何一个条件被满足，即称为规模报酬
不变
1．对所有非负t；y在Y 中意味着ty 在Y 中 2．x在V（y）中意味着tx在V（y）中，对所 有t≥0 ？ 3． f (tx) tf(x) ，对于所有t≥0。即生产函 数f(x)是一次齐次的。