《英语词汇学》串讲笔记1
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点
汪榕培是一位英语词汇学家，他对英语词汇的研究主要集中在以下几个方面：
1. 词源学：汪榕培研究词汇的词源，包括来自其他语言的借词，如英语中的法语借词、拉丁借词等。
2. 词素学：汪榕培研究词汇的构成成分，包括基本词根、前缀、后缀等词素的作用和组合规则。
3. 词汇分类：汪榕培将英语词汇按照不同的意义和用法进行分类，如名词、动词、形容词等，同时也研究同义词、反义词等语义关系。
4. 词汇变化：汪榕培研究英语词汇的变化形式，包括时态、语态、比较级、最高级等变化规则和使用方法。
5. 词汇学习：汪榕培探讨英语词汇学习的方法和技巧，包括记忆词汇的技巧、词汇学习的策略等。
以上是汪榕培在英语词汇学领域的主要研究内容和知识点。
他的研究对于英语学习者提高词汇能力和语言运用能力有很大的帮助。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记3
Chapter 7Changes in Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词义变化的种类，词义变化的原因。
通过对本章的学习考生应该了解词义变化的必然性，词义变化的主要方式和原因。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，填空题，搭配题和名词解释题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. Extension(词义扩大) of meaning is also known as generalization.2. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.3. Of the modes of word-meaning change, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.4. Degradation（降格）or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.5. The degraded meaning “sexual desire ”of the word “lust ”comes from its old meaning “ pleasure”.6. The name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo is extension.7. There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning: Extra-linguistic Factors and Linguistic Factors.（非语言因素和语言因素）8. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.9. The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the Language system.10. The meanings of “lip”and “tongue”in “the lip of a wound”and “the tongue of a bell”have experienced associated transfer.（联想转移）11. The so-called “King’s English”serves as a class reason（阶级原因）in word-meaning change.12. The change of word-meaning is brought about by following internal factors: the influx of borrowing, shortening, analogy.13. Generalization is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.14. The four major modes of semantic change are: extension（扩大）, narrowing（缩小）, elevation （升华）and degradation（降格）.名词解释：1.extension（词义的扩大）: It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. In other words,the term has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.2.narrowing（词义的缩小）: it is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general meaning becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.3.elevation（升华）: Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.4. degradation（降格）: Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It’s a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.5. transfer（转移）: Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.论述问答题：1.What are the linguistic factors(语言因素) that have caused the changing of meaning? Try to explain it.答：Linguistic Factors that have caused the changing of meaning cover four:1) One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
1.词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、
动词、形容词和副词，是能独立存在并具有词义的词类；虚词包括冠词、
介词、连词、代词和助词，是不能独立存在或不具有词义的词类。
2.词根与词缀：英语词汇中有很多词根和词缀，词根是词的核心部分，词缀是附加在词根上的，可以改变词的词义、词性或词形。
3.词义：英语词汇的词义可以通过定义、同义词、反义词、上下义词
等方式进行描述和解释。
词义可以有直观意义、引申意义和隐喻意义等。
4.词汇建构：英语词汇的建构可以通过合成、派生、转化、缩略等方
式进行。
合成是通过将两个或多个词根组合成一个新词，派生是通过添加
前缀或后缀来构成新词，转化是通过改变词的词类来构成新词，缩略是通
过省略部分词组或词根来构成新词。
5.词汇变化：英语词汇的变化形式包括时态、语态、人称、数和比较等。
词汇的变化形式可以通过词形变化、语法变化和语义变化等方式进行。
6.外借词：英语词汇中存在大量的外借词，这些词汇主要来自拉丁语、希腊语、法语、德语等其他语言。
外借词在英语中经过适当的拼写、读音
和意义调整后被接受和使用。
7.同源词：英语词汇中存在一些同源词，这些词源于同一词根或词源，并在语音、形态或词义上有一定的相似性。
了解同源词可以帮助理解和记
忆词汇。
8.词汇扩展：英语词汇在发展的过程中会发生扩展，即一个词从最初的特定意义扩展到更广泛的意义。
词汇扩展可以通过引申、转义、隐喻等方式进行。
这些是英语词汇学中的一些主要知识点，通过对这些知识点的学习和理解，可以更好地掌握和应用英语词汇。
英语词汇学串讲1
英语词汇学串讲<上>日期：2004-3-24 作者：Kevin英语词汇学串讲内容（分三讲）第一讲：1.考试题形式分为：Ⅰ.选择题(30分)：完全是考书中的例子，理论与例子的结合,也就是‘Theory’和‘Example’的结合。
Ⅱ.填空（10分）：考特例,不是考简单的‘Examples﹑Theory’而是考‘Exceptions’ .Ⅲ.（10分）考试内容：ⅰ.Types of meaning changes: 词意变化的种类ⅱ.Types of meaning : 词义的种类，如：概念意义，联想意义，情感意义等。
ⅲ.Languages branches :语系与语族, 语系如：印欧语系；语族如：一个大的语系下分为那几个小的语族，如：日尔曼语族，斯堪的纳维亚语族等。
ⅳ. Features of idioms: 习语的特点Ⅳ.(10分) 考试内容：ⅰ.Types of Bound Morphemes: 粘着词素的种类ⅱ.Types of Word Formations: 构词法的种类ⅲ.Types of Meaning: 词义的种类ⅳ.Types of Meaning of Idioms:习语涵义的种类Ⅴ. 名词解释 (10分)：Ⅵ. 简答题 (12分)：ⅰ.比较题：两种理论/概念之间的区别就叫比较题，比如说‘概念意义与联想意义有何区别，粘着词素与派生词根有何区别，两种事物与两种理论之间的区别等。
ⅱ.名词解释扩展题：难的名词解释派生的简答题，如:Affected Meaning 名词解释起来太长了，放在简答题里，就成为： What is Affected Meaning, briefly exemplify it.ⅲ.Optional: 可考可不考的题，往往是给出名词让你举例子Ⅶ.分析题(18分)：给出例子，让你用理论加以分析。
二. 串讲内容：Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支:Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography 研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章部分：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记2
Chapter 4Word Formation II一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词缀法，复合法，转类法，拼缀法，截短法，首字母缩略法，逆生法，专有名词普通化。
通过对本章的学习，考生应该了解现代英语的主要构词法，这些构词法在英语词汇发展中的地位，提高构词能力，自觉扩大词汇量。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，名词解释，填空题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are writtenseparately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning. Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”‟is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other‟s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：“意义”的意义，词义的理据，词义的类别。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记1
13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning foran existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‗all national character‘is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‗no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself‘. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, ―emil‖(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word ―mouse‖ might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words（功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words（外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2The Development of the English Vocabulary一、【考情分析】16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）inEngland.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‗s‘ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/in a compound like ―handcuff‖. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixationalmorphemes as in ―mouthful‖. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②―happy‖ and ―ideal‖ are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only ―collect‖―nation‖ and ―earth‖ are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.。
00832自考英语词汇学笔记
such incan esp. In to as ）a and a ：foot, hand,（表示形为、come, go, eat,things necessary unchanged.undergoinghave nowsuch wordscomputer, things and.footer,footman,father ofdog-ear,dogsleep, toword stockbecause mostchanges inpolysemous.stock enter quiteidiomaticheart for example: have one's heart heart and soul;and so on.…alluse fromdo the language., hepatitis, penicillin, trigonometryin music:, sonata（清唱）to theof particular（商业领域）version‟,chips forthe parties in winning‟, holdfor the finish‟;for: buster forpeople outsidebear , dip（匕）bluidbog ）Addison82% 18%Swift75% 25%Pope 80% 20%Johnson 72% 28%Hume 73% 27%Gibbon70% 30%Macaulay 75% 25%Tennyson 88% 12%S. Robertson（rev.）1957: 174Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed wordsor loan words or borrowings in simple terms. English is a heavy borrower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the world. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana, “The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed”（1980 V ol.10, p.423）.The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings. Baugh（1978）talks of the English vocabulary as “cosmopolitan vocabulary”, which reveals the true nature of the English vocabulary. According to the degree of assimilation（同化）and manner of borrowing（借词的方式）, we can bring the loan-words under four classes.1. Denizens.（同化词）Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.本句翻译：同化词是早期借来的单词，现在被完全同化，完全吸收。
英语词汇学笔记整理..
英语词汇学笔录整理Part 1前缀(Prefixes)1.Negative prefixesa-;an- 缺乏、缺乏amoral( 缺德 ) asexual( 雌雄同体的 ) asymmetry(不平均的)anarchy( 无政府的 )dis- 否、不dishonestnon- 非、否non-black(非黑人区的)non-science non-smoker nonresistant(非抵挡)in- ； i- ； im- ； ir-complete——incomplete correct —— incorrect小结：清辅音 [k],[f],[t]前的前缀加in-; 唇音从前加im-; “ l”前加 il-; “ r ”前加 ir- 。
因此加什么样的前缀由单词的首字母决定。
un- 不unhappy unfriendly infamous2. Pejorative prefixes表贬义mal- 不好的，坏的maltreat(凌虐)malformed(畸形的)malnutrition(营养不良的)malfunction( 功能杂乱 )mis- 错误的misdial( 拨错号 ) misleading(误导)misbehaved(行为不规范) misconception(错误的认知)pseudo-错，假的pseudoscience( 伪科学 ) pseudo teaching(实习)3. Reversative prefixes表逆转的前缀de-defrost(除霜)deplane(下飞机)deindustrialization(非工业化的)decode(解码)dis-表示动作的逆转disconnect( 切断 ) dishearten(灰心)disown( 扔掉 )4.Prefixes of degree or sizearch- means“ most” ” supreme”常带有贬义archenemy archbishop(红衣大主教)arch monetarist(拜金主义者) co-“ joint” or“equally”coexistence( 共存的 ) combine colleague correspondence(通讯联系)小结： co- 这个前缀依据所跟单词的首字母而发生变化在元音前加co- ； -b\-p从前用com-;-l从前用col-;-f\-c\-g前用con-;-r从前用cor- hyper-means“extreme”hyperactive( 过于活跃的 ) hyper cautious(过分当心的)mini-means“ little”minibus miniskirt ministered minimalmaxi-means“ big”maxi coat maxi skirtout-means“ surpassing” ,程度多，超出outclass( 优良的 ) outlive(长寿的)outgrowover-means“excessive” 相当的，带贬义overeat overweight overestimate(高估)overwork overjoyed(惊喜若狂的 ) overflow( 溢出 )sub-亚，次的subculture( 亚文化 ) subtext(潜台词)subconscious(潜意识)subsonic(低音速)super-超级supernatural( 超自然的 ) supermansur- means“over and above” 超surcharge(额外收费)surtax( 附带税 ) surreal( 超现实 )ultra-相当，特别ultramodern ultraconservative(特别守旧的)ultrasonic(超音速)ultraviolet( 紫外线 )under-低于undercharged underestimate(低估)5.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti- means“ against” 反anticlockwise( 逆时针 ) anti-aging(抗衰老的)antibacterial(抗菌的) antineutron(反中子)contra- means“opposite” ,“ contrasting”contradiction conrafactualcounter- means“ against” ,“ in opposition to”counterattack counterexample countercurrent(逆电流) pro-支持，站在一方pro-European pro-student6. Locative prefixes表示方向的前缀fore-前部forearm foreground forehead forewordinter- means“ between” ,“ among” 在之间international intermarry(近亲成婚)internetsub- means“under”submarine(潜水艇)subway sublet( 转租 )super- means“ above”superstructure( 上层建筑物 )trans- means“ across”transform( 变形 ) transplant transcontinental(跨州的) 7. Prefixes of time and order表示时间温次序的前缀ex- means“ former” 从前的ex-husband ex-presidentfore-表时间foresee( 预示 ) foretell(预知)post- means“after”postmodernism(后现代的 ) postwar(战后)posttretment(复建)pre-在从前preschooler( 学龄前少儿 ) prehistory(史前史)pre-liberation(解放前)8. Number prefixesbi-;di- means“two” 双bimonthly( 双月的 ) bicycle( 自行车 ) bilingual(双语的)bigamy(重婚) dioxide( 二氧化物 ) disyllable( 双音节 )multi-;poly- means“ many” 多，几个multi-national polygamy(一夫多妻制)polyandry(一妻多夫制) semi-;demi-;hemi- means“ half” 半semiliterate( 半文盲 ) demigod(半人半神)hemisphere(半球)semivowel(半元音 )tri-三triangle(三角形)tricycle( 三轮车 ) trinity(三维一体)trilingual(三语的) uni-; mono- means“ one” 单调的uniform monogamy(一夫一妻制)monologue(单独)9. Neo- Classical prefixes与科技相关的auto- means“self”autobiography(自传 ) autosuggestion(自荐)autocrat(专制)extra-超的extraordinary( 特别的 )extraterrestrial(外星的)neo- means“ new” 新的neo-Nazi(新纳粹党)neo-impressionism(新映像派)pan- means“ all” ,“ world-wide”pan-Americanism泛美主义proto- means“ first” ,” original” 原始的，最先的protohistory( 史古人类学 ) prototype(原型，典型)tele- means“ distant” 远程的telescope telegram televisionPart 2 Suffixation后缀1. Noun suffixes[1] noun + noun suffixes, abstract由此类词缀组成的名词表示抽象的观点-age means“ measure of” or“ collection of”Baggage luggage percentage(会合名词，百分比，不可以和数字直接连用) mileage(里程)-dom means“ the state of being”kingdom officialdom(官僚)stardom(明星地位)-ery, -ryslavery nunnery(尼姑庵)nursery refinery( 精华 )-ful means“ the amount contained”handful mouthful spoonful-hood means“ the state” or“ time of being something”childhood boyhood brotherhood neighborhood widowhood-ing means“ material of” or“ activity connected with”carpeting matting tubing blackerring-ism means“doctrine of”Impressionism( 映像派 ) optimism pessism idealism materialism -ocracy means“ government by”democracy( 民主 )-shiprelationship friendship dictatorship(专制主义)[2] noun + noun suffixes, concrete由此类词缀组成的名词表示详细的观点-eer means“ skilled in”auctioneer( 拍卖师 ) engineer mountaineer-er means“ having doininant characteristics”teenager villager Londoner cooker roaster-ess means“ a female”actress hostess lioness tigress在 masculine( 阳性 )名词后加 - essauthor : authoress女作家heir : heiress女性继承人host : hostess女主人lion : lioness雌狮例外：actor : actress女演员hunter : huntress女猎人tiger : tigress母老虎negro : negress女黑人master : mistress女主人/情妇（concubine二奶）prince : princess公主murderer : murderess女杀手masculine(阳性)与feminine完整不一样bachelor 只身一人汉—— maid少女bull 公牛—— cow母牛cock公鸡——hen母鸡dog 狗—— bitch母狗gentleman男士—— lady女士horse 马—— mare母马king 国王—— queen王后monk 和尚—— nun尼姑nephew 外甥—— niece外甥女在名词前后加上性又名词man-servant——maid-servantcock-sparrow——hen-sparrowhe-goat——she-goattom-cat——she-catpeacock —— peahen-let means“ small” 小booklet piglet starlet-ling means“minor” or“ off spring of”小，后辈duckling princeling-ster means“involved in”gamester(means a person who plays a game for money)gangster(黑帮)[3] verb + noun suffix加在动词后的名词后缀-ant means“a person or thing”informant consultant(顾问)inhabitant lubricant(润滑剂)-ee means“ one who is object of the verb”interviewee nominee(被提名者)trainee-er, -or means“a person or thing”Driver teacher silencer( 消音器 ) computer-al means“ the action on result of”arrival refusal revival-ation means“ the process or state of”classification( 分类 ) interpretation(剖析)explanation globalization(全世界化)explorationPart 3转类法——词形不变，词性改变Assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.eg: 1. He designed to be a scientist.1.He had a desire to be a scientist.Zero derivation零派生eg: smoke——He smokes a pipe. (verb.)——Let ’The smoke from the chimney. (noun.)s have a smoke. (noun.)英语词类的转变一般是简单词增补： breakfast的来历在阿拉伯， fasting为斋月，从breakfast的构造看来，意为“打破斋戒”的意思，在晚饭和早饭之间的时间较长，而吃早饭就像打破了一个小型的斋戒。
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点汪榕培是一位著名的英语词汇学家，他在英语词汇学领域有着丰富的知识和研究成果。
以下是一些关于英语词汇学的知识点，涵盖了汪榕培的研究内容：1. 词汇的定义，汪榕培认为，词汇是语言的基本单位，是由音、形、义三个方面组成的。
他强调了词汇在语言中的重要性，指出词汇是语言的核心和基础。
2. 词汇的分类，汪榕培将英语词汇分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词和副词，用来表示具体的事物、行为和属性。
虚词包括介词、连词、冠词和代词，用来连接、修饰和限定实词的意义。
3. 词汇的构成，汪榕培研究了英语词汇的构成方式，包括派生、合成、转化和缩略等。
他指出，通过这些构词方式，可以创造出大量的新词汇，并丰富语言的表达能力。
4. 词义的演变，汪榕培关注了英语词汇的词义演变问题。
他研究了词义的扩展、缩小、转义等现象，揭示了词义变化的原因和规律。
他认为，词义的演变是语言发展的重要方面。
5. 词汇的语法功能，汪榕培探讨了词汇在句子中的语法功能。
他研究了词汇的句法位置、词序、语法关系等问题，揭示了词汇与句子结构的关系，对句子的理解和构建具有重要意义。
6. 词汇的语用功能，汪榕培关注了词汇在交际中的语用功能。
他研究了词汇的语用意义、语用规约和语用推理等问题，揭示了词汇在语言交际中的作用和影响。
7. 词汇的教学应用，汪榕培的研究成果对英语词汇教学具有指导意义。
他提出了一些教学方法和策略，帮助学习者更好地掌握和运用词汇，提高语言表达能力。
以上是关于英语词汇学的一些知识点，涵盖了汪榕培的研究内容。
英语词汇学是一个广阔而有趣的领域，通过深入学习和研究，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语词汇。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
1.单词的构成：单词由不同的字母组合而成，可以包括前缀、词根、
后缀等。
2.词根和词义：词根是单词中带有基本词义的部分，在单词形态变化
时不会改变。
词根可以是一个字母、一个词或一个词组。
词根可以通过前
缀和后缀的添加，以及音变等形式进行变化。
3.前缀和后缀：前缀是加在词根前面的一种字母或几个字母，可以改
变单词的意义或词类。
后缀是加在词根后面的一种字母或几个字母，可以
改变单词的意义、词类或语法功能。
4.同义词和反义词：同义词是意义相近或相同的词，可以在表达时相
互替换。
反义词则是意义相反的词，通常用来表达对立或对比的关系。
5.词义的变化：词义可以根据语境和用法的不同而发生变化，有时一
个词也可以具有多个意义。
6.词义的分类：词义可以分为字面意义（词义的最基本的意义）、引
申义（从原来的字面意义发展而来的新的意义）和隐喻义（使用一个词来
暗示或比喻另一个概念）。
7.词义的搭配：词义可以和其他词搭配使用，形成固定的词组或短语，这些搭配可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用单词。
8.词法关系：词汇学研究不同词之间的关系，如近义词、反义词、属
于关系等。
9.词源学：词源学研究词语的起源和发展，并追溯词汇的历史和语言
渊源。
10.词汇扩充：词汇学研究如何通过学习和运用词汇扩充词汇量，如学习词根、前缀和后缀的意义和用法，以及拆解和分析复杂单词的方法。
英语专业-英语词汇学-笔记
1.What is polysemy?Having multiple meanings that are related.2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemous words? Explain them1)The diachronic approach begins with the primary meaning and then arrangethe other meanings (derived meanings) in the order in which theydeveloped.2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popular meaning (centralmeaning) and then arrange the other meanings (marginal meanings) inorder of popularity.3.What are the two different ways in which polysemy develops? Explain them1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent from one another and arederived directly from the primary meaning.2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected and derive from primarymeaning through successive shifts of meaning from one secondary meaningto another.4.What is homonymy?Homonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone and a homograph1)perfect homonym 同音同形date日期/date红枣2)homophone 同音异形Knew/new, meet/meat3)homograph 异音同形record(v.)/record(n.)6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymyHi Jack （你好杰克）– hijack（打劫）7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy? Give an example toillustrate the difference1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book can mean a book as in “Iread a book”, and “I book a hotel room”. The second meaning is related tothe first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’information on a book when reserving a room.2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honest or being in ahorizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but noconnection.8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms into complementaries (binaries),contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why1)Good/bad, contraries2)odd/even, complementaries3)above/below, converses4)clean/dirty, contraries5)remember/forget, complementaries?6)old/young, contraries7)before/after, converses9.What is hyponymy? Give an exampleThe meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.例Flower is the superordinate term, rose is the subordinate term.10.What is synonymy?Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but nearly or exactly alike in essential meaning.11.What is the difference between absolute and near (relative) synonyms?1)Absolute synonyms – interchangeable in every way2)Near synonyms – similar in denotation but have different shades of meaningor different degrees of a given quality.12.What are some of the reasons why synonyms exist?1)Borrowing from other languages2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions13.What are some of the factors that discriminate between relative synonyms? Useexamples1)Range of meaning. “timid” is more extensive because it can be used todescribe the state of mind at a time and the disposition, but “timorous” onlydescribe the disposition.2)Degree of intensity. A “wealthy” person has much more money than a“rich” person.3)Differences in stylistic features. “ask” is used commonly and tend to becolloquial. “question” is more formal.14.(The development of English) What was the language spoken in the British Islesbefore English? How was English introduced?Celtic. Germanic tribe invaded and settled after Roman. They brought their own culture. It was called Anglo-saxon (the name of two tribes) and also called old English.15.What are the three phases of the English language and what were their timeperiods? What events marked the transition of one phase to another?a)Old English (450 - 1150) ——Norman conquest from France in 1066, butthe real development of middle English started in the 12th century becausethe ruling class spoke Anglo French and the peasants spoke Anglo-Saxon soit took quite a long time for them to intermix.b)Middle English (1150 - 1500) ——during Renaissance there was anexplosion of information and knowledge about Ancient Greece and Roman.People stated to read so ideas spread. Greek and Latin words startedentering English. Besides, printing was invented, more can read and writebooks.c)Modern English (1500 – present)16.Over its history, English has evolved from a highly inflected language to a nearlynon-inflected language. What is the difference? Give an example of inflection in EnglishInflection means to modify a word to indicate grammatical relations. A lot of words in a highly inflected language have ending or form changes in order toshow its grammatical function. But a weakly inflected language has fewerchanges. As English developed, it has changed from a highly infected language toa weekly one.17.What are the most important languages that English has borrowed from? Why?1)French – Norman conquest2)Latin – Renaissance, a lot of Latin book were translated into English3)Scandinavia – Vikings (9 century) influenced old English18.What is the difference between a Content Word and a Functional word? Give anexample of each.•Content words are those are about something. 例nation, earth. •Functional words are those used to express relations. 例the, and.19.Explain two properties of Basic words and give examples1)Productivity. Basic words are very productive because thet are mostly rootwords or monosyllabic words. They can be used alone and are often used toform now words with other roots and affixes. 例foot-football-footprint2)Many basic words take part in a number of set expressions. 例heart- byheart –from the bottom of one’s heart- lose heart20.What is a denizen word? Give an exampleDenizens are words that were borrowed a long time ago, they look and sound like a native word.例‘pork’ from the French ‘porc’21.What is an alien word? Give an exampleAliens are borrowed words which have kept their original pronunciation andspelling.例café , fiancée22.What is a translation loan? Give an exampleTranslation loans are words and expressions formed from existing material in the English language but tranlate the meaning or the sound from anotherlanguage.例‘black humour’ from the French ‘humour noir’例‘tea’ from the Chinese23.What is a semantic loan? Give an exampleSemantic loans are where a word already exists in native English but borrows a new meaning from another language.例‘dumb’ has come to mean ‘stupid’ because of the German word ‘dumm’24.(The structure of Words) What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language.25.What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph?•Morpheme is about meaning.•Morph is about shape and sound.Morphemes are abstract, and are realized in speech by morphs.26.What is the difference between a bound morpheme and a free morpheme? Givean example of each kind of morpheme1)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. 例dis-,mis-.2)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. 例man,dog.27.What is the difference between a derivational morpheme and an inflectionalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Derivational morphemes can derive new words. 例football, slowly2)Inflectional morphemes don’t create new words and just indicate syntacticrelationships. 例-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -s28.What is the difference between a content morpheme and a grammaticalmorpheme? Give an example of each kind of morpheme1)Content morphemes have content and can be used to derive new words. =derivational morphemes.2)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical markers, including Inflectionalmorphemes & free morphemes. 例while, where, they29.What is an affix?An affix is a form that are attached to words to modify meaning or function. 30.What is the difference between a derivational and an inflectional affix? Give anexample of each1)Inflectional affix do not create new words, and indicate syntacticrelationships between words. 例–ed, talked2)Derivational affix derive new words. 例–less, careless. non-, non-smoker.31.What is a root? Give an exampleA root is a word element that contains the main component of meaning in aword. It is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.例：internationalists → nation Impracticality → pratice32.What is a stem? Give an exampleA stem is that part of the word form that remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.例：internationalists → nationalistsUndesirables → desirable33.What is a base? Give an exampleA base is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.例：possible, understand34.(Word Formation)What is blending?the combination of parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.35.Give an example of blending and explain how the word has been formedSmog=smoke+fog36.What is clipping?a part of the original word is removed.37.Give an example of clipping and explain how the word has been formedExam-examination38.What is acronymy?new words are formed by joining the initial letters of composite names or phrases39.Give an example of an initialism and explain how the word is formedInitialism ——pronounced letter by letter. 例：BBC,CCTV40.Give an example of a true acronym and explain how the word is formedTrue acronym ——pronounced as a normal word. 例：NATO, AIDS41.What is the commonization of a proper name? Give an exampleWords come from proper names. 例“rugby” from “Rugby School”, where itwas first played.42.What are the three most productive ways of forming new words in the Englishlanguage?Affixation, compounding, conversion.43.What is affixation? Give an exampleThe formation of new words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases.44.What is compounding? Give an exampleThe forming of new words by joining two or more bases. 例hot dog, blueprint 45.Give an example of the use of a conversion prefix (a prefix that you add tosomething that changes word class) and explain the shift in word classCage (n.) uncage(v.)46.Give an example of the use of a noun suffix ( a suffix that you add to somethingto produce a noun) and explain the shift in word classDance(v.) dancer(n.)47.Give an example of the use of an adjective suffix and explain the shift in wordclassChild(n.) childish(adj.)48.Give an example of the use of a verb suffix and explain the shift in word classShort(adj.) shorten(v.)49.What differences typically exist between a compound and its matching freephrase? Give an example1)Phonological features. In compounds the word stress usually occur on thefirst constituent whereas in free phrases this generally falls on the second.例fat head复合词fat head短语2)Semantic features. A compound expresses a single idea. 例hot dog3)Grammatical features. A compound tends to behave as single grammaticalunits such as a verb, noun, or adjective. 例’bad-mouth’ used as a verb50.(Meanings)What is a ‘referent’?The object or idea to which a word or phrase refers. It is arbitrary andconventional.51.What is a ‘concept’?Concept is the totality of real world knowledge about an item.52.What is the relation between ‘word’, ‘concept’ and ‘referent’?A word symbolizes a concept, a concept refers to a referent, a word stands for areferent. 【Words are connected to their referent via a concept.】53.What is ‘sense’?The realization of a concept by a definite language system.54.How would you describe the difference between a word whose meaning ismotivated and a word whose meaning is unmotivated?See if there is connection between linguistic symbol and its meaning.55.What is onomatopoeic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationSome words are created by imitating the natural sounds. 例ha ha56.What is morphological motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationCompounds and derived words are multi-morphemic and the meanings of many of them are the meanings of the morphemes combined. 例airmail, hopeful 57.What is semantic motivation? Give an example and explain its motivationThe meaning is based on an association with the conceptual meaning of a word.例the mouth of the river.58.How would you describe the difference between conceptual meaning andassociative meaning?•Conceptual meaning is meaning as it is given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. The same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community •Associative meaning is secondary meaning supplemental to conceptual meaning. It can be influenced by a range of factors including culture, education, religion, experience, geographical region and so on 59.What is connotative meaning? Give an exampleassociations that a word has that is suggested by its conceptual meaning例mother- love, care, forgiving60.What is stylistic meaning? Give an examplestylistic properties that make them appropriate for different styles.例child is formal, kid is informal. Father is formal, papa is informal.61.What is affective meaning? Give an example of pejorative and appreciativemeaningthe speaker’s attitude towards the person o r thing in question例the country is backward. (pejorative) the country is developing.(appreciative) 62.What is collocative meaning? Give an exampleassociations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment’例tremble with fear; quiver with excitement.。
00832自考英语词汇学重点笔记整理1
自考英语词汇学笔记整理Chapter 11 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1 词定义包括以下几点：（ 1 ）一门语言中最小的自由形式; （ 2 ）一个声音的统一体（ 3 ）一个意义单位;（ 4 ）在一个句子中独立起作用的一个形式。
词是一门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式2- Sound and Meaning:symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three lettersthat make up the word just automatically suggest the animalin question.2 -声音和意义：象征性联系几乎总是任意和约定成俗的狗称为狗不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就能自动表示这种动物。
3- Old English, the speech ofthe time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters mustdo double duty or work together in combination.3 –古代英语，随着语言的发展，声音和形式之间的差异越来越大。
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的起源、发展、结构和功能的学科。
它关注词汇的形成、分布和使用规律，旨在帮助人们更好地理解和运用英语词汇，我将详细讨论英语词汇学的一些重要知识点。
第一部分：英语词汇的起源和发展1.1 词汇的起源英语词汇的起源可以追溯到原始语言，人类追求沟通的需要催生了词汇的出现。
最初，人们通过模仿自然声音或物体特性来命名事物，逐渐形成了最早的词汇系统。
1.2 词汇的发展随着社会的进步和交流的增加，语言发生了演变和变异。
英语词汇的发展经历了几个阶段，包括古英语、中古英语、现代英语等，每个阶段都有其独特的特点和词汇形态。
第二部分：英语词汇的结构2.1 词根词根是词汇的核心部分，它通常具有基本含义，并可以通过前缀和后缀来构成新的词汇。
例如，"write"是一个词根，可以通过添加前缀"re-"构成"rewrite"，通过添加后缀"-er"构成"writer"。
2.2 前缀前缀位于词根之前，用于改变词的意义或形态。
常见的前缀包括"un-"（表示否定）、"re-"（表示再次）等。
例如，"happy"变为"unhappy"表示不快乐，"do"变为"redo"表示重新做。
2.3 后缀后缀位于词根之后，用于改变词的类别或形态。
常见的后缀包括"-er"（表示职业或性别）、"-able"（表示能力或性质）等。
例如，"act"变为"actor"表示演员，"comfort"变为"comfortable"表示舒适的。
第三部分：英语词汇的分类3.1 按词性分类英语词汇可以根据其功能和词法特征分为不同的词性，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
《英语词汇学》笔记
Lexicology: is a branch oflinguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with suchlinguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学),semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics （文体论） andlexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations willgradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately.A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts ofwords and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal freeform of a language that has agiven sound and meaning andsyntactic function. (1)aminimal free form of alanguage (2)a sound unity (3)aunit of meaning (4)a form thatcan function alone in asentencesound and meaning: almostarbitrary, “no logicalrelationship between thesound which stands for a thingor an idea and the actual thingand idea itself”sound and form: the soundshould be similar to the formVocabulary: all the words ina language make up itsvocabularyThe 3 Stages of Development ofE Vocabulary: Old Englishvocabulary, Middle EV, ModernEVThe Indo-European LanguageFamilyThe Eight Groups inIndo-European Family ofLanguagesThe Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin,Romancelanguages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian)etc.The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian,Swedish,Danish,Icelandic)etc.The Three Stages ofDevelopment of the EnglishVocabulary@1 Old English Period or TheAnglo-Saxon Period (450-1100)(vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)2 Middle English Period(1150-1500)3 Modern English Period(1500-now): in fact more than25% of modern E words comealmost directly fromclassical languages. InModern E, words endings weremostly lostModes of V Development(ModernE): 1)creation 2)semanticchange 3) borrowingMorpheme(语素):the minimalmeaningful unit(the smallestfunctioning unit in thecomposition of words)Allomorph(语素变体): is adifferent variant form of amorpheme，differ inphonological and spellingform, but at the same infunction and meaningType of MorphemeFree Morpheme: A free morphemeis one that can stand by itself.(independent)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): Abound morpheme is one thatcannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes twotypes: (1) bound root(2)Affix(词缀)1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectionalmorphemes):affixes attached to the end ofwords to indicate grammaticalrelationships areinflectional2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefixcomes before words. B)suffixAn adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem,whatever classis belongs to ,the result will be anadjective.free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixboundderivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）1) Root 2) StemThe differences between rootand stem:A root is the basic form of aword which cannot be furtheranalyzed without total loss ofidentity.A stem is the surplus partafter the cutting ofinflectional morpheme in aword with inflectionalmorphemes,can be furtheranalyzed, it sometimes couldbe a root.IndividualisticUndesirablesIndividualist (stem)undesirable (stem)Individual (stem)desirable (stem)dividual (stem)desire (root, stem)divide(root, stem)Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：addingword-formation orderivational affixes to stem.Prefixation前缀@：It's theformation of new words byadding a prefixes to stems.1)'表示否定'nagativeprefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a-etc.2)''reversative or privativeprefixes: un-,de-dis etc.3)'表示贬义'pejorativeprefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo-etc.4)'表示程度'degree or sizeprefixes: arch-,super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)'表示方向、态度'orientation& attitudeprefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.6)locativeprefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)'表示时间、次序'time and orderprefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex -,re- etc.8)'表示数量'numberprefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-, tri-,multi-/poly- etc.9)'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixesCompounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air force, air raid) Formation of compoundsnoun compounds e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower potadjective compounds e.g. acid + head = acid-headverb compounds e.g. house + keep = housekeepReference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据） 2)Morphologicalmotivation （形态理据）3)Semantic motivation（词义理据） 4)Etymologicalmotivation （词源理据）Types of meaningGrammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicate the grammaticalconcept(become important onlyin actual context)Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）Lexical meaning andgrammatical meaning make upthe word-meaningLexical meaning has 2components: Conceptualmeaning(概念意义) andassociative meaning(关联意义)Conceptual meaning(概念意义):also known as denotativemeaning(外延意义)Associative meaning(关联意义):[connotative隐含意义,Stylistic风格意义,Affective感情意义,Collocative搭配意义]Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy:diachronic approach(历时方法)synchronic approach (共时方法)Two processed of development:radiation （辐射型）andconcatenation （连锁型）Homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）It refers words different inmeaning but either identicalboth in sound and spelling oridentical only in sound orspelling.Types of homonyms1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）2）Homophones（同音异义词）3)Homographs（同形异义词）Origins of homonyms1）change in sound and spelling2）borrowing 3）Shortening(缩略)The differences betweenpolysemes（多义词） andhomonyms（同音同形异义词） ).1)Homonymy refer to differentwords which happen to sharethe same form and polysemy arethe one and same word which hassevral distinguishablemeaning.2)Homonymy are from differentsources. Polysemy are from thesame source.3)The various meanings ofpolysemy are correlated andconnected to one centralmeaning.Meanings of differenthomonymy have nothing to dowith one another.values: Polysemic andhomonymous word arestlyistically useful toachieve humour or irony（反话，讽刺）,or to heighten（提高）dramatic effect.Synonymy (同义关系):one oftwo or more words in theEnglish language which havethe same or very nearly thesame essential meaning :absolute synonyms andrelative synonymsSources of synonyms(同义词)are :1)Borrowing 2)Dialects andregional English3)Figurative and euphemisticuse of words 4)Coincidencewith idiomatic expressionsChanges in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the mostunstable element of a languageas it is undergoing constantchanges both in form andcontent. Comparatively thecontent is even more unstablethan the form.Types of Changes 词义变化的种类（extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation and transfer）Extension or generalization词义的扩大:is the name givento the widening of meaningwhich some wordsundergo.[companion (old)onewho shares bread (ex)acompany]Narrowing or specialization词义的缩小：is the opposite ofwidening meaning. When acommon words is turned into aproper noun, the meaning isnarrowed. [meat (old)food(na)flesh of animals]Elevation or amelioration ofmeaning词义的升华: theprocess by which words risefrom humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions ofimportance. [knight(old)servant (el)rank belowbaronet从男爵]Degeneration or pejoration词义的贬降:A process wherebywords of good origin fall intoill reputation orno-affective words come toused in derogatorysense.[silly (old)happy(de)foolish]Transfer词义的转移:Wordswhich were used to designate指明 one thing but laterchanged to mean something elsehave experienced the processof semantic transfer.（140）Causes of Semantic Change词义变化的原因Extra-linguistic factors 1411 Historical reason2 Classreason (elevation ordegradation) 3Psychological reasonLinguistic factors：the changeof meaning may be caused byinternal factors with in thelanguage system.Meaning and Context 意义和语境Context in its traditionalsense refers to the lexicalitems that precede or follow agiven word. Modern linguistshave broadened its scope toinclude both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of contextLinguistic context：It refersto thewords,clauses,sentences inwhich a word appears. It maycover a paragraph,a wholechapter and even the entirebook.1) Lexical context：It refersto the word that occurstogether with the word inquestion.2) Grammatical context：Itrefers the situation when themeaning of a word may beinfluenced by the structure in which it occurs.Extra-linguistic context：In a broad sense,it includes the physical situaion as well.it embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.The role of context语境的作用Elimination of ambiguity消除歧义1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity Indication of referents限定所指Provision of clues for inferring word meaning 提供线索以猜测词义Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs （谚语）,etc.They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms Semantic unity 语意的整体性words in the idiom they have lost their individualidentityStructural stability结构的稳定性: the constituents要素of idioms cannot be replaced, inverted or changed, deleted or added to, not even an article.The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms1 idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)2 idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms:习语的使用（stylistic features,rhetoric features and theiroccasional variations）Stylistic features 文体色彩〔colloquialisms（俗语）,slang 俚语,literaryexpressions〕The same idiom may showstylistic differences when itis assigned（指派）differentmeaningRhetorical features 修辞色彩(phonetic manipulation 语音处理，lexical manipulation andfigures of speech)phonetic manipulation 语音处理 : alliteration头韵、 rhyme押韵lexical manipulation：reiteration（duplication ofsynonyms同义字重复） [screamand shout]repetition [out and out]、juxtaposition (of antonyms)反义词并列 [here and there]figures of speech : Simile（明喻）、Metaphor（隐喻）、Metonymy（换喻）、synecdoche(提喻)、Personification（拟人法）、Euphemism（委婉词）Variations of idioms习语的变异形式：addition,deletion,replacement,postion-shifting,dismembering(分解)179Dictionary: presents inalphabetical order the wordsof English, with informationas to theirspelling ,pronunciation,meaning, usage , rules andgrammar, and in some, theiretymology（语源）Types of dictionaries:Monolingual & bilingualdictionariesMonolingual dictionary: iswritten in one language(LDCE,CCELD). The headword orentries are defined &illustrated in the samelanguage.Bilingual dictionary: involvetwo languages (A NewEnglish-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)Linguistic and EncyclopedicdictionariesLinguistic dictionary: aim atdefining words and explainingtheir usages in the language(spelling, pronunciation,meaning, grammatical,function, usage and etymologyetc.)可以是单语或是双语的Encyclopedic dictionary:encyclopedia (百科全书):isnot concerned with thelanguage per se（本身）butprovides encyclopedicinformation. Concerning eachheadword (not pronunciation,meanings, or usages) but onlyinformation.Encyclopedic Dictionary: havethe characteristics of bothlinguistic D and encyclopedia(<Chamber’s EncyclopedicEnglish Dictionary>)Unabridged, desk and pocketdictionariesUnabridged D: basicinformation about a word: itsorigin, meaning,pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical,function, spelling,hyphenation, capitalization,derived forms, synonyms andhomonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New InternationalDictionary>Desk D: medium-sized[50,000-150,000]Pocket D: about 50,000 entriesor fewerSpecialized dictionaries:concentrate on a particulararea of language or knowledge,treating such diverse topicsas etymology, synonyms,idioms, pronunciation, usagein language, and computer,engineering, literature and avariety of other subjects.Use of the dictionary1 read the contents page tofind out quickly whatinformation is included in thedictionary2 read the guide to the use ofthe dictionary。
英语词汇学知识点
English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and WordsKnowledge Points:1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components.3. The major purpose of study in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words.5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning.6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on:1) the meaning of words;2) the meaning of utterances in context;3) the meaning of sentences;4) meaning relations between sentences;5) meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language.7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words.8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment.10. Major features of Words1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2) A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3) The word is an uninterruptible unit.4) A word has to do with its social function.5) A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6) Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7) A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words.13. Generally speaking, lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.14. The lexical words can be used (functions):1) to represent our experience of the word;2) to refer to persons, places, things and concepts (e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity);3) to describe qualities and properties (e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind, high);4) to represent actions, processes or states (e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay);5) to describe circumstances like manner (e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully).Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their own content meanings.15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on.16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal (1995) defines a semantic field as a ‘named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways’.Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word MeaningsKnowledge Points:1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.2. Features of morpheme:1) A morpheme may be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be dividedup into smaller units that are meaningful themselves.2) A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. –able, in-, -hood.3) A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre-.3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes.4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants (e.g. sing as against sang, sung).5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language.6. Allomorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes.8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix –dom, is a bound morpheme.9. Free morphemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words.e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme.10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.13. Sense: Sense is a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents.14. Leech (1981) distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning.15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word.19. Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.21. Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.23. Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man, book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently.25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like –mit in permit, remit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive.26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases.27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only occur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes.28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix.1) prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root (or stem or base) like re-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, in-decent.2) suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, -er, -ist,and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3) infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba (1993), infixes are very common in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew.29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on.2) derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean:(1) a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from;(2) a raised area of land along the side of a river;(3) a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment.31. Features of polysemy:1) The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela (2000), we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous word has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings.2) The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning.3) It difficult to distinguish between polysemy (i.e. one word with several meanings) and homonymy (i. e. several words with the same shape—spelling and/or pronunciation).4) Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency.32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.33. Tow types of homonyms (Jackson and Amvela, 2000): homograph and homophone1) homograph: Homograph refers to a word which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently.2) homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spelling, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same.34. Features of homonymy:1) There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance.2) Spelling will often help to differentiate between words with are identical in sound.3) Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech.Chapter 3 The Origins of English WordsKnowledge Points:1. The Development of English:Indo-European FamilyItalic Germanic Europe the Near East North India …the North Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanicbranch branch branchEnglishEnglish belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east,and North India. One branch of the Indo-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch.Celts are believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans from about 43 AD until 410 AD.Two stages:First Stage (Beginning of English): After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began.Second Stage: By the 10th century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic (北欧古文字).2. The four historical periods of English:1) The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English.2) From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English.3) The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period.4) The language since 1800 is called Modern English.3. Old English Period (450-1066). There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today.1) the Anglo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds.2) the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.3) the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.4) grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings.5) Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.4. The Middle English Period (1066-1500). The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain.5. Features of this period:1) The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary.2) Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English.3) The inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy.4) Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages.6. Early Modern English Period (1500-1800). This period is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English.1) The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages.2) Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform.3) In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabulary, the writing system and style.4) Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms.7. The Modern English Period (1800-present). Features of this period:1) Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary.2) The assertion of American English is as a dominant variety of the language.3) The emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.8. ‘New Englishes’refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers.9. The differences between American English and British English:1) The differences of vocabulary are the most striking;2) American spelling and British are also a bit different;3) The differences between American and British pronunciation are perhaps the most pervasive of all.10. Native English vocabulary is made up of Anglo-Saxon words. This category comprises words that were used by the Germanic tribes and are still used in Modern English.11. The Celtic language did not have any serious impact on English.1) In the Old English period, only a number of Celtic words were borrowed, and just a few have survived into modern English, sometimes in regional dialect use.2) In the seventeenth century, a few more Celtic words were introduced into English from Irish Gaelic.12. Major influences on English:1) The Scandinavian Influence2) The Norman Conquest3) The Latin Influence13. Borrowing is the process of imitating a word from foreign language and, at least partly, adapting in sound or grammar to the native language.14. Latin is not only the first major contributor of loanwords to English, but also one of the most important sources for the coinage of new English words.15. Greek borrowings have been continuous from the fifth century to the present. Borrowing from French started long before 1066.16. New English words can be created by root creation, onomatopoeic words, ejaculations and word formation (Jackson and Amvela 2000).Chapter 4 Word Formation in EnglishKnowledge Points:1. There are basically three ways of extending the word stock:1) borrowing words that already exist in other languages;2) creating entirely new words;3) forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.2. Word formation refers to the different devices used in English to build new words from existing ones.3. The basic distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. Inflection results in the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, while derivation creates new vocabulary items.4. Inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words.5. Inflections in English are all suffixes that occur at the very end of a word.6. Functions of InflectionInflection creates variant forms of a word to conform to different functional roles in a sentence or in discourse.1) Inflections modify the form of a word so that they can fit into a particular syntactic slot.2) Sometimes inflectional morphemes serve merely to integrate a word into its sentence.3) inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category.7. Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base.8. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.9. Functions of DerivationsDerivational affixes serve functions very different from those of inflectional morphemes.1) A derivational affix can change the part of speech of a word;2) Derivation affixes are so called because they are used to derive new words and meanings.3) Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes.4) Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class.10. Derivational affixes can be divided into two types: class-changing and class-maintaining.11. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added.12. Class-maintaining derivational affixes change the meaning of the derivative.13. Class-changing derivational affixes determine the word class of the stem.14. The largest group of class-changing derivatives in English is nominalizers which make nouns out of adjectives or verbs.15. Verbalizers are used to form verbs from other stems.16. Adjectivalizers are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem.17. Adverbializers form adverbs when added to a given stem.18. Class-maintaining derivations do not change the word class of the stem but its meaning. Most derivatives that are prefixes in English affect only the meaning of the root, not its syntactic class.19. Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.20. Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.21. The orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent.22. Characteristics of Compounds1) Phonologically, there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern and lack of juncture.The criterion of stress applies only to nominal compounds, and the distinction between compound and idiom becomes fuzzy for verbs and other nominal categories.2) Syntactically, compounds are single lexical units and have specific features.The grammatical relations between the constituents of the compound are sometimes obscure.3) Semantically, compounds tend to have special meanings.The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that the new meaning may be different from the meanings of the words in isolation.23. A common semantic classification yields four types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional.24. An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier.25. An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts.26. A copulative compound has two semantic heads.27. An appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound.28. A compound is a lexical item in which two roots combine to make one unit.29 According to constituent elements, compounds can be divided into four major types.1) Noun compounds: A noun compound can be formed by ‘N+N’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘V-ing+N’, ‘V+N’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘V+Adv’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Prep+N’, ‘Adj+V-ing’ and other combinations.2) Verb compounds: A verb compound can be formed by ‘N+V’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Adj+V’, ‘V+V’, ‘Adv+N’ and other combinations3) Adjective compounds: An adjective compound can be formed by ‘Adj+Adj’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘Adj+N-ed’, ‘N+Adj’, ‘Adj+V-ing’, ‘Adj+V-ed’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘N+V-ed’, ‘Adv+V-ed’, ‘Adv+Adj’, ‘Prep+N’and other combinations.4) Pronoun compounds: A pronoun compound can be formed mostly by the combination of some/any/no with thing/body/one and my/your/her/him/our/them/it + self/selves.30. Conversion: A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. In other words, conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.31. There are four major kinds of conversion: from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun and from adjective to verb.Noun →verb: to air, to arm, to bottom, to cup, to fish, to mouth, to tooth.Verb →noun: a call, a command, a count, a go, a guess, a book, a walk.Adjective →verb: to better, to blind, to bold, to brave, to dirty, to empty.Adjective →noun: best, poor, rich, blind, convertible, daily, double.32. Auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and even affixes can all act as bases for conversion.33. Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blends are compounds that are less than compounds.34. Structurally, ELL (2006) divides blends into four common types.1) The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter. Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.2) The second type of blends consists of two splinters. There are two subtypes.A) In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another.B) In other cases, both splinters are the beginning of words.3) The third type of blends consists of complete overlap, in which a part of the blend belongs to both words.4) The fourth type of blends involves the embedding of one word in another.35. Blending often results in the creation of new morphemes or in the addition of new meanings to old ones.36. Shortenings include clipping and initialisms.37. Clipping is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function.38. Features of clipping:1) Clipped words tend to be casual but very useful.2) Clipping often ignores morphemic boundaries.There are three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, and midclipping.3) On some rare occasions, clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained.There are three types of phonetic clippings: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.39. Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters, or occasionally the first two letters, of the orthographic words in a phrase and using them as words.40. Alphabetisms: When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.41. Acronyms: When two words are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.42. Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.43. Communization of proper names: The English vocabulary is also characterized by the number of words that derive from the names of people, place, books or brands. This process is called the communization of proper names.44. Metanalysis refers to an analysis of a word into parts, in the course of which the original structure of the word is altered.Chapter 5 Sense RelationsKnowledge Points:1. Sense is an internal meaning relation. Sense relations are relations between word meanings and hold between words within the vocabulary.2. Characteristic of Sense Relations(1) The meaning of one item can be related to the meaning of others.(2) Synonyms are items that mean the same, or nearly the same.(3) Antonyms are items that mean the opposite.3. According to Jackson and Amvela (2000), synonymy is of two types: strict synonymy and loose synonymy.4. Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.5. Actually, many words have similar senses and denotation without having exactly the same meaning.6. Loose synonyms may be substitutable in particular contexts, but are not substitutable across a range of contexts.7. In synonymy, we can find not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contextswhere they cannot substitute for each other.8. Difference among synonyms:1) Synonym pairs may differ in different geographical varieties of English.2) Synonym pairs may differ in the style or formality of the context in which a word may be used.3) Synonym pairs may differ in connotations. Two words may refer to the same entity, but they may have different associative or emotive meanings.4) Synonym pairs may differ in the use of registers.5) Synonym pairs may differ in etymology.6) Synonym pairs may differ in collocation. They occur in different environments.9. Antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.1) Antonymy is typically found among adjectives but it can be extended to other word class.2) Antonymy covers a number of different types of oppositeness of meaning.10. There may be no true synonyms, but there are several kinds of antonyms. Three types are commonly identified: gradable antonyms, contradictory or complementary antonyms, and converses.11. Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum.12. Complementary antonyms, also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.13. Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent. They are also called reciprocal antonyms or relational opposition, in which one member presupposes the other.14. Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that ‘an X is a kind of Y’. It is the class-inclusion relation.15. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word and serves as specific examples of a general concept. The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.16. Hyponymy is one of several relationship types with which language users organize the lexicon.17. Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items. This is an important hierarchical relationship that is found in pairs of words.18. According to Cruse (2000), the notion of meronymy is relational rather than absolute.19. Meronymic relationships are not a property of pairs of words.20. Collocation is concerned with meaning arising from co-occurrence, more specifically to meaning arising from predictable co-occurrence of two or more than two words.21. Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.22. Collocator: A word with a certain meaning which occurs in a collocation along with a given word is called a collocator of that word.23. Collocations differ from free combinations. In collocations, the components are not freely interchangeable.24. Collocations are of several types. Those relating to syntax are grammatical collocations, and those relating to expression are lexical collocations.25. Grammatical collocation refers to any kind of syntactic element that must accompany a particular word (usually verb, noun or adjective in English).26. Lexical collocations consist of groups of words with a certain meaning that often occur together.27. The lexical collocations usually consist of words that are in a relation of mutual expectancy of habitual association.28. Other features of collocation1) Collocation often occurs between words in structures;2) Collocations can also cut across part-of-speech or sentence boundaries.3) Collocation is as a cohesive device, because collocation is one of the factors on which we build our expectation of what is to come next in text.29. A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent. It refers to cases where a word appears to have both a literal and a。
自考《英语词汇学》复习资料第一章
以下是我整理的英语词汇学的资料。
我在考的时候主要就是靠这个东东。
希望对还没有过的⼈有所帮助。
⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。
第⼀章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German， ’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right， rite and write， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect， a given book， a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency， by notion， by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action， size， domain， state numerals， pronouns， prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life， they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow， bow， chariot， knight – past electricity， machine， car， plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words， they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football， footage， footpath， footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions， idiomatic usages， proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning， hepatitis， indigestion， penicillin， algebra， trigonometry， calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line， ballpark figures， bargaining chips， hold him back， hold him in， paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread， grass and pot， beaver， smoky， bear， catch， holler， Roger， X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener， dip， persuader cant， jargon ， argot are associated with， or most available to， specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty， chook， cocky， station， auld， build， coo， hame， lough， bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems， legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics， futurology， AIDS， internet， E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse， monitor 2）. Content word （notional word） – denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word， form word） – do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number. b. Content words are growing. Functional words remain stable. c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. 3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words， 50，000-60，000 What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are 1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ） 2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%） Borrowed words （loan words， borrowing） – words taken over from foreign language. 80% According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes. 1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. e.g. port from portus（L） shift， change， shirt， pork cup from cuppa（L） 2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spelling e.g. décor（F） blitzkreeg（G） emir， intermez， rowtow， bazaar， rajar， status quo 3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken fromanother language. 1）. Word translated according to the meaning e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L） black humor from humor noir long time no see， surplus value， master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sound e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ） lama from lama（Tib） ketchup tea 4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another language e.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent， sassy， cheeky。
英语词汇学知识点概括总结
英语词汇学知识点概括总结
一、英语词汇学概述
英语词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、构成、分类和运用规律等。
对于学习英语的人来说，词汇是基础，因此了解英语词汇学知识点对于提高语言水平很有
帮助。
二、英语词汇的分类
英语词汇根据不同的分类标准可以分为不同的类型，按照词性分类，英语词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
此外，英语词汇还可以按照构
词法、语义分类和语法功能等不同标准进行分类。
三、英语词汇的构成
英语词汇的构成主要包括词根、前缀、后缀和词干等部分。
通过不同的组合方式，可以构
成不同的词汇，使得英语词汇系统更加丰富多样。
四、词汇记忆与运用
词汇是语言运用的基础，因此词汇的记忆和运用是英语学习中的重要内容。
学习者可以通
过生词本、词根词缀、语境记忆等方式进行词汇的记忆，同时要注重词汇的运用，积累语感，灵活运用词汇。
五、词汇拓展与应用
在学习英语词汇的过程中，不仅要记忆掌握基础词汇，还需要不断拓展词汇量，了解词汇
在不同语境下的应用，丰富自己的词汇库，使得语言表达更加流畅。
六、英语词汇学研究的意义
英语词汇学的研究对于语言学的发展具有重要的意义，可以帮助我们了解语言规律，促进
语言教学和翻译工作的发展，同时还可以为语言教学提供理论基础和实践指导。
总之，英语词汇学是语言学的重要分支之一，研究词汇的构成、分类和应用等方面，对于
提高语言水平和推动语言学科的发展都具有重要意义。
因此，我们可以在学习中加强对英
语词汇学知识的学习，从不同角度掌握词汇的规律和应用，提高语言表达能力和运用能力。
词汇学笔记文档1
Chapter II word-formationI. Morphological structure of wordsA word is a minimum free form. Then work and worker are both words,do you think they bothshare the same morphological structre?II. The definition of morpheme:the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. (Boulder)III. Types of morpheme.1. free and bound morphemea: free morpheme---morphemes that can occur as separate words.b: bound morphemes---morphemes that can not stand alone as words, they are mainly affixes. Questions for discussion:1).Try to analyze the following English words and tell what morphemesthey are:unfaithful, friendship, contain, perceive, homework, sleptQuestions for consideration2).Do you think ―berry‖ is meaningful in isolation in the following words?cranberry, huckleberry, boysenberry etc.3). Do you think the meaning of the morpheme ―-ceive‖ is easy to define ?perceive, conceive, receive, etc.4).Do you think the forms as ―fl-‖, ―gl-‖, ―-ounce‖ are morphemic in the following words?flash, flame, flicker; glow, glisten, gliter; bounce, pounce.2. Lexical and gramatical morphemes▪a). Lexical morphemes---morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compoundwords(e.g.blackbird)and affixes such as –ship,-ize, etc.▪b). Grammatical morpheme---morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense.⏹morphs---discrete units used to realize a morpheme in speech.⏹Allomorph---the total number of morphs, as in books,legs,boxes representedby/s/,/z/and /iz/.3. Root, Stem, Affix▪a) root ---the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(Crystal 1985); it is that part of the word that remains when all affixes have been removed.(Bauer 1983:20); A root can be free or bound. Questions for discussion:1). Identify the following Latin roots:acu-(acr-)---sharp e.g acute---working very well, sharp. Dogs have an acute sense of smell.ag- (act-) ---to do, to drive,e.g. agent---a person who does something.am- ---to love. e.g. amateur---a person who does something for the loveof it rather than for money.anim- ----life or mind e.g. animal---a living creatureannu-(ennu-)---year e.g. annual—of one yearaud-(audit) ---to hear e.g. audience,auditory,audible,etc.bene-(benign-) ----well, good e.g. benefit---good effectcad-(cid-cas-) ---to fall, to happen by chance e.g. accident---something that happens by chance.cap-(capt-)--- to take e.g. capture---something that has been taken, caught or won by force.ced-(cede-)---to go e.g. antecedent---a thing, an event, etc. coming or being before another.cent- --- one hundred e.g. century---a period of 100 yearscern-(cret-) --- to separate e.g. secret---something separated or apart from others, something kept hidden or known only to a few.clam-(claim-)---to cry out e.g. declaim---to say something loud and clear, usu.with hand movement.clud-(clus-) ---to shut, to close e.g. conclude---to come to an end.cord---heart e.g. cordial---warm and hearty.cre-(cresc-)---to grow e.g. increase---to become larger in amount or number. cred- ---to believe e.g. discredit---to stop people believingcur-(curs-,cours-) to run or to go e.g. current---a continously moving mass of liquid or gas, esp. one flowing through slower-moving liquid or gas.de-(div-)--- a god e.g. divine– of, related to, or being Goddict- --- to say or to speak e.g. dictate---to say for someone else to write down. doc-(doct-)---to teach e.g. doctor---originally ―a teacher‖, and now ―a person holding one of the highest degree‖duc-(duct-)--- to lead e.g. introduce---to make known to each other.fac-(fic-, fact-) ---to do or to make e.g. manufacture---to make or produce by machinery▪fer- ---to carry,to bring e.g. confer---to give (a gift, title, honor,favor, etc)▪firm- ---firm, strong e.g. confirm---to support, make certain, give proof to▪flect-(flex-) ----to bend e.g. flexible---that can bend or be bent easily▪flu-(flux-) ---a flow or to flow e.g fluent ---speaking, writing, playing a musical instrument in an easily smooth manner.▪fus-(fund-)---to pour, to melt e.g. confuse---to mix up, to make less clear▪gam- ---marriage e.g. bigamy---the state of being married to two people at the same time▪gen-(gent-)---to produce, to give birth to e.g. genesis---the beginning or origin▪ger-(gest-)---to carry e.g. digest---to change or to be changed into a form that the body can use▪grad-(gress-) ---a step or to step or go e.g. gradual happening slowly▪grat- ---pleasing e.g. congratulate---to speak to a person with praise and admiration▪grav- ---heavy e.g. gravity---attractive force by which bodies tend to go to the center of earth, etc.▪her-(hes-)---to stick e.g. adhere---to stick firmly▪jac-(ject-)--- to throw e.g. project---to cause (heat, sound, light)to be directed into space or onto a surface▪junct-(join(t)-) ---to join e.g. conjunction---the act or result of joining together▪lect-(leg-,lig-)--- to choose e.g. collect---to gather together▪loqu-(lacut-) --- to speak e.g. colloquial---related to ordinary, informal.▪mit-(miss-)---to send, to let go e.g. admit --- to permit to enter▪mon-(monit-)--- to warn, to advise e.g. monitor---a pupil chosen to help a teacher▪nasc-(nat-)---to be born e.g. nation--- the place of one’s birth▪pel-(pell-) --- to drive e.g. compel--- to make (a person or thing) do something by or as if by force▪pend-(pens-)--- to hang e.g. depend----to rely on▪pet-(petit-)---- to seek, to strive e.g. competition--- a test of strength, skill, ability, etc.▪plex-(plic-, plicit-) ---to twist, to connecte.g. complex---consisting of many closely related or connected parts▪pound-(pond—pose-,posit-) --- to put e.g. compose—to make or form by putting parts together▪port---to carry e.g. export--- to send out of a country▪quir-(quisit-) ---to seek or ask e.g. inquire---to ask▪rupt- ---to break or to burst e.g interrupt---to break▪scrib-(script-)---to write e.g. describe---to give a picture in words▪sed-(sid-)---to sit or to settle e.g. preside---to be in charge of▪spect-(spec-, spic-)---to look, to look at e.g. inspect---to examine(the details ofsomething) ▪tact-(tang-,ting-)---to touch e.g. contact---to get in touch with▪ten-(tin-, tain-)--- to hold e.g. continent---mainly unbroken masses of land on the earth▪tract- ---to drag or to pull e.g. contract---a formal agreement, having the force of law.▪ven-(vent-)---to move toward, to come e.g. event---a happening, usu.an important one▪vert-(vers-)---to turn e.g. reverse---to turn something over▪Vid-(vis-)---to see e.g. vision---the ability to see▪Voc-(vok-)---voice or to call e.g. provoke---to make (a person or animal) angry2) Identify the following Greek roots▪Anthrop- ---man or humam e.g anthropology---the science of man▪Archeo-(archi-)--- ancient e.g. archeolgy---the study of the burried remains of ancient times.▪Aut-(auto-)---self e.g. automatic---able to work or move by itself。
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9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the
and academic areas.
14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words
brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.
15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in thc words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the
the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur
between them, the reasons are as follows:
①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,
commonest things in life.
17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the
same sound can show different meanings.
论述问答题：
1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between
the Sound and Form?
答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of
重点知识锦集：
1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.
2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships
have taken on new meanings.
6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as
borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.
4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.
5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that
between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.
3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.
3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular
arts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.
4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.
5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.
6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and
form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for
an existing word in the language
11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.
national character.（全民性）
13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.
14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.
12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs and numerals.
13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines
10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the
loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.
existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another
language.
10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the
particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,
a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.
9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty
forms the common core of the language.
7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate
words of common use from all others.
words.
9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its
vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.
7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated
into the English Language.
8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original
11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.
12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all