《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册簿(打印版)_戴炜栋
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 第1-3章练习题 参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language ？答：答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe observe language language language facts facts facts first, first, first, which which which are are are found found found to to to display display display some some some similarities, similarities, similarities, and and and generalizations generalizations generalizations are are are made made made about about about them; them; them; then then then he he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed observed facts facts facts to to to fully fully fully prove prove prove their their their validity. validity. validity. In In In linguistics, linguistics, linguistics, as as as in in in any any any other other other discipline, discipline, discipline, data data data and and and theory theory theory stand stand stand in in in a a a dialectical dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) (4) syntax: syntax: syntax: it it it studies studies studies the the the rules rules rules which which which govern govern govern how how how words words words are are are combined combined combined to to to form form form grammatically grammatically grammatically permissible permissible permissible sentences sentences sentences in in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, Then, modem modem modem linguistics linguistics linguistics differs differs differs from from from traditional traditional traditional grammar grammar grammar also also also in in in that that that it it it does does does not not not force force force languages languages languages into into into a a a Latin-based Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. arises. Even Even Even in in in today's today's today's world world world there there there are are are still still still many many many languages languages languages that that that can can can only only only be be be spoken spoken spoken but but but not not not written. written. written. Then Then Then in in in everyday everyday communication, communication, speech speech speech plays plays plays a a a greater greater greater role role role than than than writing writing writing in in in terms terms terms of of of the the the amount of amount of information information conveyed. conveyed. conveyed. And And And also, also, also, speech speech speech is is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from from everyday speech, everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. 6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence andperformance?答：答： Saussure's Saussure's distinction distinction distinction and and and Chomsky's Chomsky's Chomsky's are are are very very very similar, similar, similar, they they they differ differ differ at at at least least least in in in that that that Saussure Saussure Saussure took took took a a a sociological sociological sociological view view view of of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? （2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett 提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版戴炜栋10LanguageAcquisition
Language environment & the critical period hypothesis
▪ Two important factors: the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.( P.147 Victor 12; Genie 13.5)
Theories of child language acquisition
▪ A behaviorist (行为主义者）viБайду номын сангаасw of language acquisition (Skinners)
▪ An innatist （语法天生主义者） view of language acquisition (Chomsky)
▪ The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)
Stages in child language development
An interactionist view of language acquisition
▪ The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. (motherese 保姆式语言)
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。
2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Word-level categories
Major lexical categories: p. 43 N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: p.43 Det（限定 词）, Deg, Qual（修饰语）, Auxi, Conj.
The criteria on which categories are determined
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
Coordination rule
Coordinate structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. ----Coordination has four important properties: no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)_戴炜栋(word文档良心出品)
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can notbe found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to writtenlanguage in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版全解
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
(完整版)戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版(可编辑修改word版)
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction 语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use 用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s 语言学中一些基本区分1.Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋7 Language Change
Addition of new words
coinage(创新词) clipped words(缩略词) blending(拼缀法) acronyms(词首字母缩略词) back-formation(逆构词法) functional shift (功能性变化) borrowing （借用）
Chapter 7 Language change
Sound change p. 94 Morphological and syntactic change Lexical and semantic change
Morphological change
Borrowed affixes e.g. –ment (from French) Fusion: the grammaticalization in which
hound: any dog a special kind of dog
deer: any animal a particular kind of animal
meat: food edible part of an animal
corn: grain a particular grain
Beseem to be suitable
Wot
to know
Gyve
a fetter
பைடு நூலகம்
Wherefore why
Changes in the meaning of words
Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift
Loss of words
Words can be lost from a language as time
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
全国547所院校视频及题库全收集
考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试
第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。
(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
目 录第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 考研真题与典型题详解第2章 音位学2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 考研真题与典型题详解第3章 形态学3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 考研真题与典型题详解第4章 句法学4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 考研真题与典型题详解第5章 语义学5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 考研真题与典型题详解第6章 语用学6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 考研真题与典型题详解第7章 语言变化7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 考研真题与典型题详解第8章 语言与社会8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 考研真题与典型题详解第9章 语言与文化9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 考研真题与典型题详解第10章 语言习得10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 考研真题与典型题详解第11章 第二语言习得11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 考研真题与典型题详解第12章 语言与大脑12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 考研真题与典型题详解第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋11 Second Language Acquisition
Overgeneralization
Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations. Walked, watched, washed… *rided, *goed, *doed, *eated… Jane advised me to give up smoking. Jane told me to give up smoking. *Jane hoped me to give up smoking. *Jane suggested me to give up smoking.
Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker) Interlanguage ---- learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.
Connections
between first language acquisition & second language acquisition
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have,which can not be found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority towritten language in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的容。
2.2 发音机制语音是由各种发音器官（speech organ）而产生的。
因此，正确理解语音需要掌握相关的发音系统知识。
人体发声器官（见《语言学概论》忠主编，高等教育2002：15）使流出的气流产生各种各样的变化，从而产生不同的音。
肺部的气流是发声的原动力。
肺部扩大时，空气从外流入，形成吸气音（ingressive sounds）。
肺部收缩时，气流流经气管(trachea)、喉头（larynx）、咽腔（pharyngeal cavity）再经口腔(oral cavity)或鼻腔(nasal cavity) 排除，形成呼气音(egressive sounds)。
喉头是发声源。
喉头上通咽腔，下接气管(trachea/windpipe)。
喉头中间的两片富有弹性的薄膜叫声带(vocal cords)。
声带可以拉紧或放松，也可以闭合和开放，开放时形成声门(glottis)。
由声带控制的声门决定发出的音是清音(voiceless) 还是浊音(voiced)。
大部分发音器官都在口腔中。
它们是小舌(uvula)、软腭(soft palate)、硬腭(hard palate)、齿龈(alveolar ridge)、牙齿(teeth)、双唇（lips）和舌头(tongue)。
其中只有小舌和舌头是可弯曲或滑动的。
2.3 语音描写语音学家描写语音时所使用的独立语音单位被称为音段（segments），例如[k], [e], [t], [s]。
标音的符号系统有很多，但普遍使用的是国际音标（IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet）。
自1888年以来，国际音标不断改进，试图用一个音标来代表人类言语的一个音。
为了将语音标记和语言拼写系统区分开来，语言学家把语音符号放在[ ]中。
音标不但使语音学家始终如一地对语言的声音进行正确地描写，而且还可以帮助语言教师和语言学习者正确教授和掌握发音。
英语教科书和字典一般都采用国际音标。
在描写语音时，为了体现语音的细微差异，语言学使用更为详细的标音方法，有时被称为窄式记音（narrow transcription）。
在窄式记音中，一些较小符号经常被附加在音标上，如鼻化符[ ˘]、重音符[ˊ]等。
这些改变音值的较小记号叫做次音符（diacritic）。
2.4 英语辅音描写根据语音的生理和物理属性，音段分为元音（vowels）和辅音(consonants) 两类。
他们的主要区别是：发元音时，发音器官不形成阻碍，气流可以畅通无阻地经口腔或鼻腔流出；发辅音时，发音器官某一部位形成阻碍，气流必须克服阻碍才能通过。
辅音可以根据发音部位(places of articulation)、发音方式(manners of articulation) 和浊音化(voicing) 进行分类和描写。
发音部位是指气流产生声音时形成阻碍的每一个点。
精彩文档英语辅音的发音部位主要是唇、口腔和声门。
具体来说，辅音可以分为双唇音（bilabials）、唇齿音(labiodentals)、齿间音(interdentals)、齿龈音(alveolars)、硬腭音(palatals)、软腭音(velars) 和喉音(glottal)。
双唇音：双唇产生的音。
英语的双唇音包括[p] [b] [m] [w]。
唇齿音：由下唇和上齿产生的音。
英语的唇齿音包括[f]和[v]。
齿间音：舌尖放在上下齿之间发出的音。
英语的齿间音包括[θ]和[ð]。
齿龈音：舌尖接触上齿龈发出的音。
英语的齿龈音包括[t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [r] [n]。
软腭音：舌的前部和硬腭接触产生的音。
英语的硬腭音包括[⎰] [з] [t∫] [do] [j]。
硬腭音：舌的后部和软腭接触产生的音。
英语的软腭音包括[k] [ɡ] [ŋ]。
喉音：舌根和咽腔产生的音。
英语中只有[h]是喉音。
发音方式是指发音时气流受到阻碍的情况，即是全部受阻还是部分受阻。
根据发音方式，辅音可以分为爆破音（stops）、摩擦音(fricatives)、破擦音(affricates)、流音(liquids)、半元音（glides）和鼻音(nasals)。
爆破音：发音器官完全关闭，导致气流无法从口中流出，然后再突然放出气流产生的音。
英语的爆破音包括[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [ɡ]。
摩擦音：两个发音器官接触后，导致气流部分受阻，产生气流的摩擦而形成的音。
英语的摩擦音包括[f] [v][ θ] [ð] [s] [z] [⎰] [з] [h]。
破擦音：气流完全受阻后再慢慢松开而产生的音。
英语的破擦音包括[t⎰] [dз]。
在早期出版的教科书中，[tr] [dr] [ts] [tz] 都被称为破擦音。
但在现代语言学中他们并不是单个音段，因为[tr] [dr]只出现在元音前，[ts] [tz]只出现在单词的词尾。
所以，现代语言学家把他们看作是辅音丛。
流音：气流在口腔中部受阻，并流经舌的两侧或流经舌尖和齿龈槽而产生的音。
英语的流音包括[l] [r]。
半元音：半元音又称滑音。
发半元音时气流受阻的程度非常弱。
英语中的半元音包括[j] [w]。
在苏格兰和美国英语中，以wh-开头的单词，通常被发成[ ŵ]，类似[hw]的音。
鼻音：气流在口腔中受阻，软腭下降使气流通过鼻腔产生的音。
英语的鼻音包括[m] [n] [ŋ]。
浊音化是指当气流产生声音时声带震动的情况。
当声带贴近但并不紧紧闭合时，流经的气流引起震动形成的语音叫做浊音。
当声带分离时，气流容易通过。
由此产生的语音叫做清音。
所有的元音都是浊音。
根据浊音化，辅音分为清辅音(voiceless consonants)和浊辅音(voiced consonants)。
我们可以根据发音部位、发音方式和浊音化对单个辅音进行描写。
例如，[v]被描写为voiced labiodental fricative，[k]被描写为voiceless velar stop。
2.5 英语元音描写在发元音时，没有类似发辅音时产生的气流受阻的现象，因此，描写元音不能沿用描写辅音的方法。
语言学家通常依据以下四个原则对元音进行描写：（1）软腭的位置——发口腔元音时抬升, 发鼻化元音是下降; （2）舌头抬升的部位---- 前、中、后；（3）唇的开合度——唇的圆或展的不同程度；（4）声带收紧状态---- 肌肉紧或松弛。
元音分为单元音(simple vowels/monophthongs) 和双元音(diphthongs) 两类。
发单元音时，音质不发生任何变化，但发双元音时音质会因为舌位的滑动而产生变化。
比如，发双元音[uə]时，舌位由[u]向[ə]滑动。
双元音共有8个，分别以[ə]、[i]、[u]为结尾：[iə]、[εə]、[uə]、[ai]、[ei]、[i]、[əu]、[au].根据舌位, 单元音被分为前、中、后三类。
同一位置的单元音可以根据其舌位的高低、紧或松弛以及是否圆唇等进行进一步的区分。
我们把英语元音的这些特征归入两个畴，一个是有这个特征的，另一个是没有这个特征。
这种二分特征有两种规格，计做“+”和“-”。
2.6 语音特征和自然类语音的描写以音段为单位。
我们可以从发音部位，发音方式、浊音化、舌位高低、是否圆唇和紧状况等方面对单个音段进行描写。
这种描写实际上就是对语音特征的标记。
例如[g]具有[+voiced][+velar][+stop]的特征，而其他音段也许具有以上三个特征中的一个或两个，但绝对没精彩文档有完全具有这三个特征的其他音段。
[u:]具有[+high][+back][+round][+tense]的特征，而[u]虽然具有[+high][+back][+round]的三个特征，却不具有[+tense]的特征。
语音自然类是指具有相同语音特征的一组语音。
如[b][z][dз][з]这组音属于[+voiced]类，而[p][s][t][f]这组音属于[-voiced]类。
[+high]这个语音特征具体指[i:][i][u:][u]，而[-high][-low]是指[ə:][ə] [][]。
每个语音特征所包含音段的数目不等，却构成了等级。
有些特征指的是小类，有的却是大类。
例如：[+liguid]只包括两个流音，但前音[+anterior]却包括唇音、唇齿音、齿间音和软腭音等, 连续音[+continuant]包括所有的摩擦音、流音和滑音。
咝音[+sibilant]包括[s][z][⎰][з] [t⎰] [dз]六个音段。
较大自然类特征可以跨越辅音—元音的界限。
音节音[+syllabic]代表了所有元音和辅音[m][n][l]（在不含元音的词尾音节中，如orgasm, nation, bottle等）。