英汉哲学术语词典
心理学英汉词典
Aabandonment reaction 遗弃感指儿童得不到父母的爱与家人的关怀而怀有的无依无靠的孤独感。
2 指老年人职位权力丧失后乏人尊重的失落感。
abandonment threat 抛弃威胁指父母对子女管教方式不当时对子女心理上所产生的威胁感。
无知幼童犯了错误时，有的父母常以“把你丢出去”的口吻对孩子威胁。
为父母者所说虽只是气话，但对孩子的情绪发展则产生不良后果。
abasement 贬抑个性心理学家莫瑞（H．Murray）氏理论中的术语。
意指为弥补个人缺陷（事实的或是想象的）而贬抑自己屈从别人的心理倾向。
在莫瑞的个性理论中，列举二十八种心理需求，贬抑也被视为是需求之一。
见莫瑞（Murray，Henry Alexander）氏传记条。
ability test 能力测验指测量能力时所采用的工具。
能力测验是一个概括性的名称，实际使用时，因对能力的认定与实施测验的目的，而有多种不同的能力测验。
如将能力认定为智力，那就采用智力测验。
如将能力认定为性向，那就采用性向测验。
如将能力认定为学得的知识或技能，那就采用成就测验。
无论采何种形式，能力测验在性质上都应该是标准化测验（standardized test）。
见该条。
ability trait 能力特质按卡特尔（R．B．Cattell）氏的个性理论，能力属个性能力之一；因为个体的能力是决定其能否达成所欲追求目标的重要因素。
此处能力的涵义视同智力，卡特尔氏将智力分为两类，一为固定智力（crystallized intelligence），另一为流动智力（fluid intelligence）。
见该等条。
ability 能力指个人在其遗传与成熟的基础上，经由环境中的训练或教育而获得的知识与技能。
此类能力可由行为上表现出来，作为与别人比较高低的依据。
象此类实际在行为上表现出的能力，也称为成就（achievement）。
2 指个人学习某事物所具有的潜在能力。
哲学术语英汉对照
哲学术语英汉对照-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分 abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证 alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容 contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质 principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。
哲学术语表
十四、时间：是物质运动过程的持续性，即一维性可不可逆性。
空间：是运动着的物质的广延性，即三维性。
十五、时空是运动着的物质的存在形式，时空与物质不可分，因为物质是客观的，所以时空也是客观的。
承认时空的客观性是唯物主义的观点；
一、旧唯物主义的缺陷：
1、机械性：用机械力学的观点解释物质的全部运动：人也成为机械
2、形而上学性：孤立、静止、不变的观点。
3、不彻底性：不能把唯物主义原则贯彻到社会历史领域，历史观仍然是唯心主义。
二、唯心主义产生的根源：
1、阶级根源：在阶级社会，唯心主义哲学受到反动没落的社会阶级的拥护和利用，所以得到保存和留传。
2、辩证法与形而上学发展观斗争：古代的辩证法是朴素的：以门巴尼德为代表。
近代的辩证法是唯心的：以黑格尔为代表，表现：不用发展与联系的观点看问题，认为发展就是重复，是增加或减少。
现代的辩证法是唯物的：以马克思主义哲学为代表。
四、马克思主义哲学：1、是辩证唯物主义与历史唯物主义；
2、无产阶级的世界观与方法的理论体系；
3、是关于自然界、人类社会和人类思维最一般规律的科学；
4、是以科学的实践观为核心、辩证法与唯物主义、辩证唯物主义自然观与历史观相结合的严整的科学体系。
五、马克思主义的特点：
1、最显著的特点：阶级性---公开申明为谁服务；
实践性---强调理论对实践的依赖关系，理论反过来又指导实践。
2、重要特点：革命性与科学性的统一，革命性建立在科学性基础之上，即正确认识事物的基础之上的。
静止是局部的、暂时的、有条件的，因而是相对的。
3、整体与部分的关系：静止是运动的特殊状况。
重要哲学术语英汉对照
a priori瞐 posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分 abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analytic瞫ynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingent瞡ecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义 empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论 function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibniz餾 Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论non睧uclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何non瞞onotonic logics 非单一逻辑Ockham餜azor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性的质 principle of non瞔ontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russell餾 paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjective瞣bjective distinction 主客区分 sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论things瞚n瞭hemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验three瞯alued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德注释计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous)2007年8月23日，22:02:47 | mindreader计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous) K-Means Cluster逐步聚类分析K means method, 逐步聚类法Kaplan-Meier, 评估事件的时间长度Kaplan-Merier chart, Kaplan-Merier图Kendall's rank correlation, Kendall等级相关Kinetic, 动力学Kolmogorov-Smirnove test, 柯尔莫哥洛夫-斯米尔诺夫检验Kruskal and Wallis test, Kruskal及Wallis检验/多样本的秩和检验/H检验Kurtosis, 峰度Lack of fit, 失拟Ladder of powers, 幂阶梯Lag, 滞后Large sample, 大样本Large sample test, 大样本检验Latin square, 拉丁方Latin square design, 拉丁方设计Leakage, 泄漏Least favorable configuration, 最不利构形Least favorable distribution, 最不利分布Least significant difference, 最小显著差法Least square method, 最小二乘法Least Squared Criterion，最小二乘方准则Least-absolute-residuals estimates, 最小绝对残差估计Least-absolute-residuals fit, 最小绝对残差拟合Least-absolute-residuals line, 最小绝对残差线Legend, 图例L-estimator, L估计量L-estimator of location, 位置L估计量L-estimator of scale, 尺度L估计量Level, 水平Leveage Correction，杠杆率校正Life expectance, 预期期望寿命Life table, 寿命表Life table method, 生命表法Light-tailed distribution, 轻尾分布Likelihood function, 似然函数Likelihood ratio, 似然比line graph, 线图Linear correlation, 直线相关Linear equation, 线性方程Linear programming, 线性规划Linear regression, 直线回归Linear Regression, 线性回归Linear trend, 线性趋势Loading, 载荷Location and scale equivariance, 位置尺度同变性Location equivariance, 位置同变性Location invariance, 位置不变性Location scale family, 位置尺度族Log rank test, 时序检验Logarithmic curve, 对数曲线Logarithmic normal distribution, 对数正态分布Logarithmic scale, 对数尺度Logarithmic transformation, 对数变换Logic check, 逻辑检查Logistic distribution, 逻辑斯特分布Logit transformation, Logit转换LOGLINEAR, 多维列联表通用模型Lognormal distribution, 对数正态分布Lost function, 损失函数Low correlation, 低度相关Lower limit, 下限Lowest-attained variance, 最小可达方差LSD, 最小显著差法的简称Lurking variable, 潜在变量Main effect, 主效应Major heading, 主辞标目Marginal density function, 边缘密度函数Marginal probability, 边缘概率Marginal probability distribution, 边缘概率分布Matched data, 配对资料Matched distribution, 匹配过分布Matching of distribution, 分布的匹配Matching of transformation, 变换的匹配Mathematical expectation, 数学期望Mathematical model, 数学模型Maximum L-estimator, 极大极小L 估计量Maximum likelihood method, 最大似然法Mean, 均数Mean squares between groups, 组间均方Mean squares within group, 组内均方Means (Compare means), 均值-均值比较Median, 中位数Median effective dose, 半数效量Median lethal dose, 半数致死量Median polish, 中位数平滑Median test, 中位数检验Minimal sufficient statistic, 最小充分统计量Minimum distance estimation, 最小距离估计Minimum effective dose, 最小有效量Minimum lethal dose, 最小致死量Minimum variance estimator, 最小方差估计量MINITAB, 统计软件包Minor heading, 宾词标目Missing data, 缺失值Model specification, 模型的确定Modeling Statistics , 模型统计Models for outliers, 离群值模型Modifying the model, 模型的修正Modulus of continuity, 连续性模Morbidity, 发病率Most favorable configuration, 最有利构形MSC（多元散射校正）Multidimensional Scaling (ASCAL), 多维尺度/多维标度Multinomial Logistic Regression , 多项逻辑斯蒂回归Multiple comparison, 多重比较Multiple correlation , 复相关Multiple covariance, 多元协方差Multiple linear regression, 多元线性回归Multiple response , 多重选项Multiple solutions, 多解Multiplication theorem, 乘法定理Multiresponse, 多元响应Multi-stage sampling, 多阶段抽样Multivariate T distribution, 多元T分布Mutual exclusive, 互不相容Mutual independence, 互相独立Natural boundary, 自然边界Natural dead, 自然死亡Natural zero, 自然零Negative correlation, 负相关Negative linear correlation, 负线性相关Negatively skewed, 负偏Newman-Keuls method, q检验NK method, q检验No statistical significance, 无统计意义Nominal variable, 名义变量Nonconstancy of variability, 变异的非定常性Nonlinear regression, 非线性相关Nonparametric statistics, 非参数统计Nonparametric test, 非参数检验Nonparametric tests, 非参数检验Normal deviate, 正态离差Normal distribution, 正态分布Normal equation, 正规方程组Normal P-P, 正态概率分布图Normal Q-Q, 正态概率单位分布图Normal ranges, 正常范围Normal value, 正常值Normalization 归一化Nuisance parameter, 多余参数/讨厌参数Null hypothesis, 无效假设Numerical variable, 数值变量Objective function, 目标函数Observation unit, 观察单位Observed value, 观察值One sided test, 单侧检验One-way analysis of variance, 单因素方差分析Oneway ANOVA , 单因素方差分析Open sequential trial, 开放型序贯设计Optrim, 优切尾Optrim efficiency, 优切尾效率Order statistics, 顺序统计量Ordered categories, 有序分类Ordinal logistic regression , 序数逻辑斯蒂回归Ordinal variable, 有序变量Orthogonal basis, 正交基Orthogonal design, 正交试验设计Orthogonality conditions, 正交条件ORTHOPLAN, 正交设计Outlier cutoffs, 离群值截断点Outliers, 极端值OVERALS , 多组变量的非线性正规相关Overshoot, 迭代过度Paired design, 配对设计Paired sample, 配对样本Pairwise slopes, 成对斜率Parabola, 抛物线Parallel tests, 平行试验Parameter, 参数Parametric statistics, 参数统计Parametric test, 参数检验Pareto, 直条构成线图（又称佩尔托图）Partial correlation, 偏相关Partial regression, 偏回归Partial sorting, 偏排序Partials residuals, 偏残差Pattern, 模式PCA（主成分分析）Pearson curves, 皮尔逊曲线Peeling, 退层Percent bar graph, 百分条形图Percentage, 百分比Percentile, 百分位数Percentile curves, 百分位曲线Periodicity, 周期性Permutation, 排列P-estimator, P估计量Pie graph, 构成图,饼图Pitman estimator, 皮特曼估计量Pivot, 枢轴量Planar, 平坦Planar assumption, 平面的假设PLANCARDS, 生成试验的计划卡（偏最小二乘法）Point estimation, 点估计Poisson distribution, 泊松分布Polishing, 平滑Polled standard deviation, 合并标准差Polled variance, 合并方差Polygon, 多边图Polynomial, 多项式Polynomial curve, 多项式曲线Population, 总体Population attributable risk, 人群归因危险度Positive correlation, 正相关Positively skewed, 正偏Posterior distribution, 后验分布Power of a test, 检验效能Precision, 精密度Predicted value, 预测值Preliminary analysis, 预备性分析Principal axis factoring,主轴因子法Principal component analysis, 主成分分析Prior distribution, 先验分布Prior probability, 先验概率Probabilistic model, 概率模型probability, 概率Probability density, 概率密度Product moment, 乘积矩/协方差Profile trace, 截面迹图Proportion, 比/构成比Proportion allocation in stratified random sampling, 按比例分层随机抽样Proportionate, 成比例Proportionate sub-class numbers, 成比例次级组含量Prospective study, 前瞻性调查Proximities, 亲近性Pseudo F test, 近似F检验Pseudo model, 近似模型Pseudosigma, 伪标准差Purposive sampling, 有目的抽样QR decomposition, QR分解Quadratic approximation, 二次近似Qualitative classification, 属性分类Qualitative method, 定性方法Quantile-quantile plot, 分位数-分位数图/Q-Q图Quantitative analysis, 定量分析Quartile, 四分位数Quick Cluster, 快速聚类Radix sort, 基数排序Random allocation, 随机化分组Random blocks design, 随机区组设计Random event, 随机事件Randomization, 随机化Range, 极差/全距Rank correlation, 等级相关Rank sum test, 秩和检验Rank test, 秩检验Ranked data, 等级资料Rate, 比率Ratio, 比例Raw data, 原始资料Raw residual, 原始残差Rayleigh's test, 雷氏检验Rayleigh's Z, 雷氏Z值Reciprocal, 倒数Reciprocal transformation, 倒数变换Recording, 记录Redescending estimators, 回降估计量Reducing dimensions, 降维Re-expression, 重新表达Reference set, 标准组Region of acceptance, 接受域Regression coefficient, 回归系数Regression sum of square, 回归平方和Rejection point, 拒绝点Relative dispersion, 相对离散度Relative number, 相对数Reliability, 可靠性Reparametrization, 重新设置参数Replication, 重复Report Summaries, 报告摘要Residual sum of square, 剩余平方和residual variance (剩余方差)Resistance, 耐抗性Resistant line, 耐抗线Resistant technique, 耐抗技术R-estimator of location, 位置R估计量R-estimator of scale, 尺度R估计量Retrospective study, 回顾性调查Ridge trace, 岭迹Ridit analysis, Ridit分析Rotation, 旋转Rounding, 舍入Row, 行Row effects, 行效应Row factor, 行因素RXC table, RXC表Sample, 样本Sample regression coefficient, 样本回归系数Sample size, 样本量Sample standard deviation, 样本标准差Sampling error, 抽样误差SAS(Statistical analysis system , SAS统计软件包Scale, 尺度/量表Scatter diagram, 散点图Schematic plot, 示意图/简图Score test, 计分检验Screening, 筛检SEASON, 季节分析Second derivative, 二阶导数Second principal component, 第二主成分SEM (Structural equation modeling), 结构化方程模型Semi-logarithmic graph, 半对数图Semi-logarithmic paper, 半对数格纸Sensitivity curve, 敏感度曲线Sequential analysis, 贯序分析Sequence, 普通序列图Sequential data set, 顺序数据集Sequential design, 贯序设计Sequential method, 贯序法Sequential test, 贯序检验法Serial tests, 系列试验Short-cut method, 简捷法Sigmoid curve, S形曲线Sign function, 正负号函数Sign test, 符号检验Signed rank, 符号秩Significant Level, 显著水平Significance test, 显著性检验Significant figure, 有效数字Simple cluster sampling, 简单整群抽样Simple correlation, 简单相关Simple random sampling, 简单随机抽样Simple regression, 简单回归simple table, 简单表Sine estimator, 正弦估计量Single-valued estimate, 单值估计Singular matrix, 奇异矩阵Skewed distribution, 偏斜分布Skewness, 偏度Slash distribution, 斜线分布Slope, 斜率Smirnov test, 斯米尔诺夫检验Source of variation, 变异来源Spearman rank correlation, 斯皮尔曼等级相关Specific factor, 特殊因子Specific factor variance, 特殊因子方差Spectra , 频谱Spherical distribution, 球型正态分布Spread, 展布SPSS(Statistical package for the social science), SPSS统计软件包Spurious correlation, 假性相关Square root transformation, 平方根变换Stabilizing variance, 稳定方差Standard deviation, 标准差Standard error, 标准误Standard error of difference, 差别的标准误Standard error of estimate, 标准估计误差Standard error of rate, 率的标准误Standard normal distribution, 标准正态分布Standardization, 标准化Starting value, 起始值Statistic, 统计量Statistical control, 统计控制Statistical graph, 统计图Statistical inference, 统计推断Statistical table, 统计表Steepest descent, 最速下降法Stem and leaf display, 茎叶图Step factor, 步长因子Stepwise regression, 逐步回归Storage, 存Strata, 层（复数）Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Strength, 强度Stringency, 严密性Structural relationship, 结构关系Studentized residual, 学生化残差/t化残差Sub-class numbers, 次级组含量Subdividing, 分割Sufficient statistic, 充分统计量Sum of products, 积和Sum of squares, 离差平方和Sum of squares about regression, 回归平方和Sum of squares between groups, 组间平方和Sum of squares of partial regression, 偏回归平方和Sure event, 必然事件Survey, 调查Survival, 生存分析Survival rate, 生存率Suspended root gram, 悬吊根图Symmetry, 对称Systematic error, 系统误差Systematic sampling, 系统抽样Tags, 标签Tail area, 尾部面积Tail length, 尾长Tail weight, 尾重Tangent line, 切线Target distribution, 目标分布Taylor series, 泰勒级数Test(检验)Test of linearity, 线性检验Tendency of dispersion, 离散趋势Testing of hypotheses, 假设检验Theoretical frequency, 理论频数Time series, 时间序列Tolerance interval, 容忍区间Tolerance lower limit, 容忍下限Tolerance upper limit, 容忍上限Torsion, 扰率Total sum of square, 总平方和Total variation, 总变异Transformation, 转换Treatment, 处理Trend, 趋势Trend of percentage, 百分比趋势Trial, 试验Trial and error method, 试错法Tuning constant, 细调常数Two sided test, 双向检验Two-stage least squares, 二阶最小平方Two-stage sampling, 二阶段抽样Two-tailed test, 双侧检验Two-way analysis of variance, 双因素方差分析Two-way table, 双向表Type I error, 一类错误/α错误Type II error, 二类错误/β错误UMVU, 方差一致最小无偏估计简称Unbiased estimate, 无偏估计Unconstrained nonlinear regression , 无约束非线性回归Unequal subclass number, 不等次级组含量Ungrouped data, 不分组资料Uniform coordinate, 均匀坐标Uniform distribution, 均匀分布Uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimate, 方差一致最小无偏估计Unit, 单元Unordered categories, 无序分类Unweighted least squares, 未加权最小平方法Upper limit, 上限Upward rank, 升秩Vague concept, 模糊概念Validity, 有效性VARCOMP (Variance component estimation), 方差元素估计Variability, 变异性Variable, 变量Variance, 方差Variation, 变异Varimax orthogonal rotation, 方差最大正交旋转Volume of distribution, 容积W test, W检验Weibull distribution, 威布尔分布Weight, 权数Weighted Chi-square test, 加权卡方检验/Cochran检验Weighted linear regression method, 加权直线回归Weighted mean, 加权平均数Weighted mean square, 加权平均方差Weighted sum of square, 加权平方和Weighting coefficient, 权重系数Weighting method, 加权法W-estimation, W估计量W-estimation of location, 位置W估计量Width, 宽度Wilcoxon paired test, 威斯康星配对法/配对符号秩和检验Wild point, 野点/狂点Wild value, 野值/狂值Winsorized mean, 缩尾均值Withdraw, 失访Youden's index, 尤登指数Z test, Z检验Zero correlation, 零相关Z-transformation, Z变换注释。
文学术语对照表(英法德部分)
文学术语对照表（英法德部分）A《A map of misreading》《误读的地图》Ableben der kunst 艺术的终结Abrams,Meyer Howard 阿勃拉姆斯Abstractism 抽象论Absurd 荒诞Act 行为Actant 行为体Acte de discours 话语行为Action 动作Adaptation 改编Adaquate konkretisation 恰当的具体化Adorno, Theodot Weisengrund 阿多尔诺Affective fallacy 感受谬见Affinity 类同Alexandrin 亚历山大体Alienation 异化Allegory 寓言Allegorical symbol 寓言式象征Alliteration 头韵Allusion 引喻Althusser, Louis 阿尔杜塞Ambiguity 含混American school 美国学派Analogy 类比Analyse de contenu 内容分析Analyse de texte 文本分析Analyse litteraire 文学分析Analyse semantique 语义分析Analyse structurale 结构分析Analytical/non-analytical 分解性符号链/非分解性signchain 符号链Anaphora 首语重复法Anapest 抑抑扬格《Anatomy of Criticism》《批评的剖析》Anchoring 锚定Animus und anima 男性潜倾和女性潜倾Anthology 选集Anthroponym 人素Anti-climax 反高潮Antiheros 反英雄Anti-intellectualism 反智性Anti-kunst 反艺术Antinarratve 反叙述Antinaturalism 反自然主义Antiquarianism 复古主义Anxiety of influence 影响焦虑Apllonian spirit 日神精神Apocalyptic 启示性Apocrypha 集外拾遗Appellstruktur 召唤结构Applikation 运用Appropriation 据为己有Arcadianism 阿卡迪亚情调Archaism 仿古Archetyp 原型Aristoteles 亚里士多德Arnold, Matthew 阿诺德,马修《Art poetica》《诗艺》Art as device 作为技巧的艺术Artistic beauty 艺术美《Art poetique》《诗的艺术》Art pour art 为艺术而艺术Aside 旁白Association 联想Assonance 半谐韵Assonance 不完全韵《Asthetik》《美学》Asthetische bildung 审美陶冶Asthetische distanz 美感距离Asthetische erfahrung 审美经验《Asthetische Erfahrung uadLiterarische Hermeneutik》《审美经验与文学阐释学》《Asthetische Theorie》《美学理论》Augustinus, Aurelius 奥古斯丁Ausdruck 表达Authentity 本真性Autobiography 自传Autobiographical novel 自传体小说Automoner komplex 自主情结Autonomie der kunst 艺术的自律性Avant-garde 先锋派Avant-texte 前文本BBacon, Francis 培根,费兰西斯Ballad 歌谣Barthes, Roland 巴尔特,罗朗Baudelaire, Charles 波德莱尔Beauty 美Begining rhyme 起韵Behavourist begining 行为主义式开场法Belles-lettres 美文学Benjamin, Walter 本雅明Biographical criticism 传记批评Black humour 黑色幽默《Black Qrpheus》《黑肤的奥尔甫斯》Blank verse 素体诗《Blindness and Insight》《盲目与悟解》Bloch, Ernst 布洛赫Bloom, Harold 布鲁姆Boileau, Nicolas 布瓦洛Booth, Wayne 布思Borrowing 借用Bound motif 束缚母题Brecht, Bertolt 布莱希特Brooks,Cleanth 布鲁克斯Brunetiere, Ferdinand 布吕纳介Bucolic 田园风味Burke,Kenneth 勃克Burlesque 谐谑模仿CCaesure 停顿Cartesianism 笛卡尔主义Cassirer, Ernst 卡西尔Catalog 排列Catalyser 催化单元Catastrophe 结局Catharsis 宣泄Causal sequence 因果序Chain verse 连环诗Channel 渠道Chanson de geste 武功歌Chapelain, Jean 夏泼兰Chiasmus 交叉排比《Chinese character as medium for poetry》《作为诗歌手段的中国文字》Chinoiserie 中国风Chronical play 编年史剧Chrononym 时素Climax 高潮Cloak and dagger 阴谋小说Cloak and sword 剑侠传奇Closet drama 书案剧Co-textual context 共存文本语境Code 信码Coincidence 巧合Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 柯勒律治,萨缪尔·泰勒Collage 拼贴Collective foculization 集体视角式Comedy of manners 风俗喜剧Comic relief 喜剧穿插Commentary 评论Comparative literature 比较文学Comparative poetics 比较诗学Compound narrator 复合叙述者Computational stylistics 数理风格学Conative 意动性Conceit 曲喻Context 语境Contextualism 语境论Contrapuntal 对位式Contrast 对比Convention 常规Conventionality 规约性Cousin,Victor 库赞Crane, R.S. 克莱恩,R.S.Crenologie 渊源学Critical distance 批评距离《Criticism and Ideology》《批评与意识形态》Croce, Benedetto 克罗齐Crown of sonnets 皇冠十四行诗Cubic poetry 立体诗Cult value 崇拜价值DDactyl 扬抑抑格Dante, Alighieri 但丁Das asthetische objekt 审美对象Das asthetische erlebnis 审美体验Dasein 此在《Das Literarische Kunst-werk》《文学艺术作品》《Das Prinzip der Hoffnung》《希望的原则》Das selbst 自性De Man, Paul 德曼Dead space 空档Decentering of subjectivity 主体分化Decoding 解码Decorum 合体Deep-structure 深层结构Demystification 非神话化Denudation 剥离Der funkionale realismus 功能现实主义Der hermeneutische zirkel 阐释的循环Der implizite leser 隐在的读者《Der Implizite Leser》《隐在的读者》Derrida, Jacques 德里达Description 描写Desemantization 消义化Diachronic 历时性Diachronische analyse 历时性分析Diary fiction 日记体小说Dichotomy 对立式《Dichter und Phantasie》《诗人与幻想》“Dictionary” interpretation“词典”式释义Diderot, Denis 狄德罗《Die Beziehung Zwischen Dichter undTagtraum》《诗人与白昼梦的关系》《Die Eigenart des Asthetischen》《审美特性》Die frankfurter schule 法兰克福学派《Die Geburt der Tragodie》《悲剧的诞生》《Die welt als wille und vorstellung》《作为意志和表象的世界》Differentia of literature 文学特异性Dilthey, wilhelm 狄尔泰Dime novel 一角钱小说Dimeter 双音步诗行Dionysian spirit 酒神精神Direct free form 直接自由式Direct quoted form 直接引语式Directory 指点Disclosure 去蔽Discourse 讲述《Discours surl'art Paetique》《关于诗歌艺术的演讲》《Discours surle style》《论风格》Disengagement 脱身Dissociation of sensibility 感觉解体Distortion of duration 时长变形Doggerel 打油诗Doxologie 流传学Dramatism 戏剧化《Du Sublime》《论崇高》Dynamic motif 动力性母题EEagleton,Terry 伊格尔顿《Eckermann:Gesprach mit Goethe》《和爱克曼的谈话录》Ecole de geneve 日内瓦学派《Economic and philosophic Manuscripts of 1844》《1844年经济学哲学手稿》Ecriture automatique 自动写作Ego 自我Einfuhlung;Empathy 移情Elegy 挽诗Eliot,T.S. 艾略特Ellipsis 省略Emotive 情绪性Empson,William 燕卜荪Encoding 编码Encomium 赞诗“Encyclopedia”interpretation“百科式”释义Endogene bilder 内生图象End-rhyme 尾韵Engels, Fridrich 恩格斯Enjambement 跨行Erlebnis 体验Enonce 表述Enonciation 表述行为英Enonciation/utterance法表述/被表述Enonciation/enonce Entkunstung 非艺术化Envelope structure 封套结构Epigram 警句Epiphany 灵悟Epistolary fiction 书信体小说Epithalamium,epithalamion 婚后诗Epoch 时代Erwartungshorizont 期待视野Euphuism 游浮体Evaluative commentary 评价性评论Exhibition Value 展览价值Expectation 期待Expectation of meaning 意义期待Expectation of non-reference 非指称化期待Expectation of rhythm 节律化期待Expectation of totality 整体化期待Explanation/understanding 说明/理解Explanatory commentary 解释性评论Explication de texte 文本解释Explicit ellipsis 明省略Explicit narrator 现身叙述者Extra-textual elements 超文本成分Eye-rhyme 目韵Eye-rhyme 视韵FFable 寓言Fallacy of communication 传达谬见Fairy-tale 童话Fait social 社会事实Farce 笑剧Feminine rhyme 阴韵Feminist criticism 女权主义批评Fest 节日Fields of semiotics 符号学领域分科Fish, Stanley Eugene 费什Flashback 倒述Flashforward 预述Flat character 扁平人物“Fly-on-the-wall” technique“墙上苍蝇”式叙述法Focalization 叙述角度Focus character 视角人物Folklore 民间传说Folktale 民间故事Followability 可追踪性Foregrounding 前推Foreshadowing 伏笔Form 形式Formalism 形式主义Fortune 际遇Foucault,Michel 福柯,米歇尔Fourteener 七音步十四音节Frame story 框架故事Framework-story 连环故事France,Anatole 法朗士Free motif 自由母题Free verse 自由诗French school 法国学派French poststructuralist 法国后结构主义符号学派Freud,Sigmund 弗洛伊德Freytag pyramid 弗雷塔格金字塔Function 功能Function 功能体GGadamer,Hans Georg 迦达默尔General literature 总体文学Generation 代Genetic fallacy 发生谬见Genette,Gerard 惹奈特,杰Genre 文类Genology 文类学Gesellschaftlichkeit der Kunst 艺术的社会性Gesellschaftliche rezeption 社会接受Gesellschaftliche vermittelung 社会中介Gestalt 格式塔Gestaltgesetze 格式塔规律Gestaltqualitat 格式塔质Gide,Andre 纪德Gnomic verse 格言诗Goldmann,Lucien 戈德曼Gongorism 贡古拉文风Gothic novel 哥特小说Grotesque 怪诞Greimas,Algidas Julien 格雷马斯HHabermas,Jurgen 哈贝马斯Half-rhyme 半韵Half-rhyme 腰韵Heiddeger,Martin 海德格尔Heresy of paraphrase 意释误说Hermeneutik 阐释学Heroic couplet 英雄双韵诗Hexameter 六音步诗行High comedy 高雅喜剧Higher narrative level 高叙述层次Hirsch,Eric Donald Jr 赫什Histoire litteraire 文学史Historical narration 历史叙述/文学叙述Holland,Norman N. 霍兰德Horizont 视界Horizont verschmelzung 视界融合Hulme,T.E. 休姆Humanism 人文主义Humanistic criticism 人文主义批评Humor 幽默Hymn 赞美诗IIamb 抑扬格Iconicity 象似性Id 本我Identif ikationsmuster 认同类型Ideologie kritik 意识形态批评Image 意象Imagination 想象Imitation 模仿Impersonality 非个性化Implicit ellipsis 暗省略Implicit lower narrative level 隐式低叙述层次Implicit narrator 隐身叙述者Implied author 隐指作者Implied metaphor 潜喻Implied reader 隐指读者Impure poetry 不纯诗Impressionistic criticism 印象式批评Index 指示体Indexical context 标示语境Indexicality 标示性Indice 标记体Indirect free form 间接自由式Indirect quoted form 间接引语式Individuation 个性化Influence 影响Influence study 影响研究Informant 信息体Ingarden, Roman 英加登Institution litteraire 文学建制Intertextuality 互文性Intentional context 意图语境Intentional fallacy 意图谬见Intentionaler gegenstand 意向对象Intentionalitat 意向性Interdisciplinary study 跨学科研究Interior monologue 内心独白Internal rhyme 内韵Interpretation 阐释《Intuition creatrice en art et enpoesie》《艺术和诗的创造性直觉》Irony 反讽Ironic commentary 反讽性评论Ironic narrative 反讽叙述《Is there a text in this class?》《这门课有无文本?》Isomorphie 异质同构JJames,Henry 詹姆斯,亨利Jameson,Fredric 詹姆逊Johnson,Samuel 约翰逊,萨缪尔Journal intime 内心日记Jung,Carl Gustav 荣格Juxtaposition 意象并置Juxtaposition 并置KKeats,John 济慈,约翰Kermode,J.Frank 科默德Kollektives unbewaβtes集体无意识Komplex 情结Konkrete Poesie 具象诗Konkretisation 具体化Krieger,Murray 克里格Kristeva,Julia 克里斯特娃,朱《Kritik der Urteilskraft》《判断力批判》Kulturindustrie 文化工业LLa nouvelle critique 法国新批评La psychocritique 精神批评《La phylosophie de l'art》《艺术哲学》Lacan,Jacques 拉康Lament 哀诗Language as gesture 姿势语论Langue/parole 语言/言语Lanson,Gustave 朗松,G.Leavis,F.R 李维斯Lebenstrieb/eros 生本能/性本能Leitmotiv 主导母题Leser 读者Libido 力必多Lichtung 澄明Life expression 生命表达Link sonnet 连韵十四行诗Lisibilite 可阅读性Lipps,Theodor 李普斯Literalism 字面论Local colour 地方色彩Low comedy 低俗喜剧Lower narrative level 低叙述层次Lukacs,Georg 卢卡契Lyric 抒情诗MMacherey,Pierre 马舍雷,彼Macro-semiotic system 宏观符号系统Macro-sign 宏观符号Macro-text 宏观文本Main plot 主情节Manipulative narrative 操纵式叙述Mannerism 矫饰主义Manuscript 手写本Marcuse,Hebert 马尔库塞Marx, Karl 马克思Masculin rhyme 阳韵Medium 中介Medievalism 中世纪精神Melodrama 情节剧Memoires fiction 回忆录小说Mesologie 媒介学Message 信息Meta- 元Metacriticism 元批评《Metahistory》《元历史》Metalanguage 元语言Metalingual 元语言性Metaphysische qualitat 形而上质量Metaphor 隐喻Meter 音步Metonymy 转喻Miller,J. Hillis 米勒Mime 哑剧Miracle play 奇迹剧Mise en scene 导演Misreading 误读Mock-heroic 戏仿英雄体Monodrama 独角戏Montage 蒙太奇Montivation 促动因素Moral criticism 道德批评Motif 母题Motivation 根据性Movement 运动Mukarovsky,Jan 慕卡洛夫斯基Multiple plot 复合情节Musical comedy 音乐喜剧Myth 神话NNaive dichtang 素朴诗Narratee 叙述接收者Narrative 叙述Narratorial intrusion 叙述干预Narrative poem 叙事诗Narrative perspective 叙述方位Narrative setup 叙述格局Narrative stratification 叙述分层Narrativity 叙述性Narratology 叙述学Narrator 叙述者Narrativity 叙述性Narratorial mediation 叙述加工National literature 民族文学Naturalization 自然化Natural beauty 自然美Negative influence 负影响Negativitat der kunst 艺术的否定性Neologism 新词风格New criticism 新批评派Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm 尼采Nokan,Charles 诺康Non-referential pseudostatement非指称性伪陈述Non-significant system 无意义组合Northrop Frye 诺思洛普·弗莱Novel 长篇小说Novella 中篇小说Nucleus 核心单元OObjective criticism 客观批评Octave rima 八行诗Ode 颂诗Odipuscomplex 俄底浦斯情结Omniscient narrative 全知式叙述《On Modern Novel》《现代小说》《On Dramatic Art》《论戏剧艺术》Onomatopoeia 拟声Ontological criticism 本体式批评Open-ended 开放结尾式Opera 歌剧Organism 有机论Ostranenie 陌生化Overcoding 附加解码Overstatement 夸大陈述PPalindrome 回文Panegyric 颂文Pantheism 泛神论Paradigm 纵聚合系Paradox 悖论Paralipses 假省笔法Parallel study 平行研究Paraphrasability 可意释性Paratextual elements 类文本成分Parole 言语Parody 戏仿Passion play 耶稣受难剧Pastiche 仿作Pastoral 牧歌Pater,Walter 佩特,沃尔特Pathetic fallacy 感情误置Pathos 哀婉感受Pause 停顿Periphrasis 迂回Period 时期Persona 人格面具Personliches unbewates 个人无意识Perspective of incongruity 不相容透视Phatic 交际性《Phenomenologie de l'experienceesthetique》《审美经验现象学》Phrase rhythm 词组节奏Picaresque novel 流浪汉小说Pirated edition 盗版Platon 柏拉图Platonism 柏拉图主义Plot 情节Plotinus 普洛丁Plot typology 情节类型学Poetic licence 诗歌特权Poetic drama 诗剧Poetic truth 诗歌真理《Poetics》《诗学》Poetique de lespace 空间诗学Poetry 诗Poetry of inclusion 包容诗Poetry of exclusion 排它诗Point of view 视点Poulet, Georges 布莱Polyphone harmonie 复调和谐Pope,Alexander 蒲柏,亚历山大Pornography 色情文学Possible worlds 可能世界Post-structuralism 后结构主义Pound, Ezra 庞德Pragmatics 符用学Prague school 布拉格学派Preciosite 高雅Pre-text 前文本Prinzip der aquivalerz 等值原则Prinzip der entropie 均衡原则Private symbol 私设象征Problem novel 问题小说Problem play 问题剧Production of art 艺术生产Projektion 投射propagandism 宣传Prosody 诗律Prothalamion 婚前诗Proverb 格言Proverb 谚语Provincialism 外省风格Proust, Marcel 普鲁斯特Psychische energie 心理能Psychische funktion 心理功能Psychische valenz 心理值Psychische zustand 心态Psychological context 心理语境Psychological fiction 心理小说Psychological realism 心理现实主义Psychologische und 心理型和幻想型illusionarer typPsychologische rezeptionsforschung 接受心理分析Psychologische typen 心理类型Psychologism 心理主义Public symbol 公共象征Pulp magazine fiction 廉价杂志小说Pun 双关语Pure poetry 纯诗QQualisign/sinsign/legisign 形符/单符/义符Qualitative knowledge 质的知识Qualitative progression 质性进展Querelle des anciens ermodernes古今之争RRationalism 理性主义Rational and perceptual 理性与感性Raymond Williams 维廉斯·雷蒙德Ransom, John Crowe 兰色姆Reader-response criticism 读者反应批评Realismo magico 魔幻现实主义Referential 指称性Reflection/nachdenken 反思Reification 物化Repetition 重复Repetition 复述Replica 复制Reported speech 转述语Reproduction 复制Resemantization 再义化Revenge tragedy 复仇悲剧Rezeptionsasthetik 接受美学Rezeptionsvorgabe 接受前提Rhapsody 狂诗Rhyme 韵Rhythm 节奏Richards.I.A. 瑞恰慈Riviere,Jacques 里维埃,J.Rohstoff 素材Romanaclef 影射小说Roman noir/Gothic novel 黑色小说/哥特小说Romantic irony 浪漫式反讽Round character 圆形人物Rousseau,Jean-Jacques 卢梭,让-雅Ruskin John 拉斯金·约翰SSage 英雄传奇Said,Edward W. 赛义德Saint Thomas Aquinas 托马斯·阿奎那Sainte-Beuve,Charles Augustin 圣伯夫Sapphics 萨福体Sartre,Jean-Paul 萨特Saussure,Ferdinand de 索绪尔,费德Scene 场景Schatten 阴影Schematisierte ansichten 轮廓化图象Schichtenaufbau 层次构造Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel施莱尔马赫Schoppenhauer,Arthur 叔本华Science fiction 科幻小说Scientific criticism 科学化批评Scriptible/lisibe 可写式/可读式Secondary system 二度体系Semanalysis 符号分析学Semantics 符义学Semantique poetique 诗歌语义学Semantique structurale 结构语义学Semiosis 符指过程Semiotics 符号学Sensibility 感性Sentimentalische dichtung 感伤诗Sentimentalism 感伤主义Sequence deformation 时序变形《Seven Types of Ambiguity》《含混的七种类型》Shelley,Percy Bysshe 雪莱Shock 震惊Short story 短篇小说Sign 符号Signifier/signified 能指/所指Simile 明喻Situational context 场合语境Skaldic verse 行吟宫廷诗Sociology of literature 文学社会学Soliloquy 独白Sonnet 十四行诗Sontag, Susan 桑塔格,苏珊Source 渊源Source study 渊源研究Southern critics 南方学派Soviet semiotics 苏联符号学派Spatial form 空间形式Spatial sequence 空间序Spiel 游戏Stadialism 阶段平行论Stael, Madame de 斯塔尔夫人Stanzaic form 诗节形式Stanzaic form 段式Starobinski, Jean 斯塔罗宾斯基Static motif 静力性母题Stereotype 模式Stoffgeschichte 主题学Stream of consciousness 意识流Stretch 延长Structural realism 结构现实主义Structuralism 结构主义Structuralist/post-structuralist semiotics 结构主义与后结构主义符号学《Structuralist Poeties》《结构主义诗学》Structure 结构Structure/texture 构架/肌质论Stylistics 风格学Stylization 风格模仿Sub-narrative 次叙述Sub-plot 次情结Sublimation 升华Sublime 崇高《Summa Theologiae》《神学大全》Summary 缩写Superego 超我Super-narrative 超叙述Superposition 意象迭加Super-sign 超符号Supplementary commentary 补充性批评Surface structure 表层结构Suspense 悬疑Symbol 象征Symbolic action 象征行动Symptomatic reading 症候式阅读Synaesthesia 通感Synaesthesis 综感Synchronic/diachronic 共时性/历时性Synchronische anayse 共时性分析Synecdoche 提喻Syntactics 符形学Syntagm 横组合段Syntagmatic/paradigmatic 横组合/纵聚合TTaboo 塔布Tagtraum 白日梦Taine, Hippolyte 泰纳Tate, Allen 退特Tecriture 文体Temporal deformation 时间变形Temporal sequence 时间序Tendenz 倾向性Tenioha 天尔运波Tenor/vihicle 喻指/喻体Tension 张力Tercet 三行体诗节Terza rima 三行连环韵诗Tetralogy 四部曲Tetrameter 四音步诗行Text/discourse 文本/讲述Textual criticism 文本批评Texture 肌质Theatre of cruelty 残酷剧The epic theatre 叙事剧The new criticism 新批评The new humanism 新人文主义《Theory of Literature》《文学理论》The past/the present 叙述现在/被叙述现在《The Political Unconsciousn》《政治无意识》《The Sacred Wood》《圣林》The Second self 第二自我《The Well-Wrought Urn》《精致的瓮》The Verbal Icon 《语象》The yale critics 耶鲁学派Thibaudet, Albert 蒂博代Three unities 三一律Todestrieb /thanatos-trieb 死本能Todorov, Tzvetan 托多罗夫Toponym 地素Totality 总体性Totem 图腾Tradition 传统Tragicomedy 悲喜剧Translation 翻译Transpassing of stratification 跨层Trilogy 三部曲Trilling, Lionel 特里林Trimeter 三音步诗行Type 类型Typicality 典型性Typical character 典型人物Typology 类型学UUgliness 丑Unbestimmtheit 不确定性《Uber die Beziehungen der AnalytischenPsychologie zur Dichtung》《分析心理学与诗的关系》Undercoding 不足解码Understatement 克制陈述Unite narrative 叙述单元Unite significative 意义单元Unites romanesques 小说单元Unreliable narrative 不可靠叙述Urtumliche bilder 原始意象Utilitarianism 功利主义Utopian literature 乌托邦文学V《Validity in interpretation》《解释的正确性》Valery, Paul 瓦雷里,P. Variorum edition 集注本Verbal icon 语象Verfremdung 陌生化Verfremdungseffekt 陌生化效果Verstehen 理解Verisimilitude 逼真性Vico, Giovanni Battista 维柯V orurteil 成见W《Wahreit und Methode》《真理与方法》Wellek, Rene 韦莱克Well-made play 巧构剧Werkimmanente kritik 文本批评Wilde, Osear 王尔德Wilson, Edmund 威尔逊,艾德蒙Wimsatt, William K.Jr 维姆萨特Wirkungsgeschichte 作用史Wittgenstein,Rudwig 维特根斯坦World/earth 世界/大地World literature 世界文学ZZero-sign 零符号Zola,Emile 左拉Zwei-pole-theorie 两极理论。
《现代汉语词典》第7版中的字母词探析
《现代汉语词典》第7版中的字母词探析现代汉语词典第7版（CDL7）是一部综合性、系统性、权威性高度的汉语辞书，为中文学习者和研究者提供了一个可靠的资料库。
它包含了一部“字母词”的双语辞书，采用国际上通用的拉丁字母音节表，专门用于汇集拉丁文代表的外文名称，以及繁体汉字转写等。
CDL7中“字母词”部份，主要收录了以拉丁字母译写的国外地名、民族村落、历史人物，以及与国外文化有关的技术、医药术语，以便在英汉互译的过程中更精准的捕捉正确的原义，比如 Ph.D. 拉丁文的形式，它是Doctor of Philosophy缩写的缩写词，可以更准确的指代哲学博士的意思。
CDL7“字母词”的內容，同时也收录了一些国际团队组织的术语，以及联合国、国际组织等使用的英文字母缩写形式，例如：UN 联合国，NAFTA 北美自由贸易协定，WHO 世界卫生组织， APEC 亚太经合组织等，用以让读者能够快速了解相关组织术语的英文缩写，而不用在去翻阅另一部辞书一样的时间。
CDL7的“字母词”还着重收录了一些新科技材料、知识产品的英文名称，比如：ART （激光手术）、ABS（抗菌聚砜）以及 DNA（DNA）等，更能掌握相关英文名称，精心规划条理性各类科技资源信息。
值得一提的是，CDL7本身也不只收录了英译汉语，还包括了日语辞典、韩语辞典等多种语言辞典，针对不同语言系统、文化$,MP.D. CDL7也充分考虑了这些语种的转写形式，同时也提供了多元的外来语汇料给读者学习。
总的来说，CDL7的“字母词”具有强大的汇集能力，采用全球最新的资料制作，考究细致，让汉语的学习者，对国外的文化、语言有更深入的了解，助力我国语言文化的延伸，让汉语在全球化浪潮中更加精湛绝伦，国际性更上一层楼，从而提升我国自身的国际地位。
分析哲学、语言哲学、指号学术语(8)
语义哲学：(英semantic philosophy)亦称“哲学语义学”(philosophical semantics)。
运用语义分析方法来研究符号及其所指之间的关系的哲学理论。
包括文学语义学、普通语义学和逻辑语义学三个流派。
现代语义学研究是德国弗雷格和英国罗素在19世纪末和20世纪初开创的。
瑞恰兹和奥格登(Charles Kay Ogden,1889—1957)在20年代以合著《意义的意义》开创了文学语义学，即研究文学尤其是诗的语义学。
以柯日布斯基、切斯等人为代表的普通语义学派在30年代初期创立了普通语义学，试图突破逻辑的局限，把语义分析扩展为人人都可应用的、适合一切领域的方法和工具。
塔尔斯基和卡尔纳普为发展形式语言的逻辑分析，将它们从形式分析推进到意义分析，由此创立了逻辑语义学。
日常语言哲学：(英ordinary linguistic philo-sophy)分析哲学中日常语言学派的哲学理论。
主张哲学的任务在于对自然语言的日常用法作分析，并用这种方法研究传统哲学问题(包括形而上学)。
因在英国的剑桥大学和牛津大学形成并发展，故也称“英国分析哲学”。
后期的维特根斯坦在《哲学研究》一书中，用功能主义语言观取代其前期主张的“意义图像论”。
认为语言是人的行为的一种形式，称为“语言游戏”;语词仅在自然语言的日常使用中才有意义；作为行为形式，语言是一种工具，具有许多功能，相应地也有许多种语言游戏，每一种都有自己的规则和目标，所以语言不存在共同的东西或本质；传统形而上学往往脱离日常用法使用语言，犯了“语言精神病”,哲学的任务就在于按日常语言多样的使用规则“治疗”这种病症。
赖尔在《心的概念》一书中把语言哲学同心智哲学的研究结合起来。
奥斯丁的“言语行为理论”代表英国日常语言哲学的最高成就。
他认为人们在交际时，总是在进行说话和写字这类“言语行为”,故语言哲学的关键在于研究这种言语行为的本质、内部逻辑构造和类型。
“德育”能译为moral,education吗
“德育”能译为moral,education吗中图分类号：N04；G410；H059 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-8578（2020）06-0041-02 中外科技交流离不开术语的沟通，翻译是双向的，译介（传播）则应有指向——从创生处到目的地。
把英语中的moral education汉译为“道德教育”无疑不错，而把“德育”这个纯中国的教育学术语英译成什么才准确呢？“德育”到底是一个独立的术语，还只是作为“道德教育”的替身？本文即以“德育”为引例，谈谈它以及与之相关的某些术语的含义和英译问题。
在我国，德育是学校历来倡导的“五育”之首，也是现阶段精神文明建设的主题。
“德育”这个中国的教育学名词，同“素质教育”一样面世较晚，1940年版《辞源》尚未收录，1989年《辞海》方给出如下释义：以一定的社会要求进行思想的、政治的和道德的教育，同智育、美育、体育密切联系。
中国学校中的德育，是使学生掌握社会发展规律的知识和社会主义道德规范，具有革命的理想和共产主义的思想品德[1]。
论及德育的具体内容，按我国1995年颁行的《教育法》以及教育部2020年印发的《关于整体规划大中小学德育体系的意见》之规定，“主要是对学生进行政治、思想、道德、法制和心理健康的教育”。
可见，当代中国的德育并不简单地等于道德教育，而是具有更多的文化内涵。
“道德”作为一个国际通行的社会伦理概念，通常英文译为morality，其含义比“品德”“美德”等更宽泛，因为它不仅用于评价个人的素质，还涉及人们群体生活的行为准则和规范。
不过，道德教育作为一个教育学概念，仅仅限于伦理教育范畴，尚不能涵盖思想政治领域的教育活动。
在中国传统伦理文化中，源自古汉字“德”（或“悳”）的“德性”和“德行”这两个词，合起来可以表达“德”的主要内涵。
西文中的“德性”是一个简单名词，从原希腊文（arete）演变到拉丁文（virtus）直到英译为virtue，其含义逐步接近中文的“美德”[2]。
中国哲学典籍的英译方法
中国哲学典籍的英译方法中国哲学典籍的英译方法一、中国哲学典籍英译的诠释方法(一)概念史和思想史相结合的诠释方法对中国哲学典籍的正确解读,是翻译的第一步。
首先要求我们对中国哲学发展史的整体脉络有较为清晰的认识,特别是要认识到中国哲学典籍正是在对元典的持续性的阐释过程中不断产生的经典文本。
因此,从哲学概念和诠释者的历时性上考察经典文本,把握元典文本的“客观原义”以及在其后历代诠释者的“诠释意义”。
要把经典还原到相应的历史背景中把握其含义,即采用“概念史的研究方法”和“思想史的研究方法”(P20)。
所谓“概念史的研究方法”,以儒家经典为例,是指紧扣儒学史中的重要概念或术语,一方面潜回元典对这些术语进行音读、训诂以及名物的考辨与疏通,理解其基本的概念意义,即是中国传统的考据之学,另一方面观察同一概念或术语在儒学发展的不同历史时期的诠释意义,及其同其他哲学派别之间的差异。
“思想史的研究方法”是把对经典的诠释,放置在诠释者所处的历史脉络中加以分析,“从而将经典诠释者身处的时空情境,及其诠释言论的历史背景与具体含义加以解明。
”(P15)下面就以如何理解朱熹的着作为例,用概念史和思想史相结合的方法,具体探讨中国哲学典籍英译的诠释方法。
(二)对朱熹理学的“概念史”诠释朱熹在中国儒学发展史上的地位功不可没,他通过对《大学》《中庸》《论语》《孟子》等元典的重新诠释,才有了对后世影响深远的《四书》,并且建立了以“天理”为核心概念的哲学体系,是儒学发展的新阶段。
朱熹也是中国哲学史上第一位明确提出解经方法的哲学家,他不仅注重义理的发掘,同时也没有摒弃对章句的训诂,潘德荣(P57)认为朱熹把“意义整体的圆融和谐确立为对经典的理解之方法论的基本原则”。
朱熹的哲学着作包括《四书章句集注》《近思录》《朱子语类》等,都是在对元典文本的深入阐释的过程中,发展出的新的哲学理念,因此,诠释朱熹的哲学思想,必须要潜回到相应的历史背景,把握儒学动态的发展过程。
会计词典(中英文对照)
absorption 分配 ,分摊 ,吸收 absorption account 分摊账户 ,计价账户 absorption costing 分摊成本法 , 吸收成 本法 absorption pricing 分摊法定价 absorption rate 分配率 ,分摊率 ,吸收 率 abstract of account 账户概要 ,账户摘要 abstract of posting 过账分录表 abstract of title 产权证明 ,产权说明 书 abstracts 概要 ,摘要 accelerated debt maturity 提前还债期限 accelerating premium 累进奖金 acceptability test 可接受性测试 acceptable audit risk 可接受审计风险 acceptable quality level
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accountability unit
责任单位
accountable person 责任人
accountancy 会计学 ,会计业务
accountancy
service 会计事务 ,会计服务
accountant 会计人员 ,会计师
accountant general 总会计师 ,会计长
accountant
未达账项 ,在途账
account in trust 信托账户
account note 会计科目单 ,账目单
account number 账号 ,账户编号
2
account of the exchequer 国库账 account paid 付讫 account payable master file 应付账款主档案 account payee 收款人账户 account receivable programme 收账程序 account sales 承销清单 ,销售清单 account settled 结算 ,已结清账目 account title 会计科目 ,账户名称 account transfer 转账科目 account transfer memo 转账通知单 accountability 经管责任 ,问责性 accountability approach 经管责任观 ,受托责 任观
英语词典家族
牛津高阶英汉双解词典 （第六版） 作者：（英）霍恩比 著， 石孝殊等译 出版社：商务印书馆 出版时间：2004年08月
收词80000条，核心词汇与阅读词汇兼收并蓄。 较原文版增加2500条新词，以反映最新语言动态。 大量语法、用汉说明、解析语法难点、辨析易混淆 词汇。 英美兼备，详列美国英语的拼法，读法和用法。 例证9000条，示范典型用法，言乞求有据。 40页研习专页，全面介绍英语应用知识。 插图1700项，给予词义充分形象的展示。
英汉大词典（精） 作者：王瑞晴 主编 出版社：外文出版社 出版时间：2006年01月
.收词更新、更全。本词典收词条100000余条，这些词条都
是经过编者精心筛选确定下来的，都是生活中最常用的词汇 和最新的词汇。 2.编排合理。在词条内部结构上既考虑到每个词条议项的记 忆重点，又考虑到每个词条的构词特点。所以无论是在词的 释义、例句、习语选用方面，还是在派生词的界定方面，编 者都花了很多心思，以使本词曲更符合读者的学习重点和记 忆规律。 3.附录部分独具特色。本词典附录部分包括不规则动词表， 普通人名表，国际单位制表和英、美军衔表。一般词典都把 地名作为附录的一部分，但这样就有一个缺点，即其形容词 形式在附录中无法体现。
英语词典家族
市面上的英语词典可谓林林总总，品种繁多， 有名为英英词典、英汉词典、英汉双解词典的，有 称为“高阶”、“中阶”、“初阶”的，也有叫做 “学习型词典”、“阅读型词典”的。看来，对英 语词典作一简单梳理，进行一下分类大有必要。
英语词典可以按照不同的标准分类。 按照语言类别划分，可分为
英英词典 英汉双解词典 英汉词典 汉英词典 英汉汉英词典
该词典具有以下特色：收词范围广，共收录
英语成语、谚语、俗语、俚语等5.5万余条。
英文哲学文章对高一英语学习有何深刻影响
英文哲学文章对高一英语学习有何深刻影响在高一阶段的英语学习中，接触英文哲学文章可能会让很多同学感到困惑和迷茫，毕竟哲学本身就是一个深奥且富有挑战性的领域。
然而，当我们深入探究，就会发现英文哲学文章对于高一英语学习有着诸多深刻且积极的影响。
首先，英文哲学文章能够极大地拓展我们的词汇量。
哲学文章通常探讨的是抽象、复杂的概念和思想，为了准确表达这些内容，作者往往会运用丰富且精准的词汇。
这些词汇可能是日常生活中不常使用的，但却是英语语言中非常重要的一部分。
通过阅读英文哲学文章，我们会遇到诸如“metaphysics”（形而上学）、“epistemology”（认识论）、“ontology”（本体论）等专业术语，以及“sophisticated”（复杂的、精致的）、“profound”（深刻的）、“intricate”（错综复杂的）等高级形容词和动词。
接触并理解这些词汇，不仅能够增加我们的词汇储备，还能让我们更准确地理解和表达复杂的思想和情感。
其次，英文哲学文章有助于提升我们的阅读理解能力。
哲学文章往往逻辑严密、论证严谨，需要读者具备较强的分析和推理能力。
在阅读过程中，我们需要理清作者的观点、论据和论证过程，理解其中的因果关系和逻辑链条。
这对于我们锻炼英语阅读技巧，如快速浏览、抓住关键信息、推理判断等，都有着极大的帮助。
例如，当我们阅读关于“自由意志”的哲学讨论时，需要仔细分析作者对于自由意志的定义、其存在的条件以及相关的反论，从而全面理解这一哲学议题。
通过这样的训练，我们在面对其他英语阅读材料时，就能更加得心应手，迅速把握文章的主旨和要点。
再者，英文哲学文章能够培养我们的批判性思维能力。
哲学的本质就是对各种观点和思想进行质疑、反思和评价。
当我们阅读英文哲学文章时，会接触到不同哲学家的观点和论证，我们需要思考这些观点的合理性、局限性以及可能存在的漏洞。
例如，对于“道德相对主义”这一哲学观点，我们可以思考其在不同文化和社会背景下的适用性，以及可能带来的道德困境。
词典(词义)
版本
纵观词典学的发展趋势，语文词典中的学习用词典多为各类学习者着想，参考用词典以多收现代新词新术语 见长，研究用词典以历时地收列词语、详列书证为其主要目标。专科词典以不断更新不断填补空白作为科技信息 的软件而愈益受到重视。但是，真正足以表示一国学术成就的，仍是集中人才、长期工作而编出的多卷本研究用 的语文大词典。20世纪已完成和正在进行中的大词典有：
主要分类
01
英语词典
02
日语词典
03
韩语词典
04
法语词典
06
意大利词典
05
德语词典
1
世界语词典
2
汉西班牙语
3
汉葡萄牙语
4
汉加太隆尼亚 语
5
汉俄语词典
词典dick, dictionary, lexicon [计]DICT, dictionary 附加解释：wordbook, lexicon, glossary, vocabulary, dick 相关例句： 这本词典有几项附录。 This dictionary has several appendices. 编词典是一种极其吃力的苦差。 Compiling a dictionary is an awful sweat. 这部词典有电子版。 This dictionary is available in electronic version.
《拉丁语词库》(1894～ )，德国慕尼黑出版。自1900年起已出A-M部（L部尚未出齐）；在进行中。
《法语宝库：18世纪与20世纪(1789～1960)法语词典》，1971年起已出版 8卷，全书现定15卷（最初定为 60卷）；法国南锡出版；在进行中。
类型
印刷版 掌上型
英汉哲学术语词典
Aaberrant 背离真理的，离经叛道的；越轨的；异常的；aberrant behavior 异常行为aberration 不合真情的，不合道德标准；像差；精神不健忘；abhorrent to reason 反理性的Abiding 房屋的，固定不变的，持久的abiogenesis (=abiogeny ) 自然发生；自然发生论，无生源说，偶发论abiogenetic 自然发生的；自然发生论的，无生源说的abiogeny 自然发生；自然发生论，偶发论abiotic 无生命的，非生物的abnorm 反常；变态abnormal 反常的；变态的abnormal reaction 异常反常abnormalism, abnormality 变态，变态性；反常的性质和状态；反常的事物abolish 取消，废除（某种制度和法律等）abolishable 可废弃的，可废除的abolition 废弃，取消；黑奴制度的废除aboriginal 最初的，元初的；原始的；原生的aboriginal language 土著语言aboriginal tribes 原始部落abreaction 发泄，宣泄，精神发泄疗法abrogate 废止；废除；扬弃absent-mindedness 心不在焉，神不守舍Absolute, the 绝对的存在；绝对者；（宇宙的）第一原因（first cause）;上帝（God） absolute accident 绝对附属性质，绝对附质absolute and relative truths 绝对真理和相对真理absolute a priori 绝对先天的absolute certitude 绝对必然性，绝对确实性absolute cognitive consciousness 绝对的认识意识；纯认知意识absolute completeness 绝对完备，绝对完备性absolute concept 绝对概念absolute consistency 相对相容性，绝对一致性，无矛盾性absolute definition 绝对定义absolute ego （费希特的）绝对自我absolute existence 绝对存在，绝对实存absolute good 绝对善，纯粹善absolute idealism （黑格尔的）绝对唯心论，绝对观念论（旧译），绝对唯心主义absolute idealist 绝对唯心论才，绝对观念论者（旧译），绝对唯心主义者absolute ideas 绝对观念，（黑格尔的）绝对理念absolute mind 绝对精神absolute notion 绝对概念absolute pragmatism 绝对的实用主义absolute reality 绝对本体，绝对实在absolute spirit （黑格尔哲学）绝对精神absolute value 绝对价值absoluteness 绝对，绝对性absoluter Geist [德]绝对精神absolutism 绝对论；专制主义；绝对宿命论absolutist 绝对论者；专制主义者；绝对论的；专制主义的；绝对论者的；专制主义者的；绝对宿命论者，绝对宿命论的abstinence 节制，禁欲abstract 抽象的；理论上的；观念的；（艺术上）抽象派的；抽象；抽象概念，抽象名词 abstract being 抽象存在abstract category 抽象范畴abstract entity 抽象的存在；抽象实体abstract idea 抽象观念abstract ideal theory 抽象观念论abstract proposition 抽象命题abstract reasoning 抽象推理abstract representation 抽象描述，抽象表述abstract thinking 抽象思维abstract thought 抽象思维能力，抽象推理能力abstract unity with itself 抽象的自身统一或同一abstraction 抽象，抽象化，抽象作用absurd 荒谬的，荒诞的，不合理的absurdism 荒诞主义，荒唐性；人生无意义论absurdist 荒诞主义者，荒诞主义哲学的提倡者或信奉者；荒诞主义的，有关（或涉及）荒诞主义的；荒诞剧的absurdity 荒谬；荒谬的事物或性质abuses of language 语言滥用academic 学术的；学院的；学究式的；理论的Academic 柏拉图学派的，学院派哲学的；柏拉图学派的人，学院派哲学家Academician 英国皇家美术院会员；法国美术院会员；苏联科学院院士；学院派哲学家 academicism (=academism) 学院主义，学院哲学的教义，学院式风气；传统主义Academy ,the 柏拉图学园；柏拉图哲学（又称学院派哲学）Academy of Plato 柏拉图学园acatalepsy (古代怀疑论者所谓的)不可知论，不可知性，概然论acataleptic （涉及）不可知论的，（具有）不可知论性质的；不可知论音，概然论者 acceptance 接受；承认；认可accepted 常规的；（被）认可的；公认为真实的access 接近；途径，门路（指手段、方法等）accessible 可接近的；容易理解的，易受影响的accident 偶然性，意外事件accidental 偶然的，偶发的；不具有实质（或内在）性质的，非本质的；附带的；非本质特性，偶然属性accidental event 偶然事件，意外事件accidentalism 偶然论，偶生论；偶然结果；偶发事件accidentality 偶然性，偶有性accommodation 调节；顺应，迁就accountability 有责任，有义务；可解释性，可说明性accumulation 积累achievable 可达到的；可获得的acme, the 顶点，极度acme of perfection, the 十全十美，尽善尽美acon （地质）十亿年，十亿期acosmic 宇宙否定论的，无宇宙论的，否认现世世界是客观存在的acosmism 无宇宙论，无世界论acquaimtance 相识；（从经验中获得的）知识，习知acquired 获得的，习得的；已成习惯的，后天的acquired taste 后天嗜好acquisition 习得；获得；获得物active being 主动的存在active intellect 能动的知性activism 行动论；能动性；能动主义activist 能动论者；能动论者的，有关或涉及能动论者的；能动论的，有关或涉及能动论的 activity 活动，活动性actual value 内在价值actuality 现实性；现实adage 格言，谚语Adam （《圣经》）亚当；最初的人Adaptation 适应，顺应addition 加，加法adequate 充分的，合适的adjoint 伴随的；伴随adjudication 判决aesthetic(=esthetic) 美学；美学的，审美的；感性的aesthetic sense 美感，美意识aesthetic sentiment 美的情操aesthetician 美学家，审美学家，审美学者aestheticist 美学家；审美学家aesthetics 美学；（康德哲学）感性论aetiological 原因论的aetiology 原因论affection 情感，爱；影响，作用affiliation 亲密关系affinity 亲和力；姻亲关系；关系密切；构造（或结构）近似after-effect 后效应；副作用afterimage 残像，余像afterthought 回想；追悔age 年龄；时代；时期；年代agent 行动者；原因；动因；作用物agent intellect 起动因作用的理智agent of the world-spirit 世界精神的代理人aggregate 使聚集；聚合的；集合aggregation 聚集作用，集合体；（生态）集合生活aggressiveness 攻击性，侵略性agitation 不安，激动agnostic 不可知论的；不可知论者的；不可知论者agnostical realism 不可知论的实在论agnosticism 不可知论agnosticist 不可知论者alchemist 炼丹术士的，炼金术的aleatory 侥幸的，碰运气的alien 相异的，异己的alienate 疏远，异化alienated labor 异化劳动alienation 异化alienism 精神病学alienist 精神病学家alignment （政治上的）结盟；合作；（系统内的）调整allegiance 忠顺，忠诚；虔诚allegory 比喻；寓言，寓意Allfather 神，上帝all-nature 整个自然界allocution 训谕almightiness 全能，万能almighty 全能的，万能的Almighty God, the（=God Almighty=the Almighty） 全能之神，上帝 alternative 二者择一的；选代的；互斥性；选代alternative case 可供选择的情况，可供选择的事例altruism 利他主义（A.孔德用语）altruist 利他主义者，信奉利他主义的人altruistic 利他的，利他主义的amalgamation （社会、思想等）同化，融合amalgamation of thought and action 思想与行动的一致ambiguity 含糊，模棱两可的语意；双重意义（double meaning） ambiguous 有歧义的，语议含混的，模棱两可的ambit 界限；范围ambitendency 自我矛盾倾向ambition 野心；功名心；宏愿的目标ambivalence （对同一人、事、物的）矛盾心理；双重性amelioration改善，改良ament 低能者，智力欠缺的人；白痴Americanologist 美国问题专家amorphism 虚无主义；无定形现象，无定形amphibol（o）gy（o）gy 模棱两可的言词；意义含糊amphibolous 含糊的，模棱两可的anabolism 同化作用，同化，物质合成代谢Analects of Confucius 《伦语》analogic（al） 类推的，类比的；根据类似的analogous 类似的，相似的analysis and synthesis 分析与综合analytic and synthetic propositions 分析命题和综合命题analytic geometry 解析几何analytic judgment a priori 先天分析判断analytic Marxism 分析的马克思主义analytic Marxist 分析的马克思主义者analytic philosophy 分析哲学，哲学分析（philosophical analysis） analytic philosophy of language 语言分析哲学anarchism 无政府主义；无政府状态，无政府anarchistic（al） 无政府主义的，关于（或倾向于）无政府主义的 Anaximandrian 阿那克西曼德哲学的ancient Greek views of nature 古希腊的自然观ancient materialism 古代唯物主义ancient of Days, the 上帝，神ancient philosophy 古代哲学ancients, the 古代文明的人民（尤指古希腊罗马人）angelology 天使说animal soul 动物的灵魂animal spirits 生命精气；元气（liveli-ness）；元精anmal worship 动物崇拜animatism 物活论animatist 物活论者animism 泛灵论，万物有灵论animist 泛灵论者，万物有灵论者animistic materialism 泛灵论唯物主义animistic materialist 泛灵论唯物主义者annals 年鉴，编年史annihilation 灵魂与肉体的毁灭annotated 附注释的，有注释的annotation 注释Anointed, the 救世主，基督anomaly 不规则，反常现象，异常anomy（=anomie） （社会）反常状态，混乱；无法无天行为；无律anonymous 匿名的，无名的，假名的Anselm’s ontological argument of the existence of God 安塞姆关于上帝存在的本体论论证 antagonism 敌对，对立；对抗性，对抗作用antagonistic（al） 对抗性的，敌对的，不相容的anteriority 先前，原先anthem 赞美诗，赞歌anthology 选集anthropic 人类的，与人类有关的anthropism（=anthropocentrism） 人类中心主义，人类中心说，人类本位观anthropocentric 以人类为宇宙中心的；人类中心主义的；以人类标准观察和解释宇宙万物的 anthropologism 人本主义anthropologist 人类学家；人本主义者anthropology 人类学；文化人类学，哲学人类学anthropomorphic 神人同形或同性论的anthropomorphism 拟人说，神人同形或同性论；拟人化anthropomorphist 神人同形或同性论者anthropomorphous 有人形的，似人的anthropophuism 神人同形或同性论anticipation 预想；预期；期待antinomy 二律背反，（法律、原则、法则的）矛盾；悖论antinomy of liar 说谎者悖论antitheism 反有神论，无神论antitheist 反有神论者，无神论者antithesis 对立；对立面；反题antithetic（al）正相反的，对立的apathy 无动于衷，冷淡，情感淡漠apeman 猿人apex 顶点，顶峰aphorism 格言，警句Apocalypse, the 《圣经》中的《启示录》apodeictic （=apodictic） 表达必然真理的；必然的；可以明确表示或证明的；绝对肯定的apologetics （基督教的）辩证学，护教学，辩证论apologist 辩护士，辩护者，护教论者apology 辩护，辩解aporetic 怀疑的a posteriori [拉]后天的；归纳的；后天地，归纳地Apostle （基督教）十二使徒之一。
道家词汇“修炼”的英译辨析——以《牛津·外研社英汉汉英词典》为例
第 28 卷 总第 136 期Vol. 28 Sum No. 1362019 年第 4 期No.4. 2019广东开放大学学报JOURNAL OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF GUANGDONG【基金项目】广东省高等学校优秀青年教师培养人才项目“艺术文本翻译研究——以广东艺术文化交流活动为例”(YQ2015176）；广东省外语艺术职业学院应用翻译研究科研团队（2015KYTD01）；广州市社会哲学科学发展“十三五”规划2016年度课题“翻译叙事伦理研究”（2016GZGJ67）；广东省教育厅2017年度特色创新项目（人文社科）“学术制度进路下高职人文学科教师的科研行动与发展研究”（2017GWTSCX004）成果。
【收稿日期】2019－04－28【作者简介】江晗（1980－），男，广东汕头人，广东省外语艺术职业学院副教授；刘克纯（1989－），女，河南开封人，四川大学道教与宗教文化研究所。
道家词汇“修炼”的英译辨析——以《牛津·外研社英汉汉英词典》为例江晗1 刘克纯2（1.广东省外语艺术职业学院，广东广州，510640;2.四川大学,四川成都，610065）【摘要】中国道教文化中的“修炼”一词内容抽象，意义凝练，准确的英译有助于表述其所承载的文化内涵。
目前该词的英文译法不一，通过全面了解其语义和文化背景，从跨文化传播的角度进行分析，以权威字典为例，探讨其英译的厘定思路和通俗译法，实现从静态释义走向契合时代发展的应用转变。
【关键词】修炼；英译；辨析【中图分类号】H315.9【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】2095—932x （2019）04—0044—05中国道教文化自19世纪开始在中西现代文明交流中逐渐向欧美国家传播，改革开放以后慕名到国内道教宫观学习的欧美人士日益增多。
近年来在“一带一路”计划指引下，海内外道教文化活动日益频繁，中国道教文化的英译已成为提高中华文化影响力必不可少的一部分。
Legitimacy：多义、本义及汉译
Legitimacy :多义㊁本义及汉译李 睿(清华大学社会科学学院,北京 100084)摘 要:legitimacy 一词多义,应根据术语单义化的原则分别翻译,而放弃 百分之百对应” 涵盖其所有意义”的称名预期㊂作为政治学核心术语,legitimacy 有 合法性” 正当性”等多种译名㊂但应避免使用 合法性”之译,以免与legality 混淆;应慎重使用 正当性”之译,以免与justness 混淆㊂legitimacy 本义为主权或政权为人民肯定㊁认可㊁接受,故可用 肯认性”或 认受性”,并根据语境灵活处理㊂关键词:legitimacy ,政治学术语,术语单义化,术语翻译中图分类号:N04;H315.9 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1673-8578(2015)01-0031-04On Chinese Translation of LegitimacyLI RuiAbstract :Different Chinese translations are required for the multiple meanings of legitimacy.Translators shall give up nomenclatural anticipation of 100%correspondence ”or all meanings included ”in Chinese translation.As a key word or key term in political philosophy ,legitimacy can be translated as hefaxing ” zhengdangxing ”,and so on.However , hefaxing ”is not proper because it is also the translation of legality ”; zhengdangxing ”is not proper because it is also the translation of justness ”and justification ”.The basic meaning of legitimacy is that regime or government isaccepted and admitted by people ,so kenrenxing ”or renshouxing ”is the most appropriate transla⁃tion.Keywords :legitimacy ,term of political philosophy ,Monosemierung ,translation of term收稿日期:2014-07-27作者简介:李睿(1983 ),男,安徽蚌埠人,法学博士,体育学博士后,研究方向为法哲学㊁体育法㊁术语翻译㊂通信方式:tomleerui@㊂一 辞典考证legitimacy 一词多义,‘牛津英语词典“(TheOxford English Dictionary )给出三个义项:1.身为legitimate 子嗣的事实(the fact of being a legitimatechild);2.关于政府或主权的头衔:与法律或原则一致的情况㊂如今常用于指主权头衔,狭义指源于正规血统的事实;偶用于指作为政治教条而由直系13血亲继承王位的原则(of a government or the title of a sovereign:The condition of being in accordance with law or principle.Now often,with respect to a sovereign’s title,in a narrower sense:The fact of being derived by regular descent;occas.the principle of lineal succession to the throne,as a political doctrine);3.一般指符合规则或原则;合法状态㊂在逻辑学中,指符合良好的推理(gen.Conformity to rule or principle;lawfulness.In Logic,conformity to sound reasoning)㊂该词典中legitimate中一义项为:指子女,具有合法出身的地位;拥有完全的子女权利㊂(of a child:Having the status of ones lawfully begotten;entitled to full filial rights.)词典注明: 此为Johnson中唯一含义㊂”Johnson意为由塞缪尔㊃约翰逊(Samuel Johnson)博士编写并于1755年出版的‘英语词典“(A Dictionary of the English Language)㊂然而,‘牛津英语词典“ 着眼于历史” 从早的意义讲起”[1],往往没有突出如今常用的义项㊂以下词典则以使用频率为准,从常用义项谈起㊂如上海外语教育出版社2007年出版的‘新牛津英汉双解大词典“对legitimate解释如下:合法的,合乎规矩的;合乎逻辑的,正当的;(子女)合法婚生的;(与音乐喜剧㊁滑稽剧相对)正剧的㊂商务印书馆2009年出版的‘牛津高阶英汉双解词典“(第七版)对legitimate给出3种义项:1.正当合理的;合情合理的;2.法律认可的;法定的;3.(小孩)合法婚姻所生的㊂外语教学与研究出版社2003年出版的‘麦克米伦高阶美语词典“(英语版) (Macmillan English Dictionary:For Advanced Learners of American English)就legitimacy给出两种义项:1.某事合法的事实(the fact that something is legal);2.某事公平合理的事实(the fact that something is fair and reasonable)㊂可见,legitimacy始于 嫡出”,衍生至 合法” 合理”及 正当”㊂这有其历史渊源:在世袭制下,以 嫡出”之 身份”取得王位或主权,方为人所承认;但在 从身份到契约”的进程中, 法律”因其普适等特性,更易为人所承认,而作为legitimacy的来源;但 恶法非法”,专制之法律未必公正,故民主制度下,legitimacy更需仰仗公意,代表社会公意之主权,方 合理” 正当”㊂legitimacy之核心意义,在于不同历史时期下,何种取得主权的情形,更易为人承认㊁接受㊂二 现实译名在汉语学界,legitimacy被译为 合法性” 正当性” 正统性” 合理性” 法制”[2] 公义”[3] 肯认性” 认受性”等,其中, 合法性”一译最为流行㊂乍看来,此译不无道理,如‘牛津英语词典“中 the condition of being in accordance with law” lawfulness”;‘新牛津英汉双解大词典“中 合法的”;‘牛津高阶英汉双解词典“(第七版)中 法律认可的;法定的”;‘麦克米伦高阶美语词典“(英语版)中 the fact that something is legal”㊂然而, 合法”只是legitimacy义项之一,而在作为政治学核心术语或 政治学核心概念”[4]时,legitimacy恰恰不在 合法”的意义上使用㊂如宪法处于最高的法律位阶,但在初立宪法之时,尚无 法”可依,仅在代议制民主保证的社会公意之下,宪法方被承认,具有legitimacy,并成为其他法律legitimacy之来源㊂legitimacy常与legality对举,后者衍生于legal,即 合法的”,故以 合法性”译legality顺理成章㊂若将legitimacy译为 合法性”,又将legality译为 合法性”,则导致混淆㊂若坚持将legitimacy译为 合法性”,为避免混淆,则将legality译为 合法律性”,如 基于合法律性的合法性”(legitimacy through legality)[5], 政治合法性与合法律性”[6]㊂然而, 合法性”与 合法律性”对举,隐含 法”与 法律”之对举,若 合法性”不同于 合法律性”,是否 法”不同于 法律”?‘现代汉语词典“(第6版)就 法”给出7种义项:1.法律,法令;2.方法,方式;3.标准,模范;4.佛法;5.效仿,效法;6.法术;7.姓㊂‘现代汉语规范词典“给出6种义项:1.法律,法令;2.标准;模式;常理;3.办法;方法;4. (动)效仿;学习;5.(形)合法的;6.佛法㊂尽管 法”一词多义,但 法律,法令”是其最重要的义项㊂况且,在 合法”一词中, 法”只能是 法律”,而不是 佛法” 方法”或 办法”,即 合法”就是23合法律”㊂与legitimacy不同,legality是单义术语,而理想的术语就是单义术语㊂因此,应将 合法性”之译转给legality,并专指legality㊂脱离 合法性”之译,也有助于legitimacy的单义化㊂赵心树教授在专著‘选举的困境 民选制度及宪政改革批判“中,专辟一章说明legitimacy义理与译名,此章名为 衡量选举制度的尺与秤 合法㊁正当㊁正统与资格”㊂赵教授认为: 汉语中尚没有一个词与legitimate的所有意义㊁用法和语气百分之百对应㊂相对而言最为贴近的,当属 有资格’㊂”[7]而 资格’的首要内容就是民意:一个被人民普遍认可(consent)的政府或法律体系被认为是有资格的,反之就被认为是没有资格的”[7]㊂在此,赵教授强调了 资格”,点出却并未强调 资格”的来源,即 人民普遍认可(consent)”㊂而依笔者之见, 人民普遍认可(consent)”却是legitimacy最根本㊁最核心的含义㊂另在此章第九节,作者探讨了 legitimacy与 正统’”的关系,并认为 正统’也是 正当’”[7],但未将legitimacy译为 正统性”㊂赵教授最终将legitimacy译为 正当性”,并认为如此翻译,方能名正言顺[7]㊂事实上,将legitimacy译为 正当性”自然比 合法性”名正言顺,但此译并非毫无问题㊂唐文玉博士认为: legitimacy通常解释为 合法性’或者 正当性’,笔者认为解释为 认受性’更为妥当㊂ 合法性’(legality)主要是指行为符合法律规定, 正当性’(justness)则强调的是合理及合乎道德㊂”[8]即,若以 正当性”译legitimacy,则与justness译名冲突,因以 正当性”译justness最为适合㊂与之相似,毛兴贵将 legitimacy译为 合法性’㊁将justification译为 正当性’”[9]㊂这种处理亦有苦衷,因justification与justness同源, justification意为 证明某事为正当”,其中同样有 正当”之意,若将legitimacy译为 正当性”,则同样导致混淆㊂此外,笔者就此问题请益北海道大学名誉教授㊁浙江大学光华法学院特聘教授今井弘道,今井教授答: 在日语中,几乎在所有的场合, Legitimit¨a t或legitimacy都被译为 正统性’㊂” 很少有人使用 正当性’译legitimacy,因为这译名让人有其客观正确之感,如前所述,若要深究下去,必然还有很多认为其不恰当的意见㊂我自己也这么认为㊂ 所谓 正当性’,即具有 客观正确’意味㊂指由正当的政治权力或拥有正当性的权力支配之情形,如代表哲学真理的柏拉图的哲学王的支配,如代表自由发展历史的支配,如代表历史发展的必然性的政党支配,如被视为绝对正确的民主主义的支配等㊂用拉德布鲁赫的话来说,就是带有代表哲学妥当论’的支配㊂”尽管今井教授不同意 正当性”之译,但其认可的 正统性”与赵教授所谈legitimacy与 正统’”异曲同工㊂值得注意的是,赵著中并无日文参考文献,故此思想的巧遇,诚因对legitimacy义理之贯通㊂ 正统性”之译同样为汉语学人所用,如季卫东在‘秩序的正统性问题 再论法治与民主的关系“一文中,指明所谈正统性即legitimacy[10],此文作者现为上海交通大学凯原法学院教授,但此文刊发时为 日本神户大学教授”,故 正统性”之译或取法日本学界㊂然而,在汉语中, 正统”往往与 异端”对举,更宜为orthodoxy的译名,且更多人在orthodoxy的意义上使用 正统性”,如‘尼克㊃奈特论毛泽东的马克思主义正统性“[11]等文㊂三 认受”之理让-马克㊃夸克认为: 合法性是对被统治者与统治者关系的评价㊂ 是对统治权力的认可㊂”[12]此观点强调legitimacy即 认可”,尤其指被统治者对统治者的认可,如公民对政权的认可,或臣民对皇权的认可㊂而 肯认性”内有 肯定㊁认可”之意; 认受性”内有 认可,接受”之意,故可为legitimacy译名㊂但周濂则不主张 肯认性” 认受性”之译,认为这将 过多强调legitimacy的主观性这一面,似乎只要获得被统治者的 肯认’就足以为政治权力奠定道德理据,这一翻译显然深受韦伯的影响,但却忽视了legitimacy的客观性㊁规范性的一面”[13]㊂然而, legitimacy客观性㊁规范性的一面”必须为被统治者所接受方有意义,这些外在因素是诱导被统治者内心臣服的手段,而非目的㊂无论是‘史记㊃陈涉世家“中 夜篝火,狐鸣呼曰:33大楚兴,陈胜王’”,还是‘史记㊃高祖本纪“中刘媪 梦与神遇”㊁刘邦 醉斩白蛇”,都是 (政治权力)主张者能够诉诸某些超越或者高于他本人的权威资源”[13]的例子,但这些神话的根本目的,还是为了取得被统治者的信服,以认可㊁接受新政权㊂法律以宪法作为legitimacy的来源,似乎体现了legitimacy的 规范性”㊂然而,此legitimacy并非在政治学意义上使用,而在法学意义上使用,可与legality替换无碍㊂因此,在作为政治学核心术语时, 肯认性”或 认受性”是legitimacy较好的译名㊂此译名在港台较为流行,且使用不限于学界,更延伸至新闻界,如‘民主㊁良治与认受性 选票岂是兴奋剂?“[14]等文;但在内地,学界较少使用此译,以篇名搜索知网,仅得‘中国体育体制的 认受性”危机“[15]一文㊂内地学界对此译名相对陌生,反而可促使学者思考legitimacy的根本含义,统一于 肯认性”或 认受性”,也有利于两岸三地社会科学术语的规范化㊂四 结 语legitimacy译名问题,之前多为政治哲学研究者附带讨论,而就 汉语中尚没有一个词与legitimate的所有意义㊁用法和语气百分之百对应”[7] 仅用合法性这个概念无法涵盖legitimacy 的所有意义”[13]等言论而言,尚期望寻找完美译名以统多义于一尊,而缺乏对多义术语单义化的认识㊂legitimacy可表示 直系血统” 合乎法律”及 政权被承认”三义,建议分别译为 嫡生㊁婚生” 合法性” 认受性”㊂在政治学意义上使用legitimacy时,可在理解原意的基础上,根据情况灵活翻译㊂致 谢:浙江大学光华法学院2014级博士研究生邱士辉为本文翻译今井弘道教授日文来信㊂参考文献[1]张柏然.老枝发新芽新桃换旧符(代序)[C]//.‘新牛津英汉双解大词典“编译委员会.新牛津英汉双解大词典.上海:上海外语教育出版社,2007:viii.[2]王敏娟,史安斌.妖魔化中国的畅销书[C]//.李希光,刘康.妖魔化中国的背后.北京:中国社会科学出版社, 1996:174-221.[3]周雪光.制度是如何思维的?[J].读书,2001(4):10 -18.[4]海伍德.政治学核心概念[M].吴勇,译.天津:天津人民出版社,2008:34.[5]孙国东.基于合法律性的合法性 从韦伯到哈贝马斯[J].法制与社会发展,2012(2):118,129.[6]于柏华.韦伯论政治合法性与合法律性及其现实意义[J].学习与探索,2009(6):96-99.[7]赵心树.选举的困境 民选制度及宪政改革批判[M].成都:四川人民出版社,2008:41,49,60,70. [8]唐文玉.合作治理:权威型合作与民主型合作[J].武汉大学学报:哲学社会科学版,2011(11):60-65. [9]毛兴贵.政治合法性㊁政治正当性与政治义务[J].马克思主义与现实,2010(4):98-103.[10]季卫东.秩序的正统性问题 再论法治与民主的关系[J].浙江学刊,2002(5):57-67.[11]郭宝兴.尼克㊃奈特论毛泽东的马克思主义正统性[J].国外社会科学,2012(6):14-19.[12]夸克.合法性与政治[M].佟心平,王远飞,译.北京:中央编译出版社,2002:1.[13]周濂.政治正当性的四重根[J].学海,2007(2):66-72.[14]叶家威.民主㊁良治与认受性 选票岂是兴奋剂?[N].明报,2013-12-19(A36).[15]于永慧.中国体育体制的 认受性”危机[J].体育与科学,2010(1):1-4.版权说明凡向本刊所投稿件,一经刊用,稿件的复制权㊁发行权㊁信息网络传播权㊁汇编权等权利即转让给本刊㊂本刊将一次性支付作者著作权使用报酬(包括印刷版式㊁光盘版和网络版各种使用方式的报酬)㊂如作者不同意转让版权,请于来稿时声明㊂目前本刊已加入的数据库有:中国核心期刊(遴选)数据库㊁中国学术期刊网络出版总库㊁中文科技期刊数据库㊁龙源期刊网数据库㊁CEPS㊂‘中国科技术语“编辑部43。
科学哲学术语对照表
ad hoc hypothesis 特设性假说naive realism 朴素实在论anomaly 反常negative heuristic 反面启发法auxiliary assumption 辅助假定non-normal science 非常规科学auxiliary hypothesis 辅助假说non-science 非科学basic statement 基本陈述normal science 常规科学behaviourism 行为主义object language 对象语言conceptual framework 概念框架objectivism 客观主义confirm 确证observational statement 观察陈述confirmation 确证operativism 操作主义conjecture 推测panpsychism 泛心论conventionalism 约定论parallelism 平行论conversion改宗、改变信仰paradigm 规范corroborate 确认perceptual experience 知觉经验corroboration 确认physicalism 物理主义counter-induction 反归纳pluralism 多元论critical rationalism 批判理性主义pluralistic realism 多元实在论critical realism 批判实在论positive heuristic 正面启发法critical thought批判思维positivism 实证主义crucial experiment 判决性实验potential falsifier 潜在证伪者deduction 演绎、演绎法prescience 前科学degree of corroboration 确认度principle of induction 归纳原理determinism 决定论principle of proliferation 扩散原理dogmatic thought 教条思维principle of tenacity 靭性原理demarcation 分界principle of transference 传递原理disposition 素质、倾向problem of induction 归纳问题downward causation 下向因果性problem shift 问题转换emergence 突现problem situation 问题状况epiphenomenalism 附带现象论proof 证明epistemological anarchy 认识论无政府状态propensity 倾向性epistemology 认识论pseudo-science 类科学、伪科学error-elimination 除错psychologism 心理主义essentialism 本质论radical instrumentalism 激进工具主义explanation 解释rationalism 理性主义fallibilism 易谬主义rationality 理性fallibility 易谬性realism 实在论falsifiability 可证伪性reality 实在falsification 证伪reductionism 还原论falsificationism 证伪主义refutability 可反驳的falsify 证伪refutation 反驳falsity content 虚假性内容research programme 研究纲领first world 第一世界second world 第二世界formal language 形式语言simplicity 简单性gestalt switch 格式塔转换singular statement 单称陈述improbablity 不可几性sophisticated falsificationism 精致的证伪主义irrationalism 非理性主义subjectivism 主观主义guess 猜测tentative theory 试验性理论heuristic 启发法test 检验hypothesis 假说testability 可检验性indeterminism 非决定论theory-laden 渗透理论induction 归纳、归纳法third world 第三世界inductionism 归纳主义thought experiment 思想实验initial condition 初始条件trial and error 试错法instant rationality 即时理性truth content 真理性内容instrumentalism 工具主义universal statement 全称陈述interactionism 相互作用论upward causation 上向因果性irrefutability 不可反驳性verifiability 可证实的justification 证明verification 证实justify 证明verify 证实justificationism 证明主义verisimilitude 逼真性logical positivism 逻辑实证主义world 1 世界1macrologic 宏观逻辑world 2 世界2mentalism 精神主义world 3 世界3metalanguage 元语言metascience 元科学metatheory 元理论micrologic 微观逻辑naive falsificationism 朴素证伪主义naive instrumentalism 朴素工具主义。
简明哲学术语英语词典
简明哲学术语英语词典A BRIEF LEXICON OF PHILOSOPHICAL TERMSA BRIEF LEXICON OF SOME COMMONLY USED PHILOSOPHIC AL TERMS IN THE PRESENT DAYhttp://www.tcdsb.on.ca/external/schools/chaminade/oac-philosophy/public_h tml/lexicon.htmEdited and copyright Ó 1989 by F.F. CentoreA POSTERIORI (to come after in time): That which follows upon or depends upon sense experience; a knowledge of things which cannot be arrived at or deduced from definitions alone. E.g., if it is rainin g today I could not know that fact simply by knowing the definition s of "rain," "today," etc. I must learn about it by either observing it for myself or having some other observer convey t he information to me.A PRIORI (prior to in time): That which comes before sense experie nce; that which does not require sense knowledge to be known as tru e. Cf. "armchair" mathematicians. E.g., I know a circle is round by definition, even if I had never seen a circle in my life. ABSTRACTION (ab-trahere; to draw out): The mental concentration o n one aspect of something while ignoring other aspects; contrasted wi th the whole, CONCRETE thing, e.g., sweetness—this orange; humann ess-Sally. It does not necessarily entail or imply the actual divisionor separation of the different aspects of the thing as it exists outside of the mind.ABSURD (ab-surdus; senseless): That which is self—contradictory, imp ossible, e.g., a square circle; hence, meaningless, ridiculous,irrational. In 20th c. phil. the term is often used by Atheistic Existentialists, such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, to refer to the human co ndition, i.e., the "absurd man" must learn to survive, without committ ing suicide, in a meaningless, de tr op, world, one which hasn’t come from anywhere and which is not going anywhere. The world and hu mans are "surds," things without any reason for being.ACADEMIC FREEDOM: The right to do research and teach in accord ance with the standards of the institution you freely chose to join an d by whose moral and intellectual principles you freely agreed to abi de. Hence, IF both the individual and the leaders of the institution k now what they are about in the first place, there-cannot be any-confli ct between one’s pe rsonal,conscience and the school. If such should arise due to a change on the part of the teacher, in good conscience the teacher should voluntarily leave.AD HOMINEM (against the person): In logic, a pseudo—argument dir ected against some personal characteristic of the opponent rather than against the substance of the position. E.g., Einstein couldn’t have be en right; just look at the way he combed his hair!AESTHETICS (aisthanesthai; to perceiveby the senses): Theories conce rning the nature, origins, and appreciation of the beautiful. AGNOSTICISM (a—gnostos; unknown): In Latin, ignorance. Claiming t hat nothing is known concerning the answers to the ultimate question s of science, phil., theology, and life in general. Such knowledge is lacking now, but we may get it in the future. E.g., Darwin claimed t hat he didn’t have any certain knowledge about the existence of God and human freedom.ALIENATION (alius; other): In general, the withdrawing or removing of one thing from another; to be left out; estranged. In 19th c. phil., the "For—Itself" losing itself to the "In—Itself," which then comes t o stand over in opposition against the "For—Itself." In Hegel, The A bsolute Spirit (God) becoming other in the form of the Material worl d which is determined and mechanisti c in accordance with the Newto nian laws of nature. In Marx, the workers losing their profits to the capitalists; their labor, which is the source of all wealth, is alienate d from themselves. In Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud, the proj ection of human father—figure traits into the heavens so as to produ ce God; the losing of human nature, which is real, to divine nature, which is unreal but which nevertheless, as an obsessional neurosis, st ands in opposition to man. In Sartre, the human condition of the ab s olute, autonomous, free will (the For—Itself, non-being, nothingness) i n opposition to the oppressive, inert world of physical matter (the In —Itself, being); inexplicably the In-Itself produces the For—Itself; bei ng recoils against itself to produce the n othingness of human conscio usness; it’s me (my consciousness) against the world (including other people).ALTRUISM (alter; the other): Showing an unselfish love for others. ANALOGOUS USAGE: In general, the same term has a meaning that’s partially the same and partially different in different contexts; very common in ordinary language. E.g., tall man, ta;; tree; good flatwor m, good husband; true diamond, true friend, true love; beautiful flow er, beautiful building, beautiful person, etc.ANALOGY (ana—logos; to say again): A ratio of one thing to anothe r; a comparison; usually meaning that two things are the same in at least one respect even though there may be differences in other respe cts. Main types: ATTRIBUTION: The trait belongs to only one of the things being compared but is attributed by the mind to something else, e.g., only a whole organism is really healthy but we can also cal l vitamin C healthy because of its relationship to health in the body. GENUS, INEQUALITY: Both a man and a dog are animals; "an imal" is the genus to which they both belong; we can compare them by p ointing out this sameness. However, although they are equally animals they are not equal animals, i.e., man is superior to dog. IMPROPER PROPORTIONALITY: Literary devices and comparisons; "Pretty as a picture;" "The sunset was a great pool of blood lying on the horizo n;" "My love is like a red, red rose...;" etc. This sort is very import ant in rhetoric, poetry, persuasive speech, etc., and can add a great deal of enjoyment to our lives, but is not so useful in science, phil., and theology. PROPER PROPORTIONALITY:The most important in phil. Here there is a strict proportion of prop ortions; the individual terms of one proportion are not proportionate t o the individual terms of the other pro portion, but the whole proporti on between the terms on one side is proportionate to the whole prop ortion between the terms on the other side of the relationship. E.g., 3/6 = 5/10; the good for a flatworm is to the nature of a flatworm as the good for a human is to the nature of a human; knowledge in God is to the essence of God as knowledge in an angel is to the e ssence of an angel as knowledge in a human is to the essence of a human. 3 and 5 are different numbers; goodness and knowledge are d ifferent in each of the cases mentioned. Yet, even though the numera tors and denominators are not the same, the proportion holds. What t he sets have in common is the same relationship within each of the respective proportions. This is very important when it comes to rea so ning by analogy in phil., especially in the Phil. of Being.ANALYTIC STATEMENT: (see A Priori).ANGST (die Angst——German; mir 1st angst-—I am afraid; anxiety, a nguish): Term popularized by Heidegger; the human condition when A theistic Existentialism takes hold and we become fully aware of the meaninglessness of life. Also known as Existential or Objectless Anxi ety; state of being forlorn, lost; aimless; bored. ANTHROPOMORPHISM (anthropos-morphos; human-shaped): Having hu man traits; attributing human traits to non—humans, such as to anima ls or to the gods.APPEARANCE (ad-parere; to come forward and show yourself): That which shows itself in any way, either to the senses or to the mind. Cf. PHENOMENON (phainein; to show).ARGUMENT (argos; white; arguere; to clarify): Words arranged in su ch a way so as to persuade somebody of something; a proof; to mak e clear by "spelling it out;" a reasoning process which goes from the truth of some given statements to the truth of some other statement (s). Either Deductive or Inductive.ASSUMPTION (assumere; to take up): Something taken for granted wi thout proof.ATHEISM (a-theos; godless): A denial of God’s existence; usually me aning the denial of the Judaeo—Christian God of the Bible.ATOM (a-tomos; indivisible): The smallest possible unit of material r eality. Atomism as a phil. of all reality was first developed by the a ncient Greeks.ATTACKING A STRAW MAN: In logic, a faulty argument which mis ses the main point of something and instead of directing its rebuttal against the opponent’s true point sets up a false point (a straw man) which it then proceeds to attack as if it were the true point. E.g., the traditional religious position on human nature and freedom is that we are free but that we also have a nature (essence) which sets li mits to what we are capable of doing freely (e.g., we are not free t o fly by flapping our arms). Someone such as Sartre, though, claims that having a positive essence necessarily determines all of our action s so that we are not free at all. But thi s is to sidestep the original position which was to be argued against.AUTHENTICITY (authentikos; one who acts boldly, the master): In 2 0th c. phil., doing what, you want to do without making any excuses or giving any reasons; to be true to yourself by act ing in oppositio n to others. Cf. Jean—Paul Sartre: "Hell is other people." Cf. his Be ing and Nothingness, III, 3, iii: "The essence of the relations betwee n consciousnesses is not the Mitsein; it is conflict."AUTHORITY (auctor; originator): The right to d irect and rule; a mor al power, not based on physical force, although force must often be used in practice. Presupposes the freedom of those commanded; only free beings can responsibly respond to an order. E.g., the difference between the government orderin g the rain not to fall and ordering cit izens to pay taxes.AUTONOMOUS (auto—nomos; self-law): In 20th c. phil., being a law unto yourself; disregarding the needs of others if you want to and not feeling guilty about it; acting without any external guidelin es, rul es, objective measures of what’s good and bad or right and wrong. " Doing your own thing."AXIOM (axios; worthy): Something obvious enough to be taken for g ranted."BAD FAITH": In 20th c. phil., acting in a non-authentic and non-au tonomous way.BECOMING (becuman-—Old English): Any motion or change; any pro cess of passing from potency to act; any condition of being different from what something was before.BEGGING THE QUESTION: Assuming the truth of the thing to be pr oven; circular argument. E.g., you can tell the age of the rock stratafrom the fossils and we know the fossilsare of a certain age because of the rock strata in which they are fo und; This is an IQ test. Yes but what is IQ? It is what the IQ test tests for. Sometimes it is called a vicious circle (vitium; corrupt, vi ce) because of its faultiness.BEHAVIORISM: In the 20th c., philosophical Reductionism applied to the study of humans. Developed by J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner; a dopted by A.J. Ayer.BEING (esse; to be): That which is in any wa y whatsoever, whether in or out of the wind, whether actual or possible. A BEING: That w hich is in existence here and now in any way whatsoever.BEING-FOR-ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-pour-soi), the nihilation of being within eac h human being; the basis for consciousness of the world and self—consciousness; that which sta nds out in opposition to being even though it is itself a creation of being; human nature.BEING-IN—ITSELF: Terminology derived from Hegel. In Sartre (être-en-soi), the non-conscious, inert, dead, inexplicable, physical nature w orld of being; the full world; the world without the admixture of not hingness; the world that simply is; what we will become at death. BEING OF REASON: In Latin: ens rationis; plural: entia rationis. So mething which cannot exist outside the mind; it can have only mental existence; a logical being; a mental construct, but which nevertheles s has a foundation in extramental reality. E.g., negations and privatio ns——talking about something which i sn’t there; logical devices to de al with things as thought——abstractions, subjects and predicates in p ropositions, genera and species, etc. It does not refer to simply imagi native entities, e.g., a flying horse, or the numerous Hollywood creati ons. (see Intention)CATEGORY (kata—agora; by the town square where people congregat e): A more definite arrangement of things; a narrowing down of some thing broad and open; a classification; putting something into a class, group, set, type, sort, etc., as set of f fro m other groups, classes, e tc.CATHOLIC (kata-holos; •in with the whole): That which is universal and all—encompassing. Most usually used in The Roman Catholic Chu rch: A universal religious organization with its HQ in Rome whose o bligation it is to convey the message of Christ to all parts of the w orld until the end of time.CAUSE (causa): That upon which something else is dependent for its existence; that which in any way influences the being or becoming of something; the reason for the exisence of somethin g; the principle from which something flows. Aristotle’s four main types of causes: MATERIAL: That out of which something is made; that which is inpotency to become something else, e.g., the wood used in making a chair. AGENT orEFFICIENT: The real thing that works on the material to wake the t hing, e.g., the carpenter. The agent cause must be a really existing t hing; a possible carpenter cannot make anything. FORMAL: The form or nature of the thing made, e.g., it’s a chair rather than a table, e tc. In this case it is an artifact, and so the form is accidental to th e material. In the case of a natural entity, such as a human being o r an oak tree, the form would be essential. FINAL: The purpose, end, goal, or reason why the thing is made. In the case of a na tural thi ng, the Formal Cause, once in existence, acts as an Agent Cause to produce the Final product, e.g., an acorn growing into an oak tree. T hus Aristotle can treat the last three causes as one cause in natural operations. Beware of pseudo—causes. Time, for instance, is not a ca use of anything; it cannot heal any wounds or bring about the creati on of a new species. How did you get from New York to Toronto? It took a long time. HOW did man develop from the apes? It took a long time.CENSORSHIP (censere; to tax or assess costs): In common usage, al ways bad and incompatible with a free society; the unjustified suppre ssion of public expression. But this should not be confused with the justified regulation of the popular media. E.g., the control of informa tion in time of war; the suppression of hate literature or material de grading or exploiting people, such as pornography; the control of mat erial inciting riots, violence, and sedition; copyright laws preventing one person from stealing the work of another; l aws forbidding the tel ling of lies about people in public, etc. Also, in any decent society self-censorship is necessary.CERTITUDE (certus; cernere; to sift out, to discern): The state of be ing certain and settled in one’s view; a firm assent to an intell igible statement without any fear of error. To be really firm and complete (scientific) it must include a knowledge of the reasons why things a re the way they are and could not be otherwise. Main types: METAPHYSICAL, MATHEMATICAL, ABSOLUTE: There is no pos sibi lity of error, e.g., 2 plus 2 is 4, a physical whole is always greater than any one of its parts or subdivisions, the diameter of a given c ircle is always shorter than its circumference, a world of physical thi ngs exists independently of the individual’s own mind, etc. PHYSICA L: The ordinary and usual laws of nature, e.g., the laws of chemical interaction, motion, thermodynamics, aerodynamics, etc. Barring mirac les, we can bet our lives on these certitudes-—and do! MORAL, JUR IDICAL: Beyond reasonable doubt; the ordinary kind in most societal interactions; all the evidence, from many different independent sourc es, all points to the same conclusion. E.g., when taking a bus downtown, it would be unreasonable to run up and down the aisle shouting that the bus was being captured by Martians. The denial of Moral Certitude is the most- usual basis for Hollywood spy movies, science fiction plots, adventure series, etc. The suspension of ordinary huma n expectations (i.e., being neurotic) greatly helps one’s career as a n ovelist and screenwriter. (see Realism)COMMON SENSE: In general, knowing those things which are require d in order to survive in a given society. This will vary from society to society in different parts of the world. E.g., those living in the Arctic need to know about 14 different kinds of snow; those living i n London need to know not to run out into the street from between parked cars, etc. In phil., it refers to those truths known with certain ty by all normal human beings, regardless of where they live. E.g., b asic mathematics, the existence of the external world, that there’s a difference between existential questions (Is it?) and essentialistic ques tions (What is it?), that water runs down hill, that what goes up (a rock, an arrow, a spear, etc.) comes down, etc. These certitudes can then be used as a basis for further philosophical and scientific reason ing.COMMUNISM: A 19th c. utopian political phil. based upon Hegel’s d octrine of conflicting contradictories, but reduced to a two—part disju nction in which one side is all bad and the other side all good. In t heory, the 19th c. capitalists would concentrate more and more power in themselves while the working class would become larger and larg er and poorer and poorer. Finally a flash—point would be reached, re volution would break out, all capitalists would be destroyed, and the society, after a brief bloody and violent transition period, would be t ransformed into a new classless, stateless, godless Paradise on earth f or all future generations. Abhors (in theory) God—Statism (Fascism, Nazism).CONCEPT (concipere; to conceive in the womb): Something born with in the mind; an IDEA, a "universal," that about which we invent lan guages, etc. Every idea we have is a universal in the sense that its content or meaning is something common to many different things in the world. E.g., the word "dog" in English stands for the concept o f dogness, which applies to all possible dogs, whether past, present, or future. No concept can be identified with anything of a mate rial o r physical nature, such as the word "dog," or some particular picture or graphic image of a particular dog, etc. Since —~ philosophers w ork with ideas, and since ideas are so special, they have always been of special interest to philosophers.CONCLUSION (com—claudere; to close in): In logic, the end of a re asoning process; the final outcome of an argument. E.g., given that a ll people are mortal and that Sally is a person we conclude that Sally is mortal.CONSERVATIVE (conservare; to preserve): In gene ral, anyone who w ants to maintain the status quo without any fundamental change or al teration. "Today’s liberals are tomorrow’ s conservatives." CONTINGENT (com—tangere; to touch upon): That which need not b e the case; something which could be otherwise; t he accidental; somet hing which just happens to be the case.CONTRADICTION (contra—dicere; to speak against): In logic, the rel ationship between a universal proposition and a particular proposition differing in quality. E.g., All people are mortal——Some people are n ot mortal; No people are mortal-—Some people are mortal. In general, any statement which denies a given statement in an immediate and direct way.COSMOLOGY (kosmos-logos; explaining the cosmos): The General Sci ence of Nature; the attempt to explai n the natural universe of changi ng things in some general and comprehensive way. Common topics: S ubstance, change, chance, teleology, time. Cf. cosmonauts, cosmetics. Today the word is often used to mean astronomy.CREATION EX NIHILO (creare; to make more): To create from nothi ng; creation strictly and properly speaking; possible only for a Supre me Being whose very essence is to exist.DASEIN (there-being in German): Term for human nature derived fro m Hegel and popularized by Heidegger. Humans are the locus, mediu m, site, etc., wherein Being becomes aware of itself. Only in humans is Being there; otherwise it would be completely unknown and even "non—existent."DEDUCTION (de—ducere; to lead away from): In logic, the processof starting from something more universal and coming down to somet hing more particular; common in a priori reasoning; a desirable and s trong form of reasoning because if the premises are true we can be sure that the conclusion will be true. E.g., all circles are round, this thing is a circle, and so this thing is round.DEISM (deus; god): The doctrine that there indeed exists a God who created the universe and who punishes sinners, but in a highly "rati onalized" sense; after setting things up God abandoned the world and us to the laws of nature; an absentee landlord; there is no Revelati on nor authoritative Scripture and Church. Some famous deists: Many of the leaders of the American and French Revolutions; Voltaire, Ro usseau, Hugo, maybe Darwin.DETERMINISM (de—terminare; to set limits to): The doctrine that ev erything that happens, including apparently free decisions by humans, is really already decided by previous, unconscious, unfree events whic h cause things to go one way rather than some other way regardless of what we think about it; fatalism; a perfect knowledge of the causes would provide us with perfect predictability (the dream of scienc e). Some famous determjnists: Darwin, Freud, Einstein, Bertrand Russe ll, B.F. Skinner, A.J. Ayer.DIALECTIC (dia-legesthai; to converse): In Plato, phil. itself; the epit ome of reasoning; the process of trying to reach a conclusion by exa mining all possibilities until the right one is found. In phil. since th e early 19th c., a collision of contradictories producing some third th ing which synthesizes them and then becomes itself a part of another conflict. In Georg Regel and Karl Marx, the fusion of Something an d Nothing to give Becoming; in Fascism, the conflict of capitalists a nd workers to give the State.DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM: The theoretical foun dation for the Co mmunism of Marx and Engels; the doctrine that the only reality is th e material universe, but that it necessarily progresses in a dialectical way, the results of which are various stages of development, i.e., n on—life to life to animals to man to society to various economic sys tems to socialisms to Communism; a "scientific" dialectic, in contrast to Hegel’s mystical spiritualistic process.DISTINCTION (stigma; mark; dis—stinguere; different marks): The no n—identity of one thing with another.Main types: SEPARATION: The physical arrangement of parts outside of parts, e.g., your pen is sep arate from your hand. VERBAL; Different names for one and the sam e thing, e.g., methanol, methyl alcohol, methyl hydrate, denatured alc ohol, wood alcohol. LOGICAL, MENTAL, CONCEPTUAL, RATIONAL: The difference is only in the mind; outside the mind there is in fa ct no real differentiation, e.g., cat—mammal, dime—coin; in the extra mental world every case of cat is also a case of mammal, every dim e is a coin; in reality the two are the same; they are identical. REA L: Even though there is no separation of parts, outside the mind one aspect is really not the other; in one and the same unified being th ere is a non-identity of aspects, features, etc., e.g., your height and weight, the direction and velocity of a body in locomotion, the essen ce and existence of a being. Distinction should not be identified with separation; although every separation is a distinction it is not the c ase that every distinction is a separation. This is very important in t he Phil. of Being.DUALISM (dualis, duo; two): Most usually in phil. the view that the body and soul (psyche, mind, consciousness, etc.) cannot be reduced one to the other; i.e., both are factors in the explanation of human nature which possess some sort of reality of their own. Main types: MODERATE: In’ Aristotle, the body and soul constitute a unity of one being in which the soul is the form of the substance; they can be distinguished but not separated. Variations are possible, e.g., Thom ism, in which the body and soul form a unity based upon the existential act of the soul, so that it’s possible for the soul to survive the breakdown of its body. EXTREME: In Plato and Descartes, the body and soul are two separate entities which do not form a unity; the s oul is the real person; the body is simply a machine. EGALITARIANISM (egalitaire; equality): An absolute equality of ever yone in everything; the Prime Minister would have exactly the same rights, privileges, standard of living, e tc., as the lowest street cleaner; males and females must be treated in exactly the same way, whethe r it’s fighting in the army or having babies; a doctrine proposed by some modern revolutionaries and feminists; but quite impossible in pr actice.EMPIRICISM (en—peiran; to try something for yourself): The doctrine that all knowledge must come through the senses; there are no INN ATE IDEAS born within us that only require to be remembered. It is often carried to the extreme of saying that our concepts are only se nse images or only the words we use to refer to things.ENTITY (ens; being): Anything that exists, usually meaning as a natu ral unified substance.EPICUREANISM: An ancient Greek school of phil. founded by the At henian Epicurus. Based upon a materialistic atomism, it taught that p hysical pleasures, adjusted to what can be reasonably expected in a p articular time and place, constitute man’s greatest good and happiness. One must live unknown, avoid pain and trouble, and calculate the p leasure and pain to be derived from a given activity, including interp ersonal relations; produces a very conservative attitude because "rocki ng the boat" is sure to get you into trouble with the police. "Eat, dr ink, and be merry for tomorrow you die" is really a distortion of th i s phil. The phil. of life actually practiced by most people in the wo rld. Defended by the Roman Lucretius about the time of Christ. EPISTEMOLOGY (episteme-logos; true and certain knowledge explaine d): The study of human knowledge; its origins, types, and dependabili ty.EQUALITY (aequus; on the same level): Everyone having the same b asic worth and dignity before God, the law, and among other people; the same opportunities for success and advancement, though equality of results is not guaranteed. It does not mean that anyone can do a nything anyone else can do, e.g., becoming a priest.EQUIVOCATION (aequi—vox; with equal voice): Using the same term with entirely different meanings. E.g., a river bank, a bank for mon ey; Fido and Kierkegaard are both Great Danes. Often the basis for puns and jokes.ESSENCE (essentia; beingness, reality): Answers to the question, Wha t is it? The definition of something. The NATURE as known. E.g., F ido and Rex are Great Danes; Sally and Sam are human beings.ETHICS (ethos; habits): The ultimate practical knowledge; how to lea d the good life in the good society; the norms of proper behavior fo r humans as humans, not as doing some particular Job, e.g., Street cl eaning, computer programming, being the president of GM, being the Pope, etc. Ethics presupposes freedom on the part of the beings capa ble of acting ethically, e.g., humans. Things such as animals, plants, and minerals, which are not free in the sense of having the potential for free -choice, are not held responsible for their a ctions in any m oral sense. Main subdivisions, following the six main institutions of a ll human soèieties: Phil. of Religion and Government (Political Phil.), Family, Education, Work, Recreation.ETIOLOGY (aitia; cause): The study of the causes and origins of thi ngs.EUDAEMONISM (eu-daimon; good demon or spirit): Living well; bein g attended by good fortune. In Aristotle, happiness as the ultimate re sult of a good life.EVIDENCE (e-videre; clearly seen): The reasons for holding a certain view; the indicators of truth.EVIL (yfel--Old English): The privation of something that a being sh ould have or is due to it; the deviation from an ideal. E.g., with res pect to humans, not having wings is not an evil. PHYSICAL EVIL: Starvation, blindness, being crippled; MORAL EVIL: Sin, turning awa y from God; SOCIAL EVIL: Being deprived of just treatment, not be ing able to receive a liberal education. Any talk of evil presupposes the existence of objective standards or ideals.EVOLUTION (e-volvere; to unroll): Originally, the unrolling or unfold ing of Divine Providence, which is why Charles Darwin avoided usin g the term. DARWINIAN EVOLUTION: The creation of new species by common descent with modification via natural selection. He could not reconcile evil and Providence and so sought to explain species w ithout their being specially created by God. Starting from one very si mple living thing each new individual would vary somewhat from all others. Those better able to survive in their given environments wou ld go on to reproduce in larger numbers than the others (differential reproduction). In time, different looking, more complicated things wou ld be seen, while many others died out. He was a firm believer in t he overall progress and advancement of the biosphere. This has led t o the widespread present—day attitude that anything novel is automati cally better and superior to anything old; the common saying, "You’r e history," indicates that you are no longer of any importance or sig nificance. Today, in common speech, evolution usually m eans simply a slow change, as opposed to a fast change (revolution). EXISTENTIALISM (ex—sistere; to stand outside of its cause or sourc e): In 20th c. phil., mainly the view of Sartre, emphasizing the Deat。