词汇学笔记文档4
词汇学 _ 《现代汉语词汇》笔记
词汇学 | 《现代汉语词汇》笔记第⼀章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语⾔中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语⾔学的分⽀之⼀词汇：语⾔中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语⾔中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词⼀样作为⼀个整体来运⽤的语⾔单位。
包括熟语和专⻔⽤语词汇学分类普通词汇学（⼀般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产⽣和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语⾔研究三“⼩学”—⾳韵学、训诂学、⽂字学古代语⾔学名著《尔雅》训诂学第⼀本义类词典《⽅⾔》⽤通⾔解释⽅⾔《释名》语⾔考理据《说⽂解字》第⼀本⽂字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建⽴与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建⽴：涌现了⼀批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究⽅法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单⾳节为主，词以双⾳节为主，但单⾳节词使⽤频率更⾼多⾳节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语⾔：咖啡巧克⼒沙发词语呈现双⾳化趋势为什么？内在驱动⼒：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的⽭盾社会发展：旧词新义、⾳变构词、两个词复合构词语⾳系统简化（避免同⾳）明确表意：新产⽣的双⾳词意义明确；原有单⾳节词部分义项被取代⽽减少审美追求（双⾳节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：⻓度增加，表义明确途径单⾳节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发⽑笔松⿏⽉亮眉⽑单⾳节语素的前⾯或后⾯添加⼀个不表示具体意义的附加成分：⽼⻁阿姨桌⼦⽯头意义相同、相近或相对的单⾳节语素联合起来使⽤：国家意义寻找⽛⻮⽪肤忘记停⽌单⾳节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单⾳节词替换成与原语素⽆关的双⾳节词：眼睛（⽬）筷⼦（箸）匣⼦（椟）⼤腿（股）三⾳节词省略其中⼀个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四⾳节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语⼤体⼀致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同⾳语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与⾮词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作⽤少量语素构成⼤量合成词缺少词形变化成语⼀般由四个⾳节组成⾳节相对⽽⾔较短量词、语⽓词丰富离合词多，使⽤频率⾼叠⾳词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语⾔学相关学科的关系（了解）与语⾳学：语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语⾳⼿段来表现，语⾳是词的⾳响形式。
词汇学笔记
课程代码：8268，广东省命题。
作者：胡玉生(本笔记仅适合广东自考生，熟记此笔记则可通过考试。
外省自考生仅供参考。
若考全国题则会超出广东省大纲,故本文参照全国大纲略有增加内容,并注有"另增加"字样。
)NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYC1. A General Survey to English Vocabulary1.1 Lexicology1.1.1 Definition ：Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and m eanings of words.1.1.2 The Nature and Scope：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the m orphologicalstructures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, form ation and usages.1.1.3 The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with amd extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as m orphology, semantics,etym ology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicographay.1.1.4 The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook,English Lexicology will definitely be benefical for students of English.A good knowledge of m orphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-m eaning and enable them to organize,classify and st ore words more effectively.The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of m eaning and usage,and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately.A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skils of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study1.2 The Development of English Vocabulary1.2.1 The Indo-European Family of Languages：It is one of the m ain family of languages in the world.Itcontains most European languages（e.g. English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, rusian etc.）and som e Asian languages(e.g. Hindi, Bangali,Urdu,Persian etc.)1.2.2 The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages1.2.2.1 The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.1.2.2.2 The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.1.2.2.3 The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.1.2.2.4 The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.1.2.2.5 The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.1.2.2.6 The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian) etc.1.2.2.7 The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.1.2.2.8 The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.1.2.3 The Seven Im portant Elements of English vocabulary development1.2.3.1 The Roman Conquest of the British Isles.1.2.3.2 The settlem ent of three Germanic tribes in the British Isles.1.2.3.3 The introduction of Christianity into England.1.2.3.4 The Scandinavian invasions.1.2.3.5 The Norman Conquest of England（诺曼征服）.1.2.3.6 The Renaissance(文艺复兴).1.2.3.7 The migration of English-speaking people to north America,Australia and South Africa.1.2.4 The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary@1.2.4.1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period (OE,450-1100): The dialects of three German tribes is the basic of the establishment of the all national English.At this old English period,the most words are from the Germanic LanguageGroup,only little loan words,and seldom use loan words,often combine two n ative words into a new word to express complicated concepts or things.1.2.4.2 Middle English Period (ME,1100-1500): The Norman Conquest caused the French as the ruling language in England,thus large sums of words were loan into English,and large sums of English native words vanished at the sametime.From then on, English begins the history of borrowing words from other languages.1.2.4.3 Modern English Period (1500-present) The introduction of the printing art（印刷术）into Britain caused the united and steady form of English words established.1.2.5 The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its cause.Neologis ms swept in at a rate much faster than that before World War II,thus caused the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary. There are three causes:1.2.5.1 Marked progress of science and technology: Since World War II,treamendous new words in all fields of science of technology have been creating to the English vocabulary,such as radioactivity,chain reaction,ballistic missiles,etc.1.2.5.2 Socio-economic,political and cultural changes: New social habits and living conditions necessitate the introduction of new words,such as credit card, teach-in, saleswoman,black studies,open classroom,call-in,roller-hockey etc.1.2.5.3 The influence of other cultures and languages: The development of science and the rapid changes in society caused English borrowed large sums of word from other language,such as mao tai in Chinese,sputnik from Russian,autostrade from Italian, autopista from Spanish.1.3 The Composition of English Vocabulary1.3.1 The Native Element and the Foreign Element of the English Vocabulary1.3.2 The Basic Word-Stock(see1.5.1) and the Specialized Vocabularies(see 1.5.2)1.3.3 The Three Characteristic Features of the English Vocabulary@1.3.3.1 Copious(数量大):The vocabulary,in Webster"s New World English Dictionary（3 rd edition）is 450 thousands,is one of the most abundant language in the world.1.3.3.2Heterogeneous（来源广）:English is a mixed languaged,it’s greatly borrowed words continu ously to make itself be a perfect language in the development of 1500 years,especially in the occupied history.1..3.3 Varied（用法多）:English owns a character that the synoyms is especially rich,and the large loan words enrich the English to express.1.4 Word@1.4.1 Definition: A word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form,with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given syntactic function. Words are also either spoken or written.1.4.2 Sound and Meaning:？？1.4.3 Sound and Form:？？1.5 Classification of English Words According to Different Criteria@1.5.1 By Origin: Native Words and Loan Words1.5.1.1 Native Words:Native words,as known as Anglo-Saxon words,are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. And the main part of words in the English basic word- stock are native words.1.5.1.1.1 The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock:1)All-National character（全民通用性）:words of the basic word stock belong to the people as a whole,not to a limited group.They are not limited to a certain region or to a certain profession.2)Stability（相对稳定性）:The word in the basic word stock are likely to remain unchanged,bececause these words denote the commonest thing necessary to life.This stability,however,is relative,for changes take place in it very slowly,over centuries,in contrast to rapid development of techincal words.3) Productivity（多产性）/Word-forming ability（构词能力）:Basic words are very active in forming new words.For example,the word "hand" can be used to form such phrases as "first hand,hand in hand,to show one"s hand,etc."4) Collocability（可搭配性）/Ability to form collocations（搭配能力）:The great majority of the basic word stock are nativewords.They are the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing , although borrowed words are immensely(巨大的) useful in enriching the vocabulary and making the language flexible and resourceful.增加5)Polysymy（多义性）:A ll the words in the basic word-stock are always polysyms,their semantic meaning were changed duaring the development history,thus they became polysyms.1.5.1.1.2 The importance of the basic word stock: It is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.It is the most important part of vocabulary.1.5.1.2 Loan words: are those words which borrowed from other languages.1.5.1.2.1.Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词):borrowed words which have changed their original pronunciation and spelling into English style pronunciation and spelling, and they always are wrongly considered as native words,such cup from Latin cuppa, port from Latin portus.2) aliens（非同化词）: borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.e.g. decor（装饰）from French,kowtow（叩头）from Chinese.3) translation loans(译借词):words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.A：words translated according to the meaning（意译借词）,e.g. mother longue from Latin lingua materna,long time no see from Chinese haojiumeijian.B：words translated according to the sound （音译借词）,e.g. lama from Tibetian lama,kulak from Russian kyrak,ketchup from Chinese dialect ke-tsiap（番茄酱）.4) semantic loans（借义词）:Words whose meanings are borrowed and whose forms are not borrowed.e.g. dream originally means “happy,music” now borrows the meaning of dream from Scandinavian.1.5.1.2.2. Origins of loan words: from Latin,Greek,French,Scandinavian,German,Italian,Spanish,Portuguese,Arabic,Russian,Janpanese,Chinese.1.5.2 By level of usage:1.5.2.1 Common words（通用词）:Common or popular words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everday life.1.5.2.2 Literary words（文学词）(archaic words古典词,poetical words诗歌词);Literary words are chiefly uesd in writing,especially in books written in a more elevated style,in official documents,or in formal speeches.1）archaic words(古典词):Words are no longer in common use,although retained for sepecial purpose.2）poetical words(诗歌词):Words that are traditionally used only in poetry.1.5.2.3 Colloquial words（口语词）:Colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English,as in con versation among friends and colleagues.1.5.2.4 Slang words（俚语词）:A slang is an unconventional forms uesd many informal communication, it’s of vigorous or taboo(禁忌) nature and it’s used depend on intimacy(亲密的).1.5.2.5 Technical words(terminology):Technical or special words or terminology refer to those words used in various special fields.Every branch of science,every profession or trade,every art and very sort of sports has its own technical terms.1.5.2.6 Jargon（行话）（另增加）:It refers to the special words for the people to used in a certain technology,a field or vocation.1.5.2.7 Argot（黑话）（另增加）:It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.1.5.2.8 Neologis ms（新词语）（另增加）:Neologisms means newly created words or expressions,or words that have taken on new meanings.For exmples,email(elelctronic mail,the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in in formation technology.The word mouse might exemplifiy the words taking on new meanings: Now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.1.5.3 By notion（概念）: function words and content words.(p.26)1.5.3.1 function words: Function words are characteristics of their grammatical functions.They do not have much lexical mening of their own,and some are have no lexical meang at all. They serve to show the relationship between content word,they are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, propositions, auxilliaries,articles,and so on.They don’t have much lexical meaning but only serve grammatically.For example,the word “to” in the sentence “He asked her to rest” really means nothing but only serves as an infinitve maker.Characters:1) Function words behave like grammatical signals or functional markers,expressing the kinds of connection between content words. 2) Function words belong to a relatively samll and permanent set of words,in comparison to content words. There are total 154 function words in English.1.5.3.2 content words: Content words are used to name objects,qualities,actions,process or states,etc.and they have independent lexical meaning,they are the nouns,main verbs,adjectives and adverbs of language.1.5.3.3The differences between function words and content words:Content words are quite natural for people to use in different occupations,different places and at different time.They b elong to an open list which is open in the sense that it is indefinitely extendible,and new lexical items are constantly being created,and no one could make a complete list of all the content words in English. However,function words are few in number,they constitute the most frequently used group of words.And the form and word meaning of function words always are not changeable and extendible.Content words as a class are characterized by low frequency of occurrence in comparison with function words.1.5.4 On the morphemic level（P.45,moved from C2）1.5.4.1 Simple words: Those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man,work,king;1.5.4.2 Derived（complex）words: Those which are the result of derivational process,such words are usually consist of free morpheme and one（or more than one) bound morpheme,such as fruitless,fruitful,unfruitful,unfruitfulness;1.5.4.3 compound words: Those which are composed of two or more free morpheme,e.g. deepstructure,spacesuit,forget-me-not, maid-of-all-work.C2. Morphology(词法, 形态学)@Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and word-formation rules.2.1 Open class and closed class（另增加）2.1.1 Open classes(开放性词类): refers to the group of the words in the vocaburary that are individal extendible,we can regulary add new words. They are mostly content words,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives, adverbs etc.They make up the largest part of the vocabulary.2.1.2 Closed classes(封闭性词类):refers to the word in the vocabulary that are relatively stable,with nonew words added to them over a longtime.They are mostly function words,such as article,prepositions, conjunc- tions,etc.They are few in number but most frequently used in a language.2.2 The internal Structure of an English Word（英语单词的内部结构The internal structure of an English word refers to2.2.1 Root,stem,base （see 2.2.5.2）2.2.2 Affix（词缀）: Prefix（前缀）, Suffix（后缀）（2.2.5.2）2.2.3 Morpheme(语素):It refers to the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.It may be a root,a stem, a prfix or a suffix, and a ending is also a morpheme.A morpheme is the basic element of meaning,can combine number of distinct(独特的)units of meaning.2.2.4 Allomorph(语素变体):An allomorph is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form,but at the same in function and meaning. ie.: - es: in "boses" and “-s" in "banks" are allomorph of the same morpheme"-s".2.2.5 Types of Morphemes2.2.5.1. Free Morpheme: A free m orpheme is one that can stand by itself,e.g. work.2.2.5.2.Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.2.2.5.2.1. Bound root : see below "" root and stem""2.2.5.2.2. Affix(词缀)1)Inflectional Morpheme(or inflectinal affix )(屈折语素/词素)An inflectional m orpheme is always attached to a com plete word only to change the grammatical meaning of the word,without hanging the lexical m eaning as well as the word class of theword.e.g."-ed" in "worked" and "-s" in" books".2)Derivational Morphem e(dirivational affix)(派生语素/词素):A derivational morphem e is always conjoined to other m orphemes to form a new word.It changes the lexical m eaning of the originalmorphem e and usually changes the grammatical class.e.g. “de-” in “desirable” and “-s” in “books”A) prefix: A prefix is a morpheme that occurs before m orphemes.B) suffix: A suffix is a morpheme that occurs after other m orpheme.An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.2.2.5.2.3 root,stem and base（词根、词干和词基）:They are terms used in linguistics to designate(称呼) that part of a words that rem ains when all affixes have been remove d.1) Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the m ain lexical m eaning of the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., m an,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free m orpheme.Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachm ent to be added to a word to form a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be used tog ether with other elem ents to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”2) Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional m orpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. "worker" in "workers" is a stem.3) Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it m ay also be defined as ""a form to which a rule of word-form ation is applied.""This means that any root or stem can be term eda base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable.4) The differences between root,stem,base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root in international.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphem es,can be further analyszed,it som etimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-form ation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such as internation is a base in international.2.2.6 Relations among the internal structures1) The difference between a “suffix” and an “ending”:A suffix is a morpheme that occurs after other m orpheme,it"s a part of a word,cannot be cut ,otherwise the word m eaning is changed.Such -er is suffix in worker .But ending is an additional part of a verb which is used to express the changes in tense only,can be cut and the word m eaning is not changed.Such as -s is ending in worders,-ing in working,-ed in agree.2) The difference between a m orpheme and a syllable: A morpheme is not identical with a sylla ble.The form er is a linguistic unit of m eaning while the latter has nothing to do with m eaning. Besides,the syllabic structure of a word and its m orphemic structure often do not correspond.A morpheme may be represented by one syllable, such as in “boy” and“child”, or by two or more syllables,such as in “lady” and “crocodile”.In the word “disagreeable” there are five syllables but three m orphem es.2.3 Word-Form ation(2.3.1-2.3.3 at 45%three m ajor types;2.3.1-2.3.6(72%), 2.3.7-2.3.14 (28%) Word-formation or word-building is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language,in this case the English language, coins new words.There are 13 word-formations except loan words and it will be 12 if except neoclassical form ation. Word-formation rules define the scope and m ethods whereby speakers of a language m ay create new words.2.3.1 Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）:(p.54)@2.3.1.1 Definition: Compounding consists of com bining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical pounding is the m ost productive word-formation process in contem porary English.2.3.1.1.1 Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail;hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.2.3.1.1.2 Phonological criterion(语音标准) :2.3.1.1.3 Semantic criterion(语义标准) :2.3.1.2 Types of com poundings2.3.1.2.1 noun com pounds e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot2.3.1.2.2 adjective com pounds e.g. acid + head = acid-head2.3.1.2.3 verb com pounds e.g. house + keep = housekeep2.3.2 Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@It is a process of form ing new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or com bining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescopeA com bining form is a bound morpheme,which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek,such as auto-（from GK autos self）.2.3.2.1 Prefixation@：It"s the form ation of new words by adding a prefix or c om bing form to the base. e.g. be- adj. -- v. becalm,belittle.2.3.2.1.1 Major living prefixes1)""nagative ""prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)""reversative or privative ""prefixes:un-,de-dis etc.3)""pejorative ""prefixes: mis-, m al-, pseudo- etc.4)""degree or size ""prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)""attitude ""prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.6)""locative ""prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)""time and order ""prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)""number ""prefixes:uni-/m ono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.2.3.2.1.2 Some productive prefixes :anti-,de-,mini-,non-,re-,super-,un-/in-/im-/il-/ir- etc.2.3.2.2 Suffixation@: It"s the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to t he base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n. + hood -- boyhood n.2.3.3 Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）@It"s a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.e.g.: invade v. -- invasion n.(deverbal n.), attack v. -- attack n. , eye n. -- eye v.2.3.3.1 noun to verb conversion: e.g. radio n. -- to radio v.2.3.3.2 verb to noun conversion: e.g. cry v. -- cry n.2.3.3.3 adjective to verb conversion:1)intransitive verbs forming:to be, becom e,the quality denoted by the adjcetive.e.g slim adj.-slim v.2)transitive verbs m eaning: ""to cause som eone or something to be,gecom e,the quality denoted by the adjective"".e.g. free adj.--free v.2.3.3.4 adjective to noun converion: e.g. rich adj. -- rich v.2.3.3.5 other conversions : home n.-- adv. , through prep. --adj. , president adv.--adj. , pooh-poohed interj. -- v.He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (adv. -- n.)His talk contains too m any ifs and buts. (conj. --n.)2.3.4 Shortening (11%)（缩略法）:It refers to form a new word via shorten words or letters to a new words.2.3.4.1 Acronymy (9%) （首字母拼音法）@The process of form ing new words by joining the initial letters of nam es of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical term s.1). Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: It is a type of shortening,using the first letter of words to form a proper nam e,a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter. e.g. : BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)2). Acronym (首字母拼读词法):Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the nam e of an organization or a scientific term,etc.Acronym s differ from initialisms in that they are prounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. e.g. : NATO(the North Qtlantic Treaty Organization) pronuouced /`neitou/ but not /`en`ei`ti:`ou/.2.3.4.2 Clipping(2%)(截缩法)@：Clipping refers to a word-form ation process which involes the deletion of one or m ore syllables from a word(usually a noun),which is also availabe in its full form, e.g. plane from airplane,phone from telephone,etc.gym from gymnastics,taxi from taxicab.Clippings may be divided into four main types:1).Back clippings:2).Front clippings:3).Front and back cippings:4).Phrase cippings:2.3.5 Blending (6%) （混成法）@Blending is a process of word-from ation in which a new word is formed by com bining the m eanings and sounds of two words,one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms:e.g. : motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORT RAN2.3.6 Neoclassical Form ation (4%) （新古典词构成法）It denotes the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin andGreek (as in telephone) e.g.:an antibacterial agent produced by bacterial --- bacteriolin, one hundreth of a second--- entisecond2.3.7 Words From Proper Name (2%) （专有名词转成法）It refers to the coinage of common words from proper names.They com e from all sources,from names of scientists,politicians and statesm en,trademarks,place nam es,literature,TV film s,movies, book titles etc. e.g. : sir watt siem ens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）2.3.8 Back-Form ation (1%) （反成法或逆成法）@Back-formation is a term use to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. e.g. :beggar n. --- to beg, auditor --- to audit, donation - to donate2.3.9 Reduplication or Phrase Compounding (0.5%)（重叠法或短语合成法）It"s a word-formation by which a com pound wo rd s created by the repetition of1) one word like walkie-talkie(对讲机)，go-go;2) two alm ost identical words with a change in the vowe"s such as pingpong;3) two alm ost identical words with a change in the initial consonants ,as in teenyweeny.And m ost of reduplicatives are informal.Miscellaneous (20.5%) （其它类综合）2.3.10 Onomatopoeia拟声法:It"s a word-formation of forming new word by imitating the soundfrom animal and other natural phenomenon.e.g.:bang(砰的一声),jingle(叮当响),ding-dong(叮当作响）2.3.11 Gradation （元音替代法）It"s a word-formation of adding a vowe into the consonants fram e to form a new word.e.g. :s_ng--sing-sang-sung-song,b_r-bear-bore-born/borne-birth-baim-barrow-borrow2.3.12 Morphological Stress （重音变换法）It"s a word-form ation of changing the stress in a word to form a new word,and change the word-class and som etimes change the sem antic m eaning,but not change the spelling form. e.g.: `accentn. -- a`ccent v. , `record n. -- re`cord v.2.3.13 Two-Part Verbs(Phrase verbs) （双词合成法）It"s a word-form ation of com bining a simple verb and an adverbial particle to form a new word. e.g.: to ring + up - bring up(提出)，to give + up - give up(放弃)2.3.14 Borrowing Words(18.5%)（借词）:It refers to the words which borrowd from other languages. C3. Word Meaning and the sem antic Relations Between Words3.1 Word Meaning and semantic features@3.1.1 The m eanings of Meaning:3.1.1.1 Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction,but with the help of context,it can refer to som eting specific.3.1.1.2 Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It has m any refering expressions.3.1.1.3 Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language.The sense of anexpression is its place in a system of sem antic relationships with other expressions in the language.3.1.2 Conventionality（常规）and Motivation: (理据)@3.1.2.1 Conventionality:It refers that words are conventional,arbitrary symbols;that is,there is no intrinsic(内在的) relation between the sound symbol and its sense.There is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that m eaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other.For instance,the English call what Chinese call “fangzi” in “house”,the French call it “Maison” and the Russian “dom”.All these symbols are totally differ ent from one another,yet they all signify the sam e thing.3.1.2.2 Motivation:It refers to the connection between word-sym bol and its sense.Though the great majority of English words are conventional and arbitraty sym bols,there is a group of words that can be described as m otivated,that is there is a deirect connection between the sym bol and its sense.For example,onomatopoeic words such as “roar”, “bang” and “clash”,derived words and com pound words such as “readable”, “kilgram” and “daydream”,etc.1)Phonetic/Onom atopoeic m otivation（拟声理据）: Indicates the relatinship between sound and m eaning of word.Its sound suggests its m eaning. e.g. , cuckoo,squeak,quack,etc.@2)Morphological m otivation （形态理据）:Accounts for the connection between the m eaning of the word and the m eaning of each m orpheme in the word.The m eaings of m any words are the sum total of the morphem es com bined. e.g.,airmail,reading-lamp.@3)Semantic m otivation（词义理据）:e.g.,the m outh of the river,the foot of the m ountain,etc.@4)Etym ological m otivation （词源理据）:e.g.,pen,laconic,etc.3.1.3 Main Types of Meaning(p.147)3.1.3.1 Gramatical Meaning（语法意义）:It is indespensable in determining the position a word occupies in a sentence. It consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm(词类和屈折词形变化)1)Word-class: It describe the words lexicological meaning and also gives what is traditonally known as the part of speech of the word. e.g. m odern will be m arked as a noun.2)Inflectional paradigm:It refers to thegrammatical form s of a word which appear the different forms when used in actual speech. e.g. cat-cats; to walk,walks etc.3.1.3.2 Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）（或称语义的七种主要类型）:It is that aspect of sense proper to the word as a lexical item.1)Denotative m eaning(外延意义)/或称Conceptual m eaning(概念意义): It is the central factor in linguistic。
词汇学笔记
词汇学笔记NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is use d in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点（包括基本词汇的5大特点）① Ne utral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部：巴尔特-斯拉夫语系，印度伊朗语系，亚美尼亚，阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系：普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系：波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（后三种语言源于已消失的梵文）西部：凯尔特语系，意大利语族，古希腊语言，日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系：苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布列塔尼语意大利语族：葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语（拉丁语）日耳曼语系：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语，瑞典语（北欧语言）德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式：创词，旧词新义，借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素：粘附词根，词缀：内部曲折词缀，派生词缀：前缀，后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀，加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts ofa word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ? is perhaps what is termed …sense?.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义：内涵意义，文体意义，感情意义，搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法：历时方法，共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式：辐射型，连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which theterm had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义（异形异音同义）Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别：绝对同义词，相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别：外延上，内涵上，应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。
词汇学考试精简笔记-Charter1-4
词汇学考试精简笔记-Charter1-4Introduction0.1 The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyThe definition of Lexicology: (P1)Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words (WNWD), the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 0.2 The Relation to Other DisciplinesThe definition of Morphology: (P1)Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.The definition of Etymology: (P2)Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.The definition of Semantics: (P2)Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.The definition of Stylistics: (P2)Stylistics is the study of style.The definition of Lexicography: (P2)Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words.The difference of Lexicography and Lexicology: (P2)A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What is a WordIn visual terms, a word can be defined as a meaningful group; according to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning. (P6) 选择、填空The definition of Word: (P7) 名词解释A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word comprises the following points:1. A minimal free form of a language;2. A sound unity;3. A unit of meaning;4. A form that can function alone in a sentence.1.2 Sound and MeaningThe connection of Sound and Meaning两者之间的关系: (P7) 选择、填空The symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship, the relationship is conventional.Woman, for example, becomes ‘Frau’ in German, ‘Fremme’ in French and ‘Funu’ in Chinese.：体现了sound，meaning的关系1.3 Sound and FormThe reasons caused the difference between Sound and Form: 读⾳和拼写不⼀致的原因(P8-9 具体例⼦看书本) 简答题1. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does nothave a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and insome cases the two have drawn far apart.3. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4. Finally comes the borrowing, which do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling.*Printing印刷术was established in the late 1500.Sound and form is imperfect: (P10)The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form.1.5 Classification of Words*Three classifications of words: (P11) 选择、填空Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic VocabularyThe difference between BW and NBW: (P11)BW is in use in a high frequency; and NBW is not.The features of Basic Word (P11-12) 简答题●All national character 全民通⽤性●Stability 相对稳定性●Productivity 多产性●Polysemy ⼀词多义●Collocability 搭配性Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.The definition of Productivity: (P12)They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.The definition of Polysemy: (P12)Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.The definition of Collocability: (P12)Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.The types of Nonbasic word vocabulary (P13-15) 简答题●Terminology 专业术语●Jargon ⾏话●Slang 俚语●Argot ⿊话●Dialectal words ⽅⾔●Archaisms 古词语●Neologisms 新词语The definition of Terminology: (P13)It consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine.●例⼦有：mathematics, music, education.The definition of Jargon: (P13)It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.●例⼦有：bottom line, bargaining chipsThe definition of Slang: (P14)Slang belongs to the sub-standard language亚标准语⾔, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words.The definition of Argot ⿊话: (P15)Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.The definition of Dialectal words: (P15)Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.The definition of Archaisms: (P15)Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.The definition of Neologisms: (P15)Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsThe difference between Content words and Functional words: (P16) 简答题●Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words.●Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As theirchief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsThe definition of Native Words: (P17)Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes (⽇⽿曼部落).The 2 features of Native Words: (P17)1. Neutral in style (French or Latin are literary and in formal style) ⽂体中⽴，即任何场所可⽤2. Frequent in use使⽤频繁The definition of Borrowed Words: (P18)Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowing in simple terms. 三个⿊体字同义Four classes of Borrowed Words: (P19)1. Denizens 同化词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.2. Aliens ⾮同化词Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.3. Translation-loans 译借词、外来词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.4. Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form.Chapter 2The Development of the English vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe Indo-European Language has approximately 3000languages and group into roughly 300language families on the basis of Basic Word and Grammar. It is made up of most of language of Europe, the Near East, and India.印欧三⼤语系(P23) Germanic family = Scandinavian languages斯堪的纳维亚语的;北北欧⽇⽿曼语系(P24)The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.In western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic(希腊语的). (P24)2.2.1 Old English (450 – 1150) (P25)The Germanic tribes are the earliest.The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. It brought many new ideas and customs and also many religious terms such as abbot, candle, alter, amen, apostle.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words, e.g. handbook. (P26)Old English is a highly inflected language.Skirt, skill, window, leg, grasp, birth, they, their, them, egg, these words are from Scandinavian origin.2.2.2 Middle English (1150 – 1500) (P26)Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. 诺曼⼤帝带来了⼤量的法语词。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
词汇学第四章
prefixation
a main type of word-formation by adding a prefix or combining form to the base. Usu. Modify the lexical meaning without changing the word-class of the word. Exceptions: be-; de-; en-; unanti-; inter-; post-; pre-, etc.
Stem: a. dealing with the inflectional morphemems b. the word form when the inflectional morphemes are removed e.g. undesirables desired
Base: a. a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. b. any root or stem can be a base c. derivationally analysable d. both derivational and inflectional affixes can be added to a word e.g. undesirables root: desire; stem: undesirable, base: desirable
Semantic Features
a pot flower / a flower pot court martial; president elect, ambassador designate home letter / home voyage / home life / home economics, etc.
万艺玲词汇学笔记
词汇学复习要点：Chapter 1 词与词汇概说词（语言中最小的、能独立运用的有意义语言单位）1. 词汇固定语专名词语：北京大学青藏高原专门用语术语：病理切片有期徒刑行业语：大花脸自由体操熟语成语：望梅止渴愚公移山惯用语：碰钉子泼冷水谚语：路遥知马力，日久见人心歇后语：哑巴吃饺子——心里有数缩略语缩减而成的缩略语：清华解放军紧缩而成的缩略语：北大外长用数字概括的缩略语：三军五味2.词汇的划分（1）根据词在词汇系统中的地位分基本词汇一般词汇（2）根据词出现时间的先后分古语词新词（3）根据词应用的交际领域分书面语词汇口语词汇（4）根据词运用的区域分普通话词汇方言词汇（5）根据词是否借用分本族语词汇外来语词汇3.基本词汇的特点：第一，稳固性。
这些词在千百年前就出现，在历史上存在了很长时间。
第二，普遍性。
这些词表示的都是一些最常见的事物、现象和人们交际时最需要的概念，所以凡是使用汉语的人，不论什么阶层，从事什么行业，文化程度如何，生活在哪个地区，都毫无例外地要使用这些词来进行交际。
第三，能产性。
这些词可以构成新词，而且构词能力也很强。
例如“天”作为基本词汇可以构成“天空”、“天堂”、“天气”、“天鹅”、“今天”、“明天”、“冬天”、“春天”等词。
4.古语词和新词（看到词需要区分出哪些是古语词哪些是新词，记住书上的例子）：历史词语：皇帝、宰相、衙门、太守、八卦、精卫、太监、驸马、朝廷、虎贲（1）古语词（考的多）文言词：吾、尔、首、之、卒、亦、缄、尚（2）新词（考得少）：解放、红军、供给制、互助组、苏区、白区、儿童团、红领巾、教研室、下放、大跃进、铁人、赤脚医生、自留地、突击队、人民公社、生产队、试验田、下放干部、微机、热线、房改、打工、托福、追星族、商品房、休闲装、回头客、摇滚热、信用卡、安乐死、收视率、卡拉OK、T恤、老外、网吧、克隆、黑客、罚单、上网、芯片、双赢。
*新词的来源：①新事物出现以后，按汉语构词方式，用常用语素构成新词：热线、书店、电脑、立交桥、试管婴儿、打拼、封杀、芯片、录入用构词能力强的语素构成新词：上班族、工薪族、追星族、出国热、经商热、外语热、球迷、舞迷②音译外来词：托福、艾滋病、迷你直接带有英语字母的外来词：DVD机、卡拉OK、T恤③港台及方言词：物业、布艺、按揭、心仪、做秀、飙车、瘦身、帅哥、买单、搞掂、生猛、扮靓5.外来词（考查几率较小）：（1）吸收外来词的方式：音译和意译（2）分类①音译：沙发、咖啡、克隆、逻辑、拷贝、尼龙、华尔兹、白兰地。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是研究词汇的学科，它是语言学的一个重要分支，涉及了语言的构成、变化和使用等方面。
词汇学对于语言的理解和应用具有重要的意义，它不仅可以帮助我们更好地掌握语言知识，还可以帮助我们提高语言运用能力。
在这篇文章中，我们将对词汇学的知识点进行总结，帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这一学科。
一、词的定义和分类词是语言中的最小意义单位，是构成句子和表达意思的基本单位。
按照在句子中的功能和语法特征，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等，它们能够表示具体的事物或抽象的概念；虚词包括代词、连词、介词、助词等，它们通常用来连接或修饰实词，没有明确的词义。
二、词汇的构成词汇的构成是指词的组成方式和形态特征。
在词汇的构成中，我们可以看到一些常见的构词法，如前缀、后缀、派生、合成、转化等。
通过这些构词法，我们可以对词汇进行灵活组合和创造，丰富语言的表达能力。
1.前缀前缀是指加在词根前面的一个字，可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“un-”表示否定，“re-”表示再次，“pre-”表示在前面等。
2.后缀后缀是指加在词根后面的一个字，同样可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“-ing”表示进行时，“-ful”表示充满的意思，“-ment”表示名词化等。
3.派生派生是指通过词根和词缀的组合来创造和衍生新的词。
比如，“happy”是一个形容词，通过加上“-ness”后缀就可以派生出名词“happiness”。
4.合成合成是指两个或多个词汇组合在一起，形成一个新的词。
比如，“blackboard”由“black”和“board”两个实词组合而成。
5.转化转化是指一个词汇的词类发生改变，但词形不变。
比如，“work”可以作为动词，也可以作为名词，它的词形都不发生变化。
词汇的构成方式是多种多样的，通过学习这些构词法，我们可以更好地理解和掌握词汇的形态特征，有助于提高我们的语言表达能力。
三、词汇的语义特征语义是指词汇所携带的意义，它是语言交流和理解的基础。
【推荐】词汇学笔记(名词解释为主-word范文 (19页)
本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==词汇学笔记(名词解释为主篇一：英语词汇学笔记--名词解释篇英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 201X.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemesthat must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound orfree : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" asa Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixesattaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsare inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a wordis created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound andspelling,but different in meaning。
词汇学笔记(名词解释为主)
1、英语词汇概述：（8%）（1）英语词汇的谱系关系及其历史发展：英语的谱系关系；英语的三个发展阶段。
（2）英语词汇的构成：基本词汇与专用词汇；英语词汇中的本族词与外来词。
（3）英语词汇的三大特点：数量大、来源广、变化多。
‘Indo-European’印欧语系With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.1. Word词--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2．Vocabulary词汇——Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.3. basic word stock 基本词汇i s the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. （1）All national character全民性. Words of the basic word stock denote themost common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。
英语词汇学 章节整理
英语词汇学笔记之-----章节部分2010.1.11===================================第一章1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart，a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第二章1.Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2. History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer toAnglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflectionsleveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words1.The rapid development of modern science and technology2.Social，economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第三章1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words – morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6. Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection（re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7. Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。
英语词汇学笔记整理..
英语词汇学笔录整理Part 1前缀(Prefixes)1.Negative prefixesa-;an- 缺乏、缺乏amoral( 缺德 ) asexual( 雌雄同体的 ) asymmetry(不平均的)anarchy( 无政府的 )dis- 否、不dishonestnon- 非、否non-black(非黑人区的)non-science non-smoker nonresistant(非抵挡)in- ； i- ； im- ； ir-complete——incomplete correct —— incorrect小结：清辅音 [k],[f],[t]前的前缀加in-; 唇音从前加im-; “ l”前加 il-; “ r ”前加 ir- 。
因此加什么样的前缀由单词的首字母决定。
un- 不unhappy unfriendly infamous2. Pejorative prefixes表贬义mal- 不好的，坏的maltreat(凌虐)malformed(畸形的)malnutrition(营养不良的)malfunction( 功能杂乱 )mis- 错误的misdial( 拨错号 ) misleading(误导)misbehaved(行为不规范) misconception(错误的认知)pseudo-错，假的pseudoscience( 伪科学 ) pseudo teaching(实习)3. Reversative prefixes表逆转的前缀de-defrost(除霜)deplane(下飞机)deindustrialization(非工业化的)decode(解码)dis-表示动作的逆转disconnect( 切断 ) dishearten(灰心)disown( 扔掉 )4.Prefixes of degree or sizearch- means“ most” ” supreme”常带有贬义archenemy archbishop(红衣大主教)arch monetarist(拜金主义者) co-“ joint” or“equally”coexistence( 共存的 ) combine colleague correspondence(通讯联系)小结： co- 这个前缀依据所跟单词的首字母而发生变化在元音前加co- ； -b\-p从前用com-;-l从前用col-;-f\-c\-g前用con-;-r从前用cor- hyper-means“extreme”hyperactive( 过于活跃的 ) hyper cautious(过分当心的)mini-means“ little”minibus miniskirt ministered minimalmaxi-means“ big”maxi coat maxi skirtout-means“ surpassing” ,程度多，超出outclass( 优良的 ) outlive(长寿的)outgrowover-means“excessive” 相当的，带贬义overeat overweight overestimate(高估)overwork overjoyed(惊喜若狂的 ) overflow( 溢出 )sub-亚，次的subculture( 亚文化 ) subtext(潜台词)subconscious(潜意识)subsonic(低音速)super-超级supernatural( 超自然的 ) supermansur- means“over and above” 超surcharge(额外收费)surtax( 附带税 ) surreal( 超现实 )ultra-相当，特别ultramodern ultraconservative(特别守旧的)ultrasonic(超音速)ultraviolet( 紫外线 )under-低于undercharged underestimate(低估)5.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti- means“ against” 反anticlockwise( 逆时针 ) anti-aging(抗衰老的)antibacterial(抗菌的) antineutron(反中子)contra- means“opposite” ,“ contrasting”contradiction conrafactualcounter- means“ against” ,“ in opposition to”counterattack counterexample countercurrent(逆电流) pro-支持，站在一方pro-European pro-student6. Locative prefixes表示方向的前缀fore-前部forearm foreground forehead forewordinter- means“ between” ,“ among” 在之间international intermarry(近亲成婚)internetsub- means“under”submarine(潜水艇)subway sublet( 转租 )super- means“ above”superstructure( 上层建筑物 )trans- means“ across”transform( 变形 ) transplant transcontinental(跨州的) 7. Prefixes of time and order表示时间温次序的前缀ex- means“ former” 从前的ex-husband ex-presidentfore-表时间foresee( 预示 ) foretell(预知)post- means“after”postmodernism(后现代的 ) postwar(战后)posttretment(复建)pre-在从前preschooler( 学龄前少儿 ) prehistory(史前史)pre-liberation(解放前)8. Number prefixesbi-;di- means“two” 双bimonthly( 双月的 ) bicycle( 自行车 ) bilingual(双语的)bigamy(重婚) dioxide( 二氧化物 ) disyllable( 双音节 )multi-;poly- means“ many” 多，几个multi-national polygamy(一夫多妻制)polyandry(一妻多夫制) semi-;demi-;hemi- means“ half” 半semiliterate( 半文盲 ) demigod(半人半神)hemisphere(半球)semivowel(半元音 )tri-三triangle(三角形)tricycle( 三轮车 ) trinity(三维一体)trilingual(三语的) uni-; mono- means“ one” 单调的uniform monogamy(一夫一妻制)monologue(单独)9. Neo- Classical prefixes与科技相关的auto- means“self”autobiography(自传 ) autosuggestion(自荐)autocrat(专制)extra-超的extraordinary( 特别的 )extraterrestrial(外星的)neo- means“ new” 新的neo-Nazi(新纳粹党)neo-impressionism(新映像派)pan- means“ all” ,“ world-wide”pan-Americanism泛美主义proto- means“ first” ,” original” 原始的，最先的protohistory( 史古人类学 ) prototype(原型，典型)tele- means“ distant” 远程的telescope telegram televisionPart 2 Suffixation后缀1. Noun suffixes[1] noun + noun suffixes, abstract由此类词缀组成的名词表示抽象的观点-age means“ measure of” or“ collection of”Baggage luggage percentage(会合名词，百分比，不可以和数字直接连用) mileage(里程)-dom means“ the state of being”kingdom officialdom(官僚)stardom(明星地位)-ery, -ryslavery nunnery(尼姑庵)nursery refinery( 精华 )-ful means“ the amount contained”handful mouthful spoonful-hood means“ the state” or“ time of being something”childhood boyhood brotherhood neighborhood widowhood-ing means“ material of” or“ activity connected with”carpeting matting tubing blackerring-ism means“doctrine of”Impressionism( 映像派 ) optimism pessism idealism materialism -ocracy means“ government by”democracy( 民主 )-shiprelationship friendship dictatorship(专制主义)[2] noun + noun suffixes, concrete由此类词缀组成的名词表示详细的观点-eer means“ skilled in”auctioneer( 拍卖师 ) engineer mountaineer-er means“ having doininant characteristics”teenager villager Londoner cooker roaster-ess means“ a female”actress hostess lioness tigress在 masculine( 阳性 )名词后加 - essauthor : authoress女作家heir : heiress女性继承人host : hostess女主人lion : lioness雌狮例外：actor : actress女演员hunter : huntress女猎人tiger : tigress母老虎negro : negress女黑人master : mistress女主人/情妇（concubine二奶）prince : princess公主murderer : murderess女杀手masculine(阳性)与feminine完整不一样bachelor 只身一人汉—— maid少女bull 公牛—— cow母牛cock公鸡——hen母鸡dog 狗—— bitch母狗gentleman男士—— lady女士horse 马—— mare母马king 国王—— queen王后monk 和尚—— nun尼姑nephew 外甥—— niece外甥女在名词前后加上性又名词man-servant——maid-servantcock-sparrow——hen-sparrowhe-goat——she-goattom-cat——she-catpeacock —— peahen-let means“ small” 小booklet piglet starlet-ling means“minor” or“ off spring of”小，后辈duckling princeling-ster means“involved in”gamester(means a person who plays a game for money)gangster(黑帮)[3] verb + noun suffix加在动词后的名词后缀-ant means“a person or thing”informant consultant(顾问)inhabitant lubricant(润滑剂)-ee means“ one who is object of the verb”interviewee nominee(被提名者)trainee-er, -or means“a person or thing”Driver teacher silencer( 消音器 ) computer-al means“ the action on result of”arrival refusal revival-ation means“ the process or state of”classification( 分类 ) interpretation(剖析)explanation globalization(全世界化)explorationPart 3转类法——词形不变，词性改变Assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.eg: 1. He designed to be a scientist.1.He had a desire to be a scientist.Zero derivation零派生eg: smoke——He smokes a pipe. (verb.)——Let ’The smoke from the chimney. (noun.)s have a smoke. (noun.)英语词类的转变一般是简单词增补： breakfast的来历在阿拉伯， fasting为斋月，从breakfast的构造看来，意为“打破斋戒”的意思，在晚饭和早饭之间的时间较长，而吃早饭就像打破了一个小型的斋戒。
词汇学Unit 4
Unit 4 Significance of Words一、Significance of wordsI. Definition of SignificanceSignificance of words is the nominating things, behaviors and qualities. ——PlatoA Word is the symbol of a singular definition, always pointing to its definition. ——Wilhelm von HumoldtII. What is Semantic meaning?In a broad sense, semantic meaning represents human’s thinking and thoughts. Without semantic meaning, people couldn’t achieve the mutual communication and understanding.In a narrow sense, semantic meaning refers to the language meaning of the words and sentences, also called the word’s meaning and the sentence’s meaning.一般来说，研究意义特别是研究语言意义的学科被称为语义学（semantics or semasiology）。
I. 以下各句中country表示不同的意思，从B栏中选出country在A栏各句中的准确意义：A1. What do you mean by a farming country?2. The candidate has won the sixty percent of the country.3. There is a great gap between rich and poor countries.4. The children are looking forward to havinga picnic in the country next week.5. The young scientist left his country and went on with his medical research abroad.Ba.a nation or a state with its land or population.b.T he nation or state of one’s birth or citizenshipc.The people of a nation or stated.L and with a social nature or charactere.The countrysideII. 根据词义的拟声理据，将下列B栏中模拟动物叫声的词语与A栏中对应的动物名称词相配：AApes－, bears－, beetles－, birds－, bulls－, cats－, cattle－, crickets－, doves－, donkeys －, ducks－, flies－, foxes－, geese－, hens－, larks－, mice－, monkeys－, owls－, pigs－, , ravens－, sheep－, snakes－, swans－, turkeys－, wolves－.BSing, buzz, bray, gibber, neigh, quack, coo, cry, chatter, bellow, growl, hoot, bleat, low, hiss, grunt, drone, purr, yelp, squeak, gabble, howl, gobble, cluck, chirp, warble, croak ChauvinismApes－gibber, bears－growl, beetles－drone, birds－Sing, bulls－bellow, cats－purr, cattle －low, crickets－chirp, doves－coo, donkeys －bray, ducks－quack, flies－buzz, foxes－yelp, geese－gabble, hens－cluck, larks－warble, mice－squeak, monkeys－chatter, owls－hoot, pigs－grunt, oink, ravens－croak,sheep－bleat, snakes－hiss, swans－cry, turkeys－gobble, wolves－howl.三、词义的分类I.conceptual meaning概念意义可分解成若干个最小的意义单位II.connotative meaning词的内涵意义因人而异、因不同年龄而异某些词语的内涵意义带有民族性特征III.social meaning如: daddy, male parent, fatherdomicile, residence, abode, homeIV.affective meaningappreciative and pejorative (褒义和贬义)V.reflective meaning禁忌词taboo words “委婉词语”euphemistic expressionsVI.collocative meaningpretty: girl, lady, woman, flower, garden, color,villagehandsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, palace, airlinerVII.thematic meaninga.Mrs. Smith donated the first prize.b.The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith.四、词义分析Semantic Analysis Componential Analysis and Semantic Field Theory语义成份分析法和语义场理论ponential AnalysisII.Semantic Field Theory1.a nimal2.1. domestic animal 2.2.wild animal2.1: chicken, cat, dog, pig, sheep, cow, horse, 2.2: panda, monkey, wolf, tiger, lion, elephant, 1. 语义场的三层次性质1）层次性2）系统性3）相对性2. 语义场的类型1）分类义场2）顺序义场3）关系义场可分为同义义场（synoymy）和反义义场（antonymy）。
词汇学笔记
一词汇学的分科与研究方法（一）词汇学的分科与研究对象⏹1．词汇学的分科：词汇学是以词和词汇为研究对象的一门语言学科。
⏹ 1.1普通词汇学：以多种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象，目标是总结出一般性的规律。
⏹ 1.2具体语言词汇学：以一种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象（可从时间角度再次划分；古代汉语词汇学、汉语词汇学、汉语词汇史）⏹（1）历时词汇学：研究词汇在语言发展过程中的演变规律（关注变化、对比；汉语词汇史）⏹（2）历史比较词汇学（历时内容）：运用历史比较法研究有亲属关系的多种语言中的词汇问题（考察不同语言词汇的共源关系和各自不同的演变规律；汉藏词汇比较研究）⏹（3）描写词汇学（静态词汇学）：与历时词汇学相对，采用共时的研究方法对某一时期（一般指现阶段）语言的词汇系统和词汇现象加以分析描写⏹2．现代汉语描写词汇学的研究对象：词的性质（造词法、构词法）、词义系统（特征、类聚、类型、发展）、词义范围、词义的发展演变、词汇的构成和演变（二）词汇学的研究方法⏹ 1.静态描写（立足于材料和事实的本身）（最基础的，共时的）→归纳总结（最重要的）⏹ 2.定量统计⏹ 2.1古汉语词汇研究⏹ 2.2现代汉语词汇研究⏹ 3.文化分析⏹ 3.1从词汇材料入手研究其所体现的文化内涵⏹ 3.2从文化角度解释某些词汇现象①用中国传统的价值观对汉语词语的排序加以解释（帝王、婆媳、大小；夫妻、兄嫂、弟妹、父母、公婆；皮毛、本末、城乡、纲目；岁月、国家、眼镜；兄弟、弟兄——可分语音角度分析）②中国传统美学的平衡对衬、对双音和成语四字格加以解释③用汉民族传统思维和整体、感悟、具象辩证这些特征来解释（“思有所重，词有周全”，相对或偏义的联合式）4．古今结合（共时与历时相结合）5．对比分析6．问卷调查二、离合词问题考察（一）离合词的性质⏹ 1.什么是离合词：既可合在一起，又可拆开使用的词⏹（1）动补式：完成、起来、说服（肯定：得；否定：不）→插入的词固定⏹（2）动宾式：理发→插入的词不固定⏹ 2.离合词的性质⏹（1）离合词是词：大部分的离合词以合的形式出现，整体的凝固的形式⏹（2）离合词是短语⏹（3）合则为词，分则为短语（二）动宾式离合词的偏误类型与原因分析⏹ 1.偏误类型⏹（1）离合词带宾语问题例如：*我结婚他。
英语词汇学——Chapter 4
Chapter 4Affixation 词缀法（30%-40%）Compounding 复合构词法（28%-30%）Conversion 转类法（26%）Shortening 缩略法（8%-10%）包括（clipping截短法acronymy 首字母拼音法）Blending 拼缀法(1%-5%)Affixation 词缀法Affixation, also called derivation派生法（derivatives派生词）,is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems.Affixation is the formation of word by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Feature: prefixes do not generally change the word –class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Classification: we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups.Negative prefixes否定意义的词缀：a-,dis-,in-(il-,ir-,im-),non-,nu-.Reversative prefixes逆向意义的词缀：de-,dis-, un-. . de-compose ,unwarp.Pejorative prefixes贬义的词缀: mal-, mis- ,pseudo-. . mistrust , pseudo-friend.Prefixes of degree or size表示程度、大小等意义的词缀: arch-, extra- ,hyper- ,macro- ,micro- ,mini- ,out- ,over- ,sub- ,super-,sur-, ultra- ,under- . . archbishop , hyperactive ,superfreeze. Prefixes of orientation and attitude表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀：anti-, contra- ,counter- pro- . . anti-government,Locative prefixes方位意义的词缀：extra-,fore- ,inter- ,intra- ,tele-, trans-. . extraordinary, telecommunication,Prefixes of time and order表示时间和顺序的词缀:ex-,fore-, post- ,pre- ,re- . . ex-professor , foretell ,post-election.Number prefixes数字的前缀: bi- ,multi- , poly- ,semi-, hemi- ,tri- ,uni- ,mono-. .multi-purpose ,semi-naked, tricycle, monorail.Miscellaneous prefixes其他种类意义的前缀: auto- ,neo- ,pan- , vice- . .autobiography ,vice-chairman.Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Feature: suffixes mainly change the word class.Classification: we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes , verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes.Adjective suffixes: It is worth noting that both –ic and –ical can be affixed to the same stem in some cases , but differ in meaning . . economic \economicalCompounding 复合构词法Compounding , also called composition（compounds 复合词）,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.Words produced through compounding yields 28%-30% of all the new words.The differences between compounds and free phrases show in three aspects:Phonetic features.Semantic features.Grammatical features.Formation of compoundsNoun compounds. Sit-in ，stockholder , up-bringingAdjective compounds. law-abiding , record-breaking ,town-bred , four-leg.Verb compoundsThe limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or backformation. Verb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes:-er,-ing, -ion , etc.Conversion 转类法Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech.An alternative for conversion is functional shift.The derivational process , in which an item is converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix , is called zero-derivation .Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns , adjectives ,and verbs.The most productive conversion is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs. Full conversion and partial conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns. Full conversion: A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns . It can take an indefinite article or –(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles.Such words as “the poor ”,”the richer ”,”the most corrupt” are all examples of partial.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.双音节的名词转化成动词会有重音的变化。
英语专业英语词汇学笔记
1.What is polysemyHaving multiple meanings that are related.2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemouswords Explain them1)The diachronic approach begins with the primarymeaning and then arrange the other meanings (derivedmeanings) in the order in which they developed.2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popularmeaning (central meaning) and then arrange the othermeanings (marginal meanings) in order of popularity.3.What are the two different ways in which polysemydevelops Explain them1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent fromone another and are derived directly from the primarymeaning.2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected andderive from primary meaning through successiveshifts of meaning from one secondary meaning toanother.4.What is homonymyHomonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone anda homograph1)perfect homonym 同音同形 date日期/date红枣2)homophone 同音异形 Knew/new, meet/meat3)homograph 异音同形 record(v.)/record(n.)6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymyHi Jack 〔你好杰克〕– hijack〔打劫〕7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymyGive an example to illustrate the difference1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book canmean a book as in “I read a book〞, and “I book a hotel room〞. The second meaning is related to the first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’information on a book when reservinga room.2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honestor being in a horizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but no connection.8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms intocomplementaries (binaries), contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why1)Good/bad, contraries2)odd/even, complementaries3)above/below, converses4)clean/dirty, contraries5)remember/forget, complementaries6)old/young, contraries7)before/after, converses9.What is hyponymy Give an exampleThe meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.例Flower is the superordinate term, rose is thesubordinate term.10.What is synonymySynonyms are words different in sound and spelling but nearly or exactly alike in essential meaning.11.What is the difference between absolute and near(relative) synonyms1)Absolute synonyms – interchangeable in every way2)Near synonyms – similar in denotation but havedifferent shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.12.What are some of the reasons why synonyms exist1)Borrowing from other languages2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions13.What are some of the factors that discriminate betweenrelative synonyms Use examples1)Range of meaning. “timid〞 is more extensivebecause it can be used to describe the state of mindat a time and the disposition, but “timorous〞 only describe the disposition.2)Degree of intensity. A “wealthy〞 person has muchmore money than a “rich〞 person.3)Differences in stylistic features. “ask〞 is usedcommonly and tend to be colloquial. “question〞 is more formal.14.(The development of English) What was the languagespoken in the British Isles before English How was English introducedCeltic. Germanic tribe invaded and settled after Roman.They brought their own culture. It was calledAnglo-saxon (the name of two tribes) and also called old English.15.What are the three phases of the English language andwhat were their time periods What events marked the transition of one phase to anothera)Old English (450 - 1150) ——Norman conquest fromFrance in 1066, but the real development of middleEnglish started in the 12th century because the ruling class spoke Anglo French and the peasants spoke Anglo-Saxon so it took quite a long time for them to intermix.b)Middle English (1150 - 1500) ——during Renaissancethere was an explosion of information and knowledgeabout Ancient Greece and Roman. People stated to read so ideas spread. Greek and Latin words started entering English. Besides, printing was invented,more can read and write books.c)Modern English (1500 – present)16.Over its history, English has evolved from a highlyinflected language to a nearly non-inflected language.What is the difference Give an example of inflection in EnglishInflection means to modify a word to indicategrammatical relations. A lot of words in a highly inflected language have ending or form changes in order to show its grammatical function. But a weakly inflected language has fewer changes. As English developed, it has changed from a highly infected language to a weekly one.17.What are the most important languages that English hasborrowed from Why1)French – Norman conquest2)Latin –Renaissance, a lot of Latin book weretranslated into English3)Scandinavia – Vikings (9 century) influenced oldEnglish18.What is the difference between a Content Word and aFunctional word Give an example of each.•Content words are those are about something. 例nation, earth.•Functional words are those used to express relations.例the, and.19.Explain two properties of Basic words and give examples1)Productivity. Basic words are very productivebecause thet are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can be used alone and are often used toform now words with other roots and affixes. 例foot-football-footprint2)Many basic words take part in a number of setexpressions. 例heart- by heart –from the bottom of one’s h eart- lose heart20.What is a denizen word Give an exampleDenizens are words that were borrowed a long time ago, they look and sound like a native word.例‘pork’ from the French ‘porc’21.What is an alien word Give an exampleAliens are borrowed words which have kept their original pronunciation and spelling.例café , fiancée22.What is a translation loan Give an exampleTranslation loans are words and expressions formed from existing material in the English language but tranlate the meaning or the sound from another language.例‘black humour’ from the French ‘humour noir’例‘tea’ from the Chinese23.What is a semantic loan Give an exampleSemantic loans are where a word already exists in native English but borrows a new meaning from another language.例‘dumb’ has come to mean ‘stupid’ because of the German word ‘dumm’24.(The structure of Words) What is a morphemeA morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.25.What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph•Morpheme is about meaning.•Morph is about shape and sound.Morphemes are abstract, and are realized in speech by morphs.26.What is the difference between a bound morpheme and afree morpheme Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words arebound. 例 dis-, mis-.2)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemesare free. 例man, dog.27.What is the difference between a derivational morphemeand an inflectional morpheme Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Derivational morphemes can derive new words. 例football, slowly2)Inflectional morphemes don’t create new words andjust indicate syntactic relationships. 例-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -s28.What is the difference between a content morpheme anda grammatical morpheme Give an example of each kind ofmorpheme1)Content morphemes have content and can be used toderive new words. = derivational morphemes.2)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical markers,including Inflectional morphemes & free morphemes.例while, where, they29.What is an affixAn affix is a form that are attached to words to modify meaning or function.30.What is the difference between a derivational and aninflectional affix Give an example of each1)Inflectional affix do not create new words, andindicate syntactic relationships between words. 例–ed, talked2)Derivational affix derive new words. 例–less,careless. non-, non-smoker.31.What is a root Give an exampleA root is a word element that contains the main componentof meaning in a word. It is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.例：internationalists → nation Impracticality → pratice32.What is a stem Give an exampleA stem is that part of the word form that remains whenall inflectional affixes have been removed.例：internationalists → nationalistsUndesirables → desirable33.What is a base Give an exampleA base is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.例：possible, understand34.(Word Formation) What is blendingthe combination of parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.35.Give an example of blending and explain how the word hasbeen formedSmog=smoke+fog36.What is clippinga part of the original word is removed.37.Give an example of clipping and explain how the word hasbeen formedExam-examination38.What is acronymynew words are formed by joining the initial letters of composite names or phrases39.Give an example of an initialism and explain how the wordis formedInitialism ——pronounced letter by letter. 例：BBC,CCTV40.Give an example of a true acronym and explain how theword is formedTrue acronym ——pronounced as a normal word. 例：NATO, AIDS41.What is the commonization of a proper name Give anexampleWords come from proper names. 例“rugby〞 from “Rugby School〞, where it was first played.42.What are the three most productive ways of forming newwords in the English languageAffixation, compounding, conversion.43.What is affixation Give an exampleThe formation of new words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases.44.What is compounding Give an exampleThe forming of new words by joining two or more bases.例hot dog, blueprint45.Give an example of the use of a conversion prefix (aprefix that you add to something that changes word class) and explain the shift in word classCage (n.) uncage(v.)46.Give an example of the use of a noun suffix ( a suffixthat you add to something to produce a noun) and explain the shift in word classDance(v.) dancer(n.)47.Give an example of the use of an adjective suffix andexplain the shift in word classChild(n.) childish(adj.)48.Give an example of the use of a verb suffix and explainthe shift in word classShort(adj.) shorten(v.)49.What differences typically exist between a compound andits matching free phrase Give an example1)Phonological features. In compounds the word stressusually occur on the first constituent whereas infree phrases this generally falls on the second.例fat head复合词 fat head短语2)Semantic features. A compound expresses a single idea.例hot dog3)Grammatical features. A compound tends to behave assingle grammatical units such as a verb, noun, oradjective. 例’bad-mouth’ used as a verb50.(Meanings)What is a ‘referent’The object or idea to which a word or phrase refers. It is arbitrary and conventional.51.What is a ‘concept’Concept is the totality of real world knowledge about an item.52.What is the relation between ‘word’, ‘concept’ and‘referent’A word symbolizes a concept, a concept refers to areferent, a word stands for a referent. 【Words are connected to their referent via a concept.】53.What is ‘sense’The realization of a concept by a definite language system.54.How would you describe the difference between a wordwhose meaning is motivated and a word whose meaning is unmotivatedSee if there is connection between linguistic symbol and its meaning.55.What is onomatopoeic motivation Give an example andexplain its motivationSome words are created by imitating the natural sounds.例ha ha56.What is morphological motivation Give an example andexplain its motivationCompounds and derived words are multi-morphemic and the meanings of many of them are the meanings of themorphemes combined. 例airmail, hopeful57.What is semantic motivation Give an example and explainits motivationThe meaning is based on an association with theconceptual meaning of a word. 例the mouth of the river.58.How would you describe the difference between conceptualmeaning and associative meaning•Conceptual meaning is meaning as it is given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. The same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community •Associative meaning is secondary meaning supplemental to conceptual meaning. It can be influenced by a range of factors including culture, education, religion, experience, geographical region and so on59.What is connotative meaning Give an exampleassociations that a word has that is suggested by its conceptual meaning例mother- love, care, forgiving60.What is stylistic meaning Give an examplestylistic properties that make them appropriate for different styles.例child is formal, kid is informal. Father is formal, papa is informal.61.What is affective meaning Give an example of pejorativeand appreciative meaningthe speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question例the country is backward. (pejorative) the country is developing.(appreciative)62.What is collocative meaning Give an exampleassociations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment’例tremble with fear; quiver with excitement.。
英语专业-英语词汇学-笔记汇编
1.What is polysemy?Having multiple meanings that are related.2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemous words? Explain them1)The diachronic approach begins with the primary meaning and then arrangethe other meanings (derived meanings) in the order in which theydeveloped.2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popular meaning (centralmeaning) and then arrange the other meanings (marginal meanings) inorder of popularity.3.What are the two different ways in which polysemy develops? Explain them1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent from one another and arederived directly from the primary meaning.2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected and derive from primarymeaning through successive shifts of meaning from one secondary meaningto another.4.What is homonymy?Homonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone and a homograph1)perfect homonym 同音同形date日期/date红枣2)homophone 同音异形Knew/new, meet/meat3)homograph 异音同形record(v.)/record(n.)6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymyHi Jack （你好杰克）– hijack（打劫）7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy? Give an example toillustrate the difference1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book can mean a book as in “Ｉbook a hotel room”. The second meaning is related to read a book”, and “Ｉthe first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’information on a book when reserving a room.2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honest or being in ahorizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but noconnection.8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms into complementaries (binaries),contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why1)Good/bad, contraries2)odd/even, complementaries3)above/below, converses4)clean/dirty, contraries5)remember/forget, complementaries?6)old/young, contraries7)before/after, converses9.What is hyponymy? Give an exampleThe meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.例Flower is the superordinate term, rose is the subordinate term.10.What is synonymy?Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but nearly or exactly alike in essential meaning.11.What is the difference between absolute and near (relative) synonyms?1)Absolute synonyms – interchangeable in every way2)Near synonyms – similar in denotation but have different shades of meaningor different degrees of a given quality.12.What are some of the reasons why synonyms exist?1)Borrowing from other languages2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions13.What are some of the factors that discriminate between relative synonyms? Useexamples1)Range of meaning. “timid” is more extensive because it can be used todescribe the state of mind at a time and the disposition, but “timorous” onlydescribe the disposition.2)Degree of intensity. A “wealthy” person has much more money than a“rich” person.3)Differences in stylistic features. “ask” is used commonly and tend to becolloquial. “question” is more formal.14.(The development of English) What was the language spoken in the British Islesbefore English? How was English introduced?Celtic. Germanic tribe invaded and settled after Roman. They brought their own culture. It was called Anglo-saxon (the name of two tribes) and also called old English.15.What are the three phases of the English language and what were their timeperiods? What events marked the transition of one phase to another?a)Old English (450 - 1150) ——Norman conquest from France in 1066, butthe real development of middle English started in the 12th century becausethe ruling class spoke Anglo French and the peasants spoke Anglo-Saxon so it took quite a long time for them to intermix.b)Middle English (1150 - 1500) ——during Renaissance there was anexplosion of information and knowledge about Ancient Greece and Roman.People stated to read so ideas spread. Greek and Latin words startedentering English. Besides, printing was invented, more can read and writebooks.c)Modern English (1500 – present)16.Over its history, English has evolved from a highly inflected language to a nearlynon-inflected language. What is the difference? Give an example of inflection in EnglishInflection means to modify a word to indicate grammatical relations. A lot ofwords in a highly inflected language have ending or form changes in order toshow its grammatical function. But a weakly inflected language has fewerchanges. As English developed, it has changed from a highly infected language toa weekly one.17.What are the most important languages that English has borrowed from? Why?1)French – Norman conquest2)Latin – Renaissance, a lot of Latin book were translated into English3)Scandinavia – Vikings (9 century) influenced old English18.What is the difference between a Content Word and a Functional word? Give anexample of each.?Content words are those are about something. 例nation, earth.?Functional words are those used to express relations. 例the, and.19.Explain two properties of Basic words and give examples1)Productivity. Basic words are very productive because thet are mostly rootwords or monosyllabic words. They can be used alone and are often used toform now words with other roots and affixes. 例foot-football-footprint2)Many basic words take part in a number of set expressions. 例heart- by- lose heartheart –from the bottom of one’s heart20.What is a denizen word? Give an exampleDenizens are words that were borrowed a long time ago, they look and soundlike a native word.例‘pork’ from the French ‘porc’21.What is an alien word? Give an exampleAliens are borrowed words which have kept their original pronunciation andspelling.例café , fiancée22.What is a translation loan? Give an exampleTranslation loans a re words and expressions formed from existing material inthe English language but tranlate the meaning or the sound from anotherlanguage.例‘black humour’ from the French ‘humour noir’例‘tea’ from the Chinese23.What is a semantic loan? Give an exampleSemantic loans a re where a word already exists in native English but borrows anew meaning from another language.例‘dumb’ has come to mean ‘stupid’ because of the German word ‘dumm’24.(The structure of Words) What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.25.What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph??Morpheme is about meaning.?Morph is about shape and sound.Morphemes are abstract, and are realized in speech by morphs.26.What is the difference between a bound morpheme and a free morpheme? Givean example of each kind of morpheme1)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. 例dis-,mis-.2)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. 例man,dog.27.What is the difference between a derivational morpheme and an inflectionalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Derivational morphemes can derive new words. 例football, slowlycreate new words and just indicate syntactic2)Inflectional morphemes don’ｔrelationships. 例-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -s28.What is the difference between a content morpheme and a grammaticalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Content morphemes have content and can be used to derive new words. =derivational morphemes.2)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical markers, including Inflectionalmorphemes & free morphemes. 例while, where, they29.What is an affix?An affix is a form that are attached to words to modify meaning or function. 30.What is the difference between a derivational and an inflectional affix? Give anexample of each1)Inflectional affix do not create new words, and indicate syntacticrelationships between words. 例–ed, talked2)Derivational affix derive new words. 例–less, careless. non-, non-smoker.31.What is a root? Give an exampleA root is a word element that contains the main component of meaning in aword. It is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.例：internationalists → nation Impracticality → pratice32.What is a stem? Give an exampleA stem is that part of the word form that remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.例：internationalists → nationalistsUndesirables → desirable33.What is a base? Give an exampleA base is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.例：possible, understand34.(Word Formation)What is blending?the combination of parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.35.Give an example of blending and explain how the word has been formedSmog=smoke+fog36.What is clipping?a part of the original word is removed.37.Give an example of clipping and explain how the word has been formedExam-examination38.What is acronymy?new words are formed by joining the initial letters of composite namesor phrases39.Give an example of an initialism and explain how the word is formedInitialism ——pronounced letter by letter. 例：BBC,CCTV40.Give an example of a true acronym and explain how the word is formedTrue acronym ——pronounced as a normal word. 例：NATO, AIDS41.What is the commonization of a proper name? Give an exampleWords come from proper names. 例“rugby” from “Rugby School”, where itwas first played.42.What are the three most productive ways of forming new words in the Englishlanguage?Affixation, compounding, conversion.43.What is affixation? Give an exampleThe formation of new words by adding word-forming or derivationalaffixes to bases.44.What is compounding? Give an exampleThe forming of new words by joining two or more bases. 例hot dog, blueprint45.Give an example of the use of a conversion prefix (a prefix that you add tosomething that changes word class) and explain the shift in word classCage (n.) uncage(v.)46.Give an example of the use of a noun suffix ( a suffix that you add to somethingto produce a noun) and explain the shift in word classDance(v.) dancer(n.)47.Give an example of the use of an adjective suffix and explain the shift in wordclassChild(n.) childish(adj.)48.Give an example of the use of a verb suffix and explain the shift in word classShort(adj.) shorten(v.)49.What differences typically exist between a compound and its matching freephrase? Give an example1)Phonological features. In compounds the word stress usually occur on thefirst constituent whereas in free phrases this generally falls on the second.例fat head复合词fat head短语2)Semantic features. A compound expresses a single idea. 例hot dog3)Grammatical features. A compound tends to behave as single grammaticalunits such as a verb, noun, or adjective. 例’bad-mouth’ used as a verb50.(Meanings)What is a ‘referent’？The object or idea to which a word or phrase refers. It is arbitrary andconventional.?51.What is a ‘concept’Concept is the totality of real world knowledge about an item.52.What is the relation between ‘word’, ‘concept’ and ‘referent’？A word symbolizes a concept, a concept refers to a referent, a word stands for areferent. 【Words are connected to their referent via a concept.】53.54.What is ‘sense’？The realization of a concept by a definite language system.55.How would you describe the difference between a word whose meaning ismotivated and a word whose meaning is u nmotivated?See if there is connection between linguistic symbol and its meaning.56.What is onomatopoeic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationSome words are created by imitating the natural sounds. 例ha ha57.58.What is morphological motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationCompounds and derived words are multi-morphemic and the meanings of many of them are the meanings of the morphemes combined. 例airmail, hopeful59.60.What is semantic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationThe meaning is based on an association with the conceptual meaning of a word.例the mouth of the river.61.How would you describe the difference between conceptual meaning andassociative meaning???Conceptual meaning is meaning as it is given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. The same word generally has the sameconceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community?Associative meaning is secondary meaning supplemental to conceptual meaning. It can be influenced by a range of factors including culture, education, religion, experience, geographical region and so on62.What is connotative meaning? Give an exampleassociations that a word has that is suggested by its conceptual meaning例mother- love, care, forgiving63.What is stylistic meaning? Give an examplestylistic properties that make them appropriate for different styles.例child is formal, kid is informal. Father is formal, papa is informal.64.What is affective meaning? Give an example of pejorative and appreciativemeaningthe speaker’s attitude towards the person orthing in question例the country is backward. (pejorative) the country is developing.(appreciative) 65.What is collocative meaning? Give an exampleassociations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment’例tremble with fear; quiver with excitement.。
现代汉语词汇(第一节 词汇概说)读书笔记
现代汉语词汇（第一节词汇概说）一、词汇学的分科词汇学是以词和词汇为研究对象的一门语言学科。
可分为普通词汇学与具体语言词汇学两大类。
1、普通词汇学又称一般词汇学，是普通语言学的一个组成部分。
它以多种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象，从而总结出一般性的规律。
2、具体语言词汇学又称个别语言词汇学，以一种语言中的词汇现象为研究对象。
从历时与共时角度划分，又分为历史词汇学、历史比较词汇学与描写词汇学等。
（1）历时词汇学主要研究词汇在语言发展过程中的的演变规律。
比如汉语词汇史主要研究汉语词汇在上古、中古、近古不同历史阶段中的发展情况。
而上古词汇史则研究汉语词汇在殷商、先秦、两汉时期的演变规律，一般以文献记载的材料或所发掘的相关出土文物为研究对象。
（2）历史比较词汇学主要是运用历史比较方法，研究有亲属关系的多种语言中的词汇问题。
比如汉藏词汇比较研究，则侧重于考察不同词汇词语间的共源关系以及各自不同的演变规律。
（3）描写词汇学是研究语言词汇在一定阶段，一般指现阶段的特点。
现代汉语描写词汇学的研究对象主要涉及以下几个方面的内容：词的性质，词的造词与构词，词义的类型，词义的特征，词义的类聚，词义的发展，词汇的构成与演变等。
二、语素、词、词汇（一）语素1、什么是语素定义：语素是语言中最小的音义结合体。
特点：（1）有声音：好/ 人（2）有意义：蝴蝶玻璃新加坡麦当劳（3）最小：桌子（2 个语素）巧克力（1 个语素）（4）功能是构词：好：好看/ 好吃；人：人民/ 人情2 ．语素的分类按语音形式划分（1）单音语素：手灯/ 走观/ 红绿/ 男女/ 一千/ 条个/ 吗的（2）多音语素：乌鲁木齐新加坡香港（源自莞香装运地/ 源自海盗香姑的名字）按语言功能划分（1）成词语素指可以独立成词的语素，也叫自由语素。
该类语素独立成词后可在句中单独使用。
例如：“人”可在句中单独出现：人来了；也可构词：客人。
（2）非词语素不能独立成词的语素，包含半自由语素与不自由语素两种类型。
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2. compound
‘lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically
and semantically as a single word’
---Quirk et al 1985
•Characteristics of compounds
•Phonological features:
In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent whereas in noun phrase the second element is generally accented if there is only one stress. But it is not absolute as in bottle-green as well as in combing-form compound, socio-linguistic,
psycho-analysis.
2). Semantic features: every compound should express a single idea just as one word, i.e. it is idiomatic. e.g. green hand---inexperienced person
red meat---beef or mutton
3).grammaical features: the one-wordness of compounds can be seen in the way the expressions are handled morphologically.
e.g. He bad-mouthed me.
Plural forms of compound nouns usually take inflectional –s at the end, as in new-borns, three-year-olds, etc. But there are also exceptions if their one-wordness identity is apparent, as in brothers-in-law, lookers-on,etc.
4). Orthographical features: in most cases, compounds are written either ‘solid’ or ‘hyphenate’ as in flower-pot, flowerpot, flower pot. It largely depends on an individual’s preference. British speakers tend to hyphenate compounds while Americans like to write compounds like free phrases.
2. Formation of compounds
1). Noun compounds
subject+ verb daybreak dancing girl
verb+ object handshake meat delivery housekeeping
verb-adverbial Under this category, the adverbial can be subclassified as that of place, time, instrument and others.
Place: hiding-place drinking cup filmgoer table-talk
Time: sleep-walking day-dreamer night flight
Instrument: sewing machine handwriting gunfight
Others: shadow-boxing telephone call
Subject + object : air rifle power plant television screen
Subject + complement: girlfriend longboat chocolate bar safety-belt
2) Adjective Compounds
N + v-ing record-breaking
A + v-ing easy-going, high-sounding
N + a: warweary, thread-bare
A + a : bitter-sweet
N + v-ed :custom-built, town-bred
a(adv) +v-ed far-fetched, hard-won
n(a) +n-ed: short-sighted, lion-hearted
Num +n: ten-storey, four-leg
Num +n-ed: one-eyed, two-legged
Adv +v-ing: forth-coming
V-ed+adv: worn-out
⏹Adjective compounds can be paraphrased with reference to their internal grammatical relationship.
Verb+object: breath-taking life-giving
Verb+adverbial: fist-fighting home-made
Verb+predicative: sweet-smelling good-looking
noun-adverbial +adjective: homesick snow-white
Coordinating relation: sino-American phonetic-syntactic
⏹3) verb compounds
Through conversion: nickname(n)---to nickname moonlight(n)---to moonlight
Through backformation: lip-reading---to lip-read mass production---to mass-produce Exercise:
•What are the criteria by which to differentiate compounds from free phrases?
•Analyze the following compound words and explain their internal grammatical relationship. heartbeat brainwashing movie-goer baking power
far-reaching lion-hearted(非常勇敢的) boyfriend snap decision on-coming light-blue lovesick easy chair
Tax-free goings-on
⏹3) what are the usual methods to form compound verbs? Give examples
⏹4). Form compounds using the following either as the first or the second element of the compound as indicated and translate the words into Chinese.
well- -bound -work -worthy -woman –wide
-minded -style self- -related -proof once-
news- mock- -in-law home- half- ever-
-conscious -based。