英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
吉林省考研外国语言文学复习资料语言学重要理论回顾
吉林省考研外国语言文学复习资料语言学重要理论回顾语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及语言的结构、规则、演化和运用等方面。
对于准备参加吉林省考研外国语言文学专业的考生来说，掌握语言学的重要理论是复习的关键。
本文将对语言学的重要理论进行回顾，帮助考生系统地梳理知识点，为考试做好准备。
一、语言的定义语言是人类的交际工具，是一套特定的符号和规则系统。
语言的功能包括交流思想、表达情感、传递信息等。
语言学家西奥多·维特根斯坦曾指出：“语言是个游戏。
”这个简洁而深刻的定义揭示了语言的本质特征，即语言是一种社会行为，需要在特定的社会和文化中才能发挥作用。
二、语音学语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的规律。
其中，语音的基本单位是音素，而音素又可以分为元音和辅音。
元音的特点是声带振动，气流顺畅，口腔开放，不受其他音素影响；辅音则相对较复杂，需要通过口腔或鼻腔的狭窄处产生摩擦或阻塞来发音。
除了音素，语音学还研究音节、音变规则和重音等音韵现象，帮助我们理解语言中的发音规则和变化模式。
三、音系学音系学是研究不同语言中音素系统的差异和相似的科学。
它可以通过比较各种语言的音库，发现它们的共同特点和异同之处。
音系学不仅可以帮助我们学习和分析不同语言的发音规则，还可以为外语学习提供参考和指导。
四、形态学形态学研究的是语言的形态结构。
形态学的基本概念是词根、词缀和词干。
其中，词根是词的核心部分，包含词汇的基本意义；词缀则是可附加在词根上构成新词的元素；词干则是由词根和词缀组成的词的主干。
形态学通过对不同语言中词的形态结构进行分析，揭示了它们的词汇形成规则和变化模式。
五、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和组织规则的科学。
句法学的基本单位是短语和句子。
短语由词和其他短语组成，而句子则是由短语组合而成的更大的语言单位。
句法学通过分析句子的结构和组织方式，揭示了语言中的语法规则和句法关系。
六、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的科学。
它探究的是词、短语和句子的意义和语用功能。
句法学复习要点及习题
句法学复习要点及习题句法学复习要点及习题1.In linguistics, the word SYNTAX refers to the study of the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a Language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a Language, syntaxhas long been the center of grammatical study.3.In some languages, grammatical gender had little to do with the biological sex.4.In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively.5.The forms of words can be restricted by grammatical categories through concord or agreement and through government.5.concord(grammar) agreement between words in gender, number, etc, (e.g. between averb and a plural noun as its subject)6.The idea of government is necessary in languages like Latin and German to account for theway in which certain prepositions and verbs determine the case of nouns.7.Descriptive---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)8.Prescriptive----lay down rules for “correct”linguistic behavior in using language(traditional grammar)9.The STRUCTURAL approach to the analysis of Language was started by the Swiss linguistFerdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20th century.10.Saussure believes that, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts:signified(concept) and signifier (sound image).11.Saussure identified two principal types of relations: Syntagmatic relations andparadigmatic relations.12.The Syntagmatic relation(结构关系, 组合关系)is the relation between one item and othersin a sequence, or between elements which are all present.13.The STRUCTURAL approach to the analysis of Language was started by the Swiss linguistFerdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20th century.There are syntactic conditions and semantic conditions the words must meet.4-2-a The boy kicked the ball.4-2-b *Boy the ball kicked the.4-2-c *The ball kicked the boy.Words in and 4-2-b violate syntactic rules and in 4-2-c violate semantic conditions.14.The Syntagmatic relation(结构关系, 组合关系)is the relation between one item andothers in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.15.The paradigmatic relation(聚合体关系)Saussure originally called ASSOCIATIVE, is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in structure, or between one element present and theothers absent.The sequence which a sign forms with those in a syntagmatic relation is sometimes called a STRUCTURE.To use the word in a more restricted sense, and the class of signs which are in a paradigmatic relation are sometimes called a SYSTEM.The syntagmatic relation is nowadays also refereed to as HORIZONAL RELATION or chain relation.And the paradigmatic relation is also known as the VERTICAL relation or CHOICE relation. 16.immediate constituent analysis This notion( immediate constituent)was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield(Language, 1933.) This construction may be a sentence, may be a word group, may also be a word. The last level of constituents is morphemes, known as ultimate constituents.17.In 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed the transformational-generative grammar(TG)(转换生成语法), thus providing a model for the description of human languages.The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences.In his aspects of the theory of syntax, Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic, phonological, and semantic.the love of God, is a only surface structure. There are in fact two deep structures:God loves somebodySomebody loves God/doc/2d15858804.html,petence Vsperformance19.Surface Structure Vs Deep Structurea. The professor’s appointment was shocking.b. Mary and Bill or John sent the gift.c. The horse is ready to ride.d. Old men and women are hard to live with.20.There may also be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME.Vilem Mathesius:In his terminology, the first term refers to ―that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker pro ceeds‖, and the second ―what the speaker states out, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance‖ (Danes 1974).21.The theme is the starting point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause istaking off. (Halliday1994:38)22.Marked theme vs. Unmarked themea.My son’s bicycle was stolen.b.Helen will also go with you.23.It is characteristic of Halliday’s theory that more attention is paid to paradigmatic relationsthan to Syntagmatic relations, which is the main concern of Chyomsky.24.Halliday argues that there are three general functions of language:ideational(which issubdivided into experiential and logical), interpersonal and textual.Ⅲ. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysisⅣ. Answer the following questions.1. Distinguish the two possible meanings of ―more beautiful flowers‖ by means of IC analysis.答案1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentencesin a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. Ⅳ.(1) more | beautiful flowers (2) more beautiful | flowers语义学复习要点及习题1.The naming theory（命名说）is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.1.The conceptualist view（概念论）is one concerning meaning. According to this view, thereis no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.2.Behaviorism: According to this view, the meaning of a lang uage form is the ―situation inwhich the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. (Bloomfield 1933: 139)3.Contextualism（语境论）：is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should bestudied in terms of situation, use, context.4.Same reference but different sense:e.g. VenusThe evening star west. (sunset)The morning star east. (sunrise)Same object (same reference) but different sense (different aspect); different ways of referring to the same thing.5.Conceptual meaning is also called ―denotative‖（外延义）or “cognitive”meaning. Thisrefers to the definition given in the dictionary.6.Connotative meaning may vary according to culture, historical period and the experience ofthe individual, and thus are indeterminate and open-ended.7.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.8.Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphologicalshape have different meanings.9.According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories:1) Complementary antonyms互补性反义Complementary antonyms are also callednon-gradable antonyms. They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of the other.male---female; married---single; alive---dead;2) Gradable antonyms (可分等级的反义词) There are often intermediate form between thetwo members of a pair of antonyms . So it is a matter of degree. “old”and “young”3) Relational antonyms（关系反义词）They are pairs of lexemes or expressions whosecrucial semantic features display a reciprocal (相互的) relationship.husband --- wifeMy only love sprung from my only hate!Too early seen unknown, and known too late.Antonyms can also be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.To achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought.10.Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.11.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexical items.12.Relations between sentencesA. Entailment (蕴涵）B. Presupposition （前提，预设）C. Inconsistency （矛盾）D. Synonymy （同义）练习题：What are the three kinds of antonymy?According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories: 1) Complementary antonyms互补性反义Complementary antonyms are also called non-gradable antonyms. They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of the other. male---female2) Gradable antonyms (可分等级的反义词)There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree. For example, “old‖ and ―young‖ are immediately recognized as antonyms, but they stand for two extremes, between which there exist intermediate forms representing different degrees of being old or young, such as ―middle-aged‖, ―mature”, “elderly3) Relational antonyms（关系反义词）(成对的；相对相辅关系的；关系对立的反义词)（在意义上是相对称的，它们处于相互关系的对立面，又叫换位反义词。
英语语言学 句法学
Functional Approach declarative (陈述句), interrogative (疑问句), imperative (祈使句), exclamatory (感叹句).
3.3 IC Analysis (直接成分分析法):
Constituent (构成成分)
immediate constituent（直接成分） ultimate constituent （最终成分）
Aux-movement（助动词移动）
The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as be, have, do, will, can, and should.
eg. John will buy a present. Will John buy a present?
IC Analysis refers to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.
（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二 分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分 －词素。）
The XP rule
The X stands for the head of N,A,V and P.
The X bar theory（X杠理论）
The coordinate rule
3.Sentence （句子）
3.1 The sentence rule
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words arenot usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Languageis human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught late r when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
【外语学习】邓乔楠英语语言学考研串讲讲义(句法学)综合胡壮麟和戴炜栋版本ppt模版课件
Deep structure & surface structure
• Consider one more sentence: • Flying planes can be dangerous.
• It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.
Unit Four: Syntax
By Tony Deng
Main content
• Introduction to Syntax • The traditional approach • The structural approach • The generative approach • The functional approach
• The next level of sentence representation is the S-structure where syntactic/grammatical cases such as nominative/grammatical subject and accusative/grammatical object are assigned.
suggested that if we have the notion trace
D-structure and S-Structure
• In Government/Binding theory, the D-structure is an abstract level of sentence representation where semantic roles such as agent (the doer of an action) and patient (the entity affected by an action) are assigned to the sentence.
英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学word精品
Chapter 4 ：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composedof sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a languagespeaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able toproduce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed andnew members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognizedand discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usuallyfollows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list ofwords and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s _______ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s _______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s ____ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and whichsays something about the subject is grammatically called p .19. A c _______ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an e ______________ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22. A ___ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P _____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principlesto operate in one wayor another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C ___ c ondition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered _______ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embeddedclause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have __ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ___________________ .A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally calledA. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that _______ .A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ___ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34. ______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules 42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure oflanguage. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to becombined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question orcommand. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and apredicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called aphrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the wayeach noun phrase in the sentence relates to theverb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what towhom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofintern alized lin guistic kno wledge of a Ian guage speaker known aslin guistic compete nee.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattran sform one sentence type into ano ther type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before moveme nt takes place. Phrase structure rules,with the in serti on of the lexic on, gen erate senten ces at the levelof D-structure.V. An swer the follow ing questi ons:43. What are the basic comp onents of a senten ce?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate whichcontains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of senten ces? Illustrate them with examples.Traditio nally, there are three major types of senten ces. They are simplesentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simplesentence consists of a single clause which contains a subjectand a predicate and sta nds alone as its own senten ce, for example:Joh n reads exte nsively.A coordi nate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coord in ati ng conjun cti on, such as "an d", "but", "or". Forexample:Joh n is read ing a lin guistic book, and Mary is prepari ngfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do nothave equal status, one is subordi nate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence isuttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after ano ther in a seque nee. A closer exam in ati on of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequenee of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. I n fact, sen ten ces are alsohierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of thesamesyntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a lin ear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural con stitue nts.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it isbelieved to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. NP VPDetVt NPDetThe boy likes the mus|c. tree diagrams in the an alysis of 46. What are the adva ntages of using47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NPmovementinvolves the movementof a noun phrase. NP-movementoccurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B) . The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movementof the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to theleft.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
语言学第四章句法学考研真题
Chapter Four: SyntaxI 名词解释1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）deep structure考点分析：考查深层结构的定义Answer: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.2. (中山大学2004，吉林大学2000年考题) category考点分析：范畴的定义Answer: The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in a narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 3. (华南理工大学2004年考题)constituent考点分析：考查成分的定义Answer: Constituent refers to a component element of a sentence.4. (中山大学2003年考题)immediate constituent analysis考点分析：考查直接成分分析法.Answer: Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.5. (南开大学2003年考题)endocentric construction考点分析：向心结构的定义Answer: Endocentric construction one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also known as a headed construction.6. (南开大学2001年考题) exocentric construction考点分析：离心结构的定义Answer: “Exocentric construction”, the opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole to the whole group; that is to say, there is no definable center or head inside the group.7.（武汉大学2003年考题）transformational roles考点分析：转换规则的定义Answer: In Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, transformational rules are those rules which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. A transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which is rewritten as another sequence according to certain convention.II 填空题1. (中山大学2003年考题）The category of ____ is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with sixdistinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative考点分析：考查格范畴在拉丁语中的特点Answer: case2. (中山大学2003年考题)____ construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase,predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.考点分析：考查哪些短语属于离心结构Answer: Exocentric3. (电子科技大学2002年考题)In the construction of the phrase “the girl”, the immed iateconstituents of it are _____.考点分析：直接成分及成分名称Answer: the determiner plus the noun phrase4. (苏州大学1997 年考题)Transformational rules are those which relate or transform ____ of a sentence into ____考点分析：转换规则的作用Answer: deep structure; surface structureIII 选择题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004 年考题）____refers to the relations holding between elementsreplaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.a. Syntagmatic relationb. Paradigmatic relationc. Co-occurrence relation考点分析：考查对横，纵组合关系定义的掌握Answer: b2. (东南大学2002年考题)According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ____contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.a. deep structureb. surface structurec. transformational rulesd. PS-rules考点分析：乔姆斯基标准理论中的观点Answer: aIV 问答题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004年考题）Distinguish the two pos sible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.考点分析：用直接成分分析法分析有歧义词组的结构Answer:more beautiful flowers more beautiful flowersAdj. Adj. N Adv. Adj. NNP2. (北京第二外国语大学200年考题) Tell is each of the following is endocentric or exocentric construction.1. take a break2. an extremely difficult book3. ladies and gentlemen4. at present5. swimming in the lake考点分析：分析短语属于离心结构还是向心结构Answer: 1. exocentric 2. endocentric 3. endocentric 4. exocentric 5. endocentric 3.（东南大学2001年考题）Explain and exemplify the following PS rules:NP → (D) N (S)AUX →t (M) (have-en) (being)考点分析：考查对某一短语结构的描述Answer:1) The first rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, a) the man who came to see me last night and b) Michael, who had never been there before.2) The second rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect tense (have-en), or be plus an ing of a verb. E.g.Aux --- t (M): May I read your paper?Aux --- t (have-en): Have you finished your paper?Aux --- t (being): Are you reading your paper?4.(大连外国语学院2001，2002年考题)Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations.1) Neg she past work last week2) Tag you past meet him3) policemen past be + en beat John4) Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON5) Q he past do SOMETHING6) Imp you pres will wash you7) [Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore]8) the girl [the girl pres be beautiful] pres be from China考点分析：讲深层结构转换为表层结构Answer:1) She didn’t work last week2) Y ou me t him, didn’t you?3) The policemen were beaten by John4) Why is the professor angry?5) What did he do?6) Wash yourself7) Mary didn’t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn’t go to the bookstore either8) The girl who is beautiful is from China5.(广东外语外贸大学2004年考题)On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.1) John walked slowly2) Tom talked with Jack very quickly3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early考点分析：实例分析，归纳副词短语和动词短语的结构规则Answer: Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP → (Deg) Adv (Deg stands for degree words)VP → V (NP) (VP) (AdvP)6. (苏州大学1997年考题)Draw a tree diagram according to PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:考点分析：用树形图分析句子的深层结构Answer:S∣∣∣NP VP∣∣-∣∣∣∣∣Det NP V NP adv∣∣∣∣∣The student wrote yesterday∣∣Det N∣∣a letter。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
法学英语复习资料
法学英语复习资料一、法学英语的基础知识1、法律术语熟悉常见的法律术语是学习法学英语的基础。
例如，“contract（合同）”、“tort（侵权）”、“property（财产）”、“criminal law（刑法）”、“civil law（民法）”等。
注意术语的准确拼写和含义，避免混淆。
2、法律体系了解英美法系（Common Law System）和大陆法系（Civil Law System）的特点和区别。
掌握英美法系中的判例法（Case Law）和制定法（Statutory Law）的相关知识。
3、法律文书格式学习法律文书如起诉书（Indictment）、答辩状（Answer）、判决书（Judgment）等的格式和常用表达。
二、语法和词汇1、语法重点掌握法律英语中的长难句结构，如复杂的从句和被动语态的使用。
注意法律文件中时态的准确运用，通常使用一般现在时和一般过去时。
2、词汇积累除了基本的法律术语，还需积累一些常见的法律相关词汇，如“litigant（诉讼当事人）”、“jur isdiction（管辖权）”、“precedent（先例）”等。
注意一词多义在法律语境中的特殊含义，例如“action”在普通英语中表示“行动”，在法律英语中常指“诉讼”。
三、阅读与理解1、法律条文阅读选取真实的法律法规条文进行阅读练习，理解其中的条款和规定。
学会分析条文的结构和逻辑关系。
2、案例分析阅读英文的法律案例，了解案件的事实、争议焦点和法院的判决理由。
培养从案例中提取关键信息和运用法律知识进行分析的能力。
四、写作与翻译1、法律文书写作练习写法律备忘录（Legal Memorandum）、法律意见书（Legal Opinion）等，注意语言的准确性和规范性。
遵循法律文书的写作格式和要求，包括标题、引言、正文、结论等部分。
2、翻译技巧掌握法律英语中常见的翻译技巧，如直译、意译、增译、减译等。
注意法律术语的翻译要准确无误，符合专业规范。
语法学、句法学方向研究生阅读书目
语法学、句法学方向研究生阅读书目国外书目：有影响和较新的认知语言学和语法书目：Talmy, L. 2012. Toward a Cognitive Semantics (Volume I): Concept Structuring Systems[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/The MIT Press.Talmy, L. 2012. Toward a Cognitive Semantics (Volume II): Typology and Process in Concept Structuring[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/The MIT Press. Radden, G. & R. Dieven, 2007, Cognitive English Grammar[M].John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam/Philadelphia.Svartvik, J. & G. Leech. 2012. English: One Tongue, Many Voices[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/The MIT Press.Levelt, W. J. M. 2012. Speaking: From Intention to Articulation[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/The MIT Press.Comrie, B. 2005. Tense [M]. Beijing: Peking University Press.Langacker, R. W. 2004. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar[M]. California: Stanford University Press. (V olume I & V olume II)Huddleston, R. et al. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language[M]. London: Cambridge University Press.Downing, A. & P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar[M]. London and New York: Routledge.Ungerer, F. & H. J. Schmid, 2001, An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Biber, D. et al. 2000. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Swan, M. 1995. Practical English Usage[M]. London: Oxford University Press.Declerck, R. 1992. Tense in English: Its Structure and Use in Discourse [M]. Beijing: World Publishing Corporation.Binnik, R. I. 1991. Time and the Verb: A Guide to Tense and Aspect[M]. New York: Oxford University Press.Sinclair, J. et al. 1990. Collins Cobuild English Grammar[M]. London: Harper Collins Publishers Ltd.Alexander, L. G. 1988. Longman English Grammar [M]. New York: Longman, Inc..Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M]. London: Longman Group Limited.Celce-Murcia, M. and D. Larsen-Freeman. 1983. The Grammar Book---An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course [M]. London: Longman.Thomson, A. J. and A. V. Martinet. 1980. A Practical English Grammar[M]. London: Oxford University Press.Palmer, F. R. 1979. Modality and the English Modals[M]. Longman Group Limited.Close, R. A. 1977. A Reference Grammar for Students of English[M]. London: Longman. Leech, G. 1977. Meaning and the English Verb[M]. London: Longman Group Limited. Palmer, F. R. 1974. The English Verb[M]. London: Longman Group Limited.Quirk, R. and S. Greenbaum. 1974. A University Grammar of English[M]. London: Longman. Quirk, et al. 1972. A Grammar of Contemporary English[M]. London: Longman.Leech, G. and J. Svartvik. 1971. A Communicative Grammar of English[M]. London: Longman. Joos, M. 1964. The English Verb: Form and Meaning [M]. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.有影响的传统语法体系书目：Jespersen, O. 1909-1949. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles I-VII[M].Copenhagen: Munksgaard.Jespersen, O. 1924. The Philosophy of Grammar[M]. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.Jespersen, O. 1939. Essentials of English Grammar[M]. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.Poutsma, H. 1926-1929. A Grammar of Late Modern English[M]. Groningen: Noordhoff. Curme, G. O. 1931. Syntax, A Grammar of the English Language [M]. Boston: Heath. Kruisinga, O. 1931-1932. A Handbook of Present-Day English[M]. Groningen: Noordhoff.国内英语语法专著：徐立吾，1987，《当代英语实用语法》[M]。
英语专八人文知识 语言学必背第5讲-句法学
英语专八人文知识语言学必背第5讲:句法学第五节句法学Syntax一、基本概念研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.二、几个重要概念1．横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations：即词序word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系纵聚合关系Paradigmatic relations：把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot，则同义或相近词都可填入此槽，这就是词间纵聚合关系注：词的横组合及纵聚合关系是其句法理论的重要组成部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of 索绪尔Saussure’s syntactic theory.2．直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis：通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段3．语法范畴Grammatical Categories：指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征definding properties名词：性Gender，数Number，格Case【数：单数Singular和双数Dual；性：阴性Feminine和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter；格：代词主格Nominative，宾格Accusative，名词一般格General和所有格Genitive】动词：时态Tense，体Aspect，语态V oice三、关于句子：the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位1．句子关系：一致关系Agreement：两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致，主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。
如this man/these men支配关系Government：一个或几个单词因受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致，如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等2. 句子的扩展Extension of sentence三种方法：结合Conjoining，嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness3. 句子结构向心结构Endocentric construction：具有核心的结构体。
2021考研英语：句法学的语法技巧
2021考研英语：句法学的语法技巧考研英语有许多题目组成，方便大家及时了解，下面由小编为你精心准备了“2021考研英语：句法学的语法技巧”，持续关注本站将可以持续获取更多的考试资讯!2021考研英语：句法学的语法技巧语言学在其产生初期与发展过程中曾一度受阻，遭到人们的非议。
句法学(syntax)一词源自于希腊语，它的字面意思是排列，主要研究的是语言的句子结构。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子，而合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
对于本族语者来说，句法知识不是课堂上学到的内容，而是在人们大约三、四岁的时候，成功习得母语之后就已经掌握的东西。
即使多年不使用母语，它也不会发生明显的退化，因为根据最新的研究，句法知识可以定位到人们大脑中特定的某个区域，除非因为发生意外，大脑收到损伤，否则这种能力一直都存储于大脑之中。
20世纪中叶，维诺格拉多夫院士指出：句子是形式和意义的统一体，句法学的主要任务是描写句法结构和语义结构，以及它们之间的对应关系。
换句话说，句法学主要的研究对象并不仅限于句子，它还应该包括：各种构成句子的结构，例如，词组或短语、句子的构成方法及构成的顺序。
尤其是当句子被运用在不同的抽象语境中的时候，句子结构在表意层面上会有非常大的区别。
虽然句法学一直是语言学中一个非常重要的分支，但在人们的日常生活中，似乎很少有人会提到它。
这主要是由于很多时候，当谈到句子的结构时，人们往往会使用语法(grammar)一词来代替它。
例如，剑桥出版过一本广受好评的英语语法教材《Advanced Grammar in Use》，在书名中同样使用了grammar一词。
那么，句法学和人们喜欢提到的语法之间到底有什么不同之处呢?一般情况下，广义上的语法研究的内容更加丰富一些，它不仅会讨论句子的结构、句子的构成方法以及构成的顺序，而且还会研究词性、构词法以及单词搭配等这些看似属于词汇学的研究范畴的东西，甚至有时候还会讨论语素学和音系学中的一些规则。
英语语言学第十一章笔记
英语语言学第十一章笔记以下是英语语言学第十一章的笔记：英语语言学第十一章：句法学1、句法学简介句法学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究句子的构造和规则。
它涉及词汇、词序、短语和句子等不同级别的语言单位，以及这些单位之间的关系。
2、句子的构成句子由主语和谓语构成。
主语通常由名词或名词短语担任，而谓语则描述主语的动作或状态。
例如，“The cat sat on the mat.”（猫坐在垫子上。
）中，“The cat”是主语，“sat”是谓语。
3、词序和短语词序是句子中词语的排列顺序。
在大多数情况下，英语中的主语、谓语和宾语的顺序是固定的。
此外，短语是一种由两个或更多词语组成、共同表达一个意思的语言单位。
常见的短语类型包括名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。
4、句子结构英语中的句子结构可以分为简单句和复杂句两种。
简单句是由一个主语和一个谓语组成的句子，例如“I am a student.”（我是一个学生。
）复杂句则包含一个或多个从句，从句通常是名词性从句或定语性从句。
例如，“The cat that sat on the mat is black.”（坐在垫子上的猫是黑色的。
）是一个包含定语性从句的复杂句。
5、转换语法转换语法是句法学的一个重要分支，研究如何通过改变词语的属性或结构来改变句子的意义。
例如，“I like eating pizza”和“Pizza is delicious”是两个意义不同的句子，但它们可以通过转换语法相互转化。
6、语言习得和句法学句法学在语言习得中扮演着重要的角色。
研究发现，儿童在习得语言时通常会先学会基本的词汇和短语，然后逐渐学习更复杂的句子结构和语法规则。
句法学的研究有助于我们更好地理解儿童语言习得的过程，也为二语习得提供了重要的理论依据。
英语语言学--句法学
Chapter Six Syntax
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--- The internal structures of sentences --- different treatments of sentence structure by different linguistic schools ---IC analysis, deep structure, surface structure, tree diagram
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The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure, so called because such a diagram looks like an inverted tree. S
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1. Definition
--- the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, that is, the study of the formation of sentences.
或词组之间没有连词)(如:"I came, I saw, I conquered.")
Embedding嵌入法 is a process of construction whereby one clause is a constituent of another or is subordinated to another. 8
英语专业考研语言学复习资料 句法学
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linearorder, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge ofa language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitivephrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a completelist of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of thelexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence fromaffirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammatically calledp_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD.subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis ofsentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstractrules that allow words to be combined with other words to formgrammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verbphrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as"and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, asyntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexicalcategory) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performsa particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functionalrelations of constituents are called grammatical relations. Thegrammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrasein the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammaticalrelations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of allhuman languages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
法律英语考试复习资料
Lesson one1、a cause of action案由2、social norms 社会标准3、substantive law实体法4、procedural law程序法5、resolve disputes解决纠纷6、provide for规定7、be entitled to 有权······8、law of contracts合同法9、private law私法10、public law公法11、constitution law宪法12、administration law行政法13、criminal law刑法14、the law of torts 侵权法15、the civil law system大陆法体系16、the common law普通法17、the operation of the judicial processes司法程序的运作18、the United States Congress美国国会19、judge-made law判例法20、judicial decision 司法决定Lesson twomulti-state transactions 多重性choice of law 法律的选择substantive rights实体权利conflicts of law 法律冲突choice of forum 法院的选择courts of limited jurisdiction 有限管辖权法院courts of general jurisdiction 一般管辖权法院trial courts初审法院inferior court低级法院superior court 高级法院supreme court最高法院circuit court 巡回法院district court区法院appellate court上诉法院intermediate appellate court中级宪法at the discretion of 由······自由裁量court of limited subject matter jurisdiction 有限对事管辖权法院the amount in controversy争议数额diversity jurisdiction多元管辖federal question联邦问题the United States Courts of Appeals美国上诉法院the Court of Appeals for the district of ······特区上诉法院the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit联邦巡回法院the Supreme Court of the United States联邦最高法院original jurisdiction初审管辖权Lesson threejudicial process司法程序serve our purpose达到我们的目的regulatory and enabling legislation 规范性和授权性法规the adversary system抗辩制trial procedure 审判程序the inquisitorial system纠问制regulatory legislation规范性法规direct and cross examination直接质证、间接质证procedural safeguards程序保障due process正当程序on his own case 证明自己的立场impartial investigation 不偏不倚的调查resort to law诉诸法律resort to force诉诸武力turn on 取决于，依赖Lesson fourlegal relief 法律救济arbitration仲裁jurisdiction over the person of the defendant对被告的人身管辖权courts of original jurisdiction初审管辖权法院minimum contacts最低限度的联系be filed with 把······登记备案service of process送达give notice to通知service by publication公告送达a motion to dismiss驳回动议pleading-in-answer 答辩状sue对······提起诉讼redress纠正，补救summons传票affirmative defense积极抗辩counter-claim反诉on one’s part(on the part of )就某人而言，在某人一方；某人有责任的under penalty of （违者）以·······惩治in essence实质上default judgment缺席判决Lesson fivepre-trial discoveryquestion sb under oath经宣誓后质问某人lay a basis for为····打基础written interrogatories 质询书the interrogatory party 质询方discovery devices 取证方法compulsory physical examination 强制体检person injury case 人身伤害案discovery procedures 取证程序discovery requests 取证要求the violating party 违反的一方a pretrial conference 审前会议summary judgment 即决判决the opposing party 对方at the pleading stage 起诉答辩阶段decide the case in the mover’s favor of 作出有利于动议方的判决legitimate function 合法功能a fact of life 无法回避的事实interrogatory questions 质询的问题set the case for trial 将案件提交庭审depose 宣誓作证；选时候录取····的证词legitimate合法的Lesson sixthe Seventh Amendment to the Constitution 宪法第七修正案impanel the jury 组成陪审团challenge for cause 相对异议peremptory challenges 绝地异议opening statement 公开声明发言directed verdict 指令性裁决find in his favor 作出有利于他的立场判决non-moving party 非动议方charge the jury 给陪审团上课final argument 最后陈述general information 一般知识the burden of proof 举证责任a preponderance of the evidence 优势证据general verdict 一般裁决special verdict 特殊裁决legal effect 法律后果a nonunanimous verdict 不一致的裁决post-trial motions 审后动议judgment notwithstanding the verdict 推翻陪审团裁决的判决Lesson sevenrender a judgment on default 作出缺席判决a writ of execution 执行令judgment creditor 判决债权人judgment debtor判决债务人garnishment 扣押dispose of 把····处理掉attachment 财产保全exempt from····使····免于，使····不受set aside 撤回，驳回judicial proceedings 司法程序a writ of certiorari 调取卷宗令reverse the judgment 推翻原判written briefs 书面摘要affirm the judgment 维持原判modify the judgment 改判written opinion 书面意见书concurring and dissenting opinion 同意意见和反对意见set forth 陈述，阐明res judicata已决案件Lesson eightstand trial 出庭受审no crime without a law 法无明文规定不为罪due process 正当司法程序deprive sb of 剥夺某人的····double jeopardy 一事不再罚a summary arrest 即行逮捕pursuant to 遵循indictment 控告，公诉书grand jury 大陪审团booking 入册an appearance 出庭a preliminary hearing 预审information （公诉人的）控告，检察官的起诉书arraignment （对被告的）传讯nolo contendere 不争辩，不提异议plead guilty （对控告）表示服罪，承认有罪plea bargaining 认罪辩诉协议narcotics cases 毒品案件on probation 在缓刑期内，在监外执行期内suspended sentence 缓刑conviction 定罪，确认有罪。
英语语言学知识点整理
英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。
2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。
3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。
二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。
2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。
3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。
语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。
三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。
它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。
2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。
3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。
四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。
2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。
词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。
3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。
同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。
语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。
以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。
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Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linearorder, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge ofa language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitivephrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a completelist of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of thelexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence fromaffirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammatically calledp_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD.subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis ofsentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstractrules that allow words to be combined with other words to formgrammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verbphrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as"and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, asyntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexicalcategory) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performsa particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functionalrelations of constituents are called grammatical relations. Thegrammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrasein the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammaticalrelations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of allhuman languages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate theconstituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.（注：文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，供参考。