合作原则

• Grice提出了“言外之意”的理论。凡用逻辑语义 理论解决不了的意义，则需要借助“言外之意” 理论加以解决。言外之意有多种，其中突出的就 是“会话含义”。会话含义是人们根据会话原则 是否得到遵守而推导出来的一种意义，这是随语 境变化而变化的语用意义。
Cooperation Principle
Quality 质量
1)Do not say what you believe to be false. 2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
说真话
E.g. 1. A：你干嘛又换手机啊? 什么时候买的啊?多少钱啊? 我也 想买一部。 B：唉，之前那部被人偷啦．这部前天才买的，花了我两 千多呢!
Grice把交谈看作是人类有目的性的、合理的社会行为之一， 因此，上述的各条准则并非只在进行交谈时需要遵守，在 从事其他的社会活动时也同样适用： 以下是适用于其他社会活动的例子:
1. Quantity: If you are assisting me to mend a car. I expect your contribution to be neither more nor less than is required. If, for example, at a particular stage I need four screws, I expect you to hand me four, rather than two or six. 2. Quality: I expect your contributions to be genuine and not spurious. If I need sugar as an ingredient in the cake you are assisting me to make, I do not expect you to hand me salt: if I need a spoon, I do not expect a trick spoon made of rubber.
“用了xx 产品，今年20，明年18。” 2. A：你想应聘我们公司这份工作的话，必须达到我们的招 聘要求。我们要求有5年以上工作经验的，你符合要求吗？ B：当然啦！我在这行干了超过8年啦！( 其实根本没有工 “皇上万岁万岁万万岁！” 作经验 ) A：那么请问你之前八年在哪里高就呢？主要负责哪方面 的工作？ B：。。。
Βιβλιοθήκη Baidu
Cooperation Principle
Quantity
Quality
• Contents of CP
Relation Manner
Quantity 数量
1)Make your contribution as informative as required. 2)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
和说话人所用的单词、词语之间的关系是间接的， 它固然要以话语的语义内容为基础，但说话人所 要表达的内容无疑要多余话语的语义内容。
• Grice (1975) lists four possible situations where the cooperation principle can be violated:
Relation 相关
• Be relevant. 话题要相关。 说话要相关，贴切。
E.g. 1. A：我家来客人了，不够地方住，可以去你家住两晚吗? B：当然可以啊，我家客房正空着呢! 欢迎光临! 2. A: Let’s play tennis. B: I have a stomachache.
哲学基础：
Grice套用了康德的量、质、关系和方式四个哲学 范畴体系：任何事物都有自身一定的量的规定性， 质的规定性，有与其他事物的关系，有自身存在 的方式。
Grice构建的意义理论是以他对语言和思维的关系 的理解为基础的。
Thought
Reality
Language
Cooperation Principle
非会话含义
Implicature
• conventional implicature 规约含义 • 由所使用的单词、词语本身所具有的规约意义决 定的。
• e.g. He is an Englishman, he is, therefore, brave.
• conversational / non-conventional implicature 会话/非规约含义 means the additional, unstated meaning, that is, what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean more than what is said, as distinct from what the speaker literally says.
Conversational Implicature
CONTENT
Cooperation Principle
Non-observance of conversational maxims
Properties of Conversational Implicature
H.P.Grice
• Paul Grice (March 13, 1913 – August 28, 1988), usually publishing under the name H. P. Grice, H. Paul Grice, or Paul Grice, was a Britisheducated philosopher of language, who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States. Grice's work on the nature of meaning has influenced the philosophical study of semantics. His theory of implicature is among the most important and influential contributions to contemporary pragmatics. “Meaning” （1957）
Manner 方式
Be perspicuous 1) avoid obscurity of expression.避免晦涩 2) avoid ambiguity.避免歧义 3) be brief.简单明了 4) be orderly.井井有条
E.g.
A. B.
Let’s get the kids something. Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
不多说， 也不少说
E.g. 1. A：你感冒了吗？眼睛红红的？ B：我没感冒。昨晚没睡好，所以眼睛红了。 2. A：你感冒了吗？眼睛红红的？ B：哎呀别提了，昨晚陪朋友出去玩，说好十点前回家 睡觉的，谁知后来大家玩开了，唱完K 又去吃宵夜，吃完 宵夜又开了一桌牌，闹完都凌晨一点多了。回到家就更别 提了，热水器坏了，修半天也修不好，只好用水壶烧水洗 澡，等到上床睡觉天都快亮了。唉。。。困死我了。真想 找个地睡一觉，要是不用上班也有钱花该多好。。。
Cooperation Principle
• 合作原则提出的理据 • “Logic and Conversation”（“逻辑与会话”），文中 提出了著名的“合作原则”。该论文的宗旨不在于提出一 个关于会话的理论，而是要解决如何分析自然语言的语义 问题。罗素（Russell）要通过逻辑分析消除语言的日常 用法对哲学和逻辑带来的消极影响，不合逻辑定义的则说 明日常语言有缺陷。与罗素不同，Grice想通过对日常语 言的分析发现其自身的特点然后再寻找它跟哲学的结合点。 也就是说逻辑分析只能解决日常语言中的一部分语义问题， 多出来的部分需要通过新的途径（如语用学）来解决。那 么如何解决多出来的意义呢？
• 3) The speaker may face a dilemma. On the one hand, he wants to hold the quality maxim the present stage requires, while on the other hand, there is a possibility that other maxims will be violated if the quality maxim is held. There is a clash here. • 4) The speaker may deliberately violate one of the maxims or fail to fulfill it. But this is different from the first case in that the speaker assumes that the hearer knows he intends to do something, and the hearer still regards him being cooperative in observing the general cooperative principle. The hearer knows that the speaker is not trying to mislead him.
• 1) The speaker may violate the cooperation principle delibrately but without making the hearer realize it. In this case, the speaker is most likely to mislead the hearer. For example, when someone is telling a lie, he violates the Quality Maxim by saying untrue things. But if the hearer dose not realize this and assumes that the speaker follows the cooperative principle, he will be misled. • 2) The speaker may aviod cooperation in an explicit way by telling the hearer that he is unwilling to cooperate. If someone asks a question, the hearer can say that he doesn't want to answer, or he cannot say any more.
• Paul Grice proposed that all speakers, regardless of their cultural background, adhere to a basic principle governing conversation which he termed The Cooperative Principle . Under this principle fall four categories of maxim.
Violation of CP occurs, what follows?
Implicature (会话含义，言外之意)
Implicature
• Levinson（1983:131）把Grice的含义归纳为以下几种：
直义 非 自 然 意 义 含义
规约含义 一般会话含义 会话含义 特殊会话含义
非规约含义
3. Relation: I expect a partner's contribution to be appropriate to the immediate needs at each stage of the transaction. If I am mixing ingredients for a cake, I do not expect to be handed a good book, or even an oven cloth (though this might be an appropriate contribution at a later stage). 4. Manner: I expect a partner to make it clear what contribution he is making and to execute his performance with reasonable dispatch.（Grice, 1975）