语言学概论(笔记整理)

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语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系?答:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是遗传的,而是一种社会现象。

语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

2. 简答语言符号的特点。

答:(1)符号和语言,“能指”和“所指”。

能指是能够指称某种意义的成分,所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。

(2)语言符号的“任意性”。

符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系,语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系,完全是任意的,约定俗成的。

(3)语言符号的强制性和可变性。

在同一社会、同一时代,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,而语言又是发展变化着的。

(4)语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。

话只能一个字一个字,一句话一句话地说,因此语言符号是离散的,而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。

3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。

答:组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,是横向关系。

聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换,有共同的特点,故能聚合归类。

组合是横向的结构关系,聚合是归类规则,有了组合、聚合关系,便展现出了整个语言平面,聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的,或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的,而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。

所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一,不可分割。

4. 解释“符号”答:符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。

5. 解释“语言”答:语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分,语言是均质的,是言语活动中的社会部分。

语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。

6. 口语和书面语的关系。

答:语言的客观存在形式首先是口语,第二种客观存在形式,是书面语。

(完整word版)语言学概论笔记(邢福义)

(完整word版)语言学概论笔记(邢福义)

语言学概论第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性?为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具?二、什么是符号?语言符号有什么特点?三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系?四、口语和书面语有什么区别?为什么会有区别?五、什么是副语言和人工语言?二者有什么关系?1、语言:从结构上看,语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统.从功能上看,是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。

语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性(指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子)模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指(什么是符号):用甲事物代表乙事物,而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系,甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号,其中甲事物就是符号的能指(形式),乙事物就是符号的所指(内容和意义)。

符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的.3、语言符号的特征:语言中的词语就是一种符号,具有符号的特征。

1、语言符号的任意性(用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的)2、稳固性(语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性)3、渐变性(为了适应社会发展的变化,采取渐变的方式)4、线条性(语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系)4、语言的社会性:语言是社会交际的工具,社会是语言的本质属性。

自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的,而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会,无论是新词语的产生,还是旧词语的消亡,都取决于社会交际的需要.由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会,所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。

语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具,还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具,但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具,一般使用范围有限,语言是一种独立的交际工具,是第一性的,副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的,是第二性的。

因而,语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

5、语言和言语的区别:语言有广义和狭义之分,广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品,狭义的语言只指语言系统,而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品.语言和言语既有一定的区别,又有密切的联系,主要区别在于:语言是抽象的,言语是具体的;语言是社会的,言语是个人的;语言是现成的,言语是临时的(这种区别是区分语言单位和言语单位的主要标准,如语素、词和固定短语属于语言单位,而自由短语和具体的句子都属于言语单位);语言是有限、稳定的,言语是无限、多变的.联系:一方面,语言来自言语,依存于言语,没有言语就没有语言,但是另一方面,语言又制约着言语,指导人们进行言语实践。

语言学概论知识梳理(期末重点)

语言学概论知识梳理(期末重点)

语言学概论知识梳理一、导言1、中国、印度、希腊-罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就,是语言学的三大发源地。

2、20世纪初,瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出,存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象。

3、运用语言进行交际的过程大体可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。

三、第二章语言是符号系统1、语言是符号系统。

2、符号是具体事物的标记或代号,是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记,其作用是指称现实现象二、第一章语言的功能1、语言的功能:社会功能(信息传递、人际互动)、思维功能。

2、所谓“社会”,指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。

3、语言社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。

这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。

4、语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。

5、语言的社会功能的另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联,这可以称为语言的人际互动功能。

6、大脑的左半球管右半身的动作,还控制着语言功能以及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能,掌管抽象的、概括的思维。

7、大脑的右半球管左半身的动作,还在音乐等艺术感知、人的面貌识别、立体图形的识别、整体把握能力、内在想象力等方面起着主要作用,掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

8、儿童语言的学习与心智的发展是同步的,并且有所谓的“临界期”:人出生之后过了一定的期限,如果没有后天的正常的社会环境,其语言习得与心智发展的潜能就失去了。

9、聋哑人也是能思维的。

①和常人一样,生活在人类社会中,有健全的大脑和发音器官。

只是因听不见别人说话而学不会语言。

②聋哑人不能运用听觉符号传递信息表达思想,但可以通过别的感觉器官得到补偿(视觉符号,手语,动觉,触觉)。

10、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性与语言的性质密切相关。

语言的普遍性质是语言的最根本的性质。

3、符号包括形式和意义两方面,二者不可分离,相结合才构成符号,没有无意义的符号形式。

语言学概论整理笔记

语言学概论整理笔记

导论一、语言学对象:人类的语言名词解释:以语言为研究对象的一门独立学科三大发祥地:中国、印度、希腊—罗马分科:⑴理论语言学1、个别语言语言学:以某一种具体语言为研究对象的语言学。

包括共时语言学和历时语言学。

(如汉语语言学和英语语言学)A、共时语言学:语言研究的一种方法,从一个横断面研究语言在某个历时时期的状态和展。

(描写语言学,例如对汉语普通话的研究,主要研究它发展到现在语音系统的状况,它有多少音位,音位之间的组合规则,而不管这些规则是由什么演变而来的)B、历时语言学:语言研究的一种方法,其中研究语言在较长历史时期中所经历的变化。

(历史语言学,例如上古汉语中有很多辅音结尾的音节,【-p】【-t】【-k】,而发展到现在就只留下【-n】【ng】结尾的音节了。

)2、普通语言学:以人类一般语言为研究对象,研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律,是综合众多语言的研究成果的研究成果而建立起来的语言学,是语言学的重要理论部分。

3、应用语言学:研究语言学应用的学科,实际上是一种交叉学科,是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。

4、小学:中国传统的语文学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,从而被人们称为经血的附庸。

5、历史比较语言学:语言学中的一个重要部门,它以历史比较法为基础,研究语言的亲属关系。

它为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础,是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

(我们可以把汉语语音、词汇、语法从古至今的“纵”的历史放到今天由南至北的“横”的区域上去考察)第一章、语言的本质现代语言学之父:德·索绪尔语言:作为人类必不可少的思维工具和最重要的交际工具来使用的一种音义结合的符号统。

言语:是对语言的运用。

一是指人的说和写的过程,是人的一种行为,叫言语活动,也叫言语行为,一是指人说出来的话,写出来的东西,也叫言语作品。

《语言学概论》复习笔记

《语言学概论》复习笔记

《语言学概论》复习笔记一、语言和语言学1.语言的本质(1)自然属性:语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(2)社会属性:是人类最重要的交际工具。

(3)心理属性:是人类进行思维的工具。

语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(99年填空)2.什么是符号?语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。

符号:用甲事物指代乙事物,甲即乙的符号。

语言符号的特点:①有声的;②成系统的;③分层次的装置,语音→音素→音节→语素→词;④音义结合是任意的,是约定俗成的(不可论证,无理据);⑤线条性:语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的,不能全盘端出。

语言符号与客观事物的关系。

(98年大题)3.语言最基本的社会功能:交际功能。

文字:是在语言的基础上产生的,是记录语言的书写符号。

符号:是形式和内容(意义)的统一体。

(1)语言符号的形式:声音(语音)是语言的物质外壳,听觉可感知。

(2)语言符号的内容:意义(语义)是人们对现实现象的概括反映。

(99年填空)4.语言符号的特点:①任意性和强制性;②线条性;③系统性。

人的语言和动物语言有何不同?简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。

(01年大题)答:①任意性:语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系,它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。

表现:某种具体语言的音义结合关系;形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。

②强制性:符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。

符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定的现实现象以后,它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。

任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。

符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的,它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。

5.语言的构成(1)底层:音位。

音位和音位组合成音节——语言符号的形式部分(01年填空)(2)上层:音义结合的符号和符号的序列——结构语素→词→句子★6.符号的组合关系语言符号具有线条性的特点。

符号和符号前后依次相接组合起来,好似一个链条,环环相扣。

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论读书笔记第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。

2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。

口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。

书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。

3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。

就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。

第二节语言的性质句子是最小的交际单位。

2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。

4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。

5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。

它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。

6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。

7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。

即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。

8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。

人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。

王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)笔记和习题(含考研真题)详解

王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)笔记和习题(含考研真题)详解
王红旗《语言学概论》(修订 版)笔记和习题(含考研真题)
详解
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 读书笔记
目录
02 内容摘要 04 作者介绍 06 精彩摘录
思维导图
本书关键字分析思维导图
习题
语言
概论
概论
发展
真题
性质
笔记
语言学
教材 复习
语法
修订版
习题
语义
笔记
真题
语音
内容摘要
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为王红旗《语言学概论》的考生。也可供各大院校学 习语言学概论的师生参考。王红旗著《语言学概论》是我国高校采用较多的语言学理论权威教材。为了帮助参加 研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)的考生复习专业课,我们根据教材和名校 考研真题的命题规律精心编写了配套复习辅导用书。本书具有以下几方面特点:1.整理名校笔记,浓缩内容精华。 每章的复习笔记以王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)教材为主,结合国内其他著名的语言学理论著作,整理各章 的重难点,浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。2.解析课后习题,提供详尽答案。本书参考大量语言学理论相关辅导资 料,对王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)的课(章)后习题都进行了详细的分析和解答。3.精选相关考试真题, 补充难点习题。为了强化对重要知识点的理解,本书精选了近年实验心理学考研真题及相关习题并提供答案和详 解。所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点,特别注重联系实际、突现当前热点。
目录分析
1.1复习笔记
1.2习题(含考 研真题)详解
2.1复习笔记
2.2习题(含考 研真题)详解
3.1复习笔记
3.2习题(含考 研真题)详解

语言学概论详细笔记

语言学概论详细笔记

语言学概论详细笔记(总27页)--本页仅作为文档封面,使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学概论目录目录 ................................................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

导言.................................................................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

一、语言学的对象和任务 ....................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

二、语言学的分类和分支学科................................................................ 错误!未定义书签。

三、语言学的功用 ................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

第一章语言的社会功能................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

第一节语言的社会功能 ........................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

一、语言和说话的关系 .................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

语言学概论—重点知识总结

语言学概论—重点知识总结

语言学概论—重点知识总结第一章:语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.只有人类才有语言;与动物鸣叫的区别:内容更多、用处更大、能够创造;语言与民族、国家的关系?——三者关系复杂语言是最直接、最易识别的民族标志;同一民族可以有多种语言;2.语言的类型历时-谱系分类:亲属关系——英语、德语都属于日耳曼语系;汉语、藏语都属于汉藏语系;共时-形态分类:孤立语(汉语:突出语序和虚词的作用);形态语(英德俄-屈折语;日韩维-黏着语)3.语言的表现形式:语言和言语、本体和外围、口语和书面语1)语言和言语语言:说话的工具,是约定成俗的;比如:普通话、英语;言语:说话,包含言语作品和言语动作,比如:说:“翠花,上酸菜”;2)选择/名词:本体和外围本体:语言内部包含的要素,比如:语音、语法、语义;外围:语言和其他事物的关系,比如:语言和思维、语言和历史、语言和民族文化;3)口语和口语口语:说的话;第一性的,是书面语产生的基础书面语:写的字;第二性,在口语的基础上,加工提炼而成;第二节语言符号和语言结构1.语言符号必须同时具有表示具体意义的物质实体(红绿灯)和物质实体所表示的特定意义(红灯停绿灯行);2.语言的符号特性:能指和所指、约定和任意、不变和可变;1)能指和所指(口诀:能声所意)能指:把语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音称为“能指”;所指:把语言符号中有特定声音表示的意义称为“所指”;2)约定和任意约定:人为的规定任意:符号表示意义没有必然联系,只需人人都认定或气就行3)不变和可变可变性的根本原因在于任意性3.语言的结构特性:线性和离散、组合和聚合、层次和层级1)线性和离散:构成语言结构的基础条件;线性:语言符号只能一个一个按工夫顺序成一条线排列;离散性:语言符合可以分解还原成一个一个的符号(词);2)组合和聚合组合:哪一个成分在前、哪一个成分在后的结构特征;(又叫句法功用)聚合:同一类成分可以相互替换的结构特性;3)层次和层级层次:一个小单位内部的成分组合叫做“层次”;(语素组合成词、词组合成词组、词组组合成句子)层级:各个小单位之间的联系叫做“层级”;(词和词一级的内在分别)第三节研究语言的科学1.学科研究的方向分类:本体研究、语言与心理、语言和使用;1)本体研究:对语音、语汇、语法、语义的研究;2)语言与心理研究:语言和心理之间的关系和相互影响;3)语言与应用研究:语言学和信息处理,把理论在实践中的运用;2.语言与哲学1)“名无固宜,约之以命,约定俗成谓之宜……”出自XXX的《正名篇》;2)“小学”包括:《文字学》、《音韵学》、《训诂学》;3.语言研究1)XXX的《通俗语言学教程》提出了“结构主义语言学”“能指和所指”,是结构语言学的奠基人;2)XXX:北美结构主义学家,间接成分分析法;3)乔姆斯基的“转换生成语法”,包括普遍语法、句法自治等观点;第二章语言的物质载体——语音第一节语音概说1.语音:“人说话的声音”,更严格地说,语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。

语言学概论经典复习笔记(全)

语言学概论经典复习笔记(全)

第一章.语言学的对象和任务1. 什么是语言功能角度的定义语言是人类最重要的交际和交流思想的工具。

信息论角度的定义语言是信息的载体和传播信息的媒介。

认知科学角度的定义语言是认知的工具汉语名词性偏正结构的表达顺序:用偏正结构表达两个物体的空间关系,采用“参照物——目的物”的认知顺序是汉语的一种优势语序。

这是汉语名词性偏正结构的表达原则,反映了汉语“由大到小”的表达习惯。

2. 什么是语言学定义语言学是研究语言规律的科学,使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识语言的起源A. .“神授说”基督教<圣经>关于人类语言起源的传说: <圣经>解释: 上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果.B.“摹声说”。

古希腊哲学家柏拉图Plato早在公元前5世纪就提出了这种理论。

他认为,名称不过是它所表示的事物的声音的模拟。

这是一种朴素的唯物主义观点,它把语言的起源归结为客观世界的产物。

十八世纪德国的赫德尔发展了这一观点。

他认为,在原始社会,人们为了表达想要表达的各种动物对象,模仿那种动物的发声,比如拟声词。

C.“感叹说”。

古希腊哲学家伊壁鸠鲁(Epicurus, 公元前341~前270年)是其代表人物这种理论认为,原始人的感情冲动、受到惊恐后发出的喊叫等,也就是出于内心和外来的感受而发出的声音逐渐发展为感叹词,最终形成了语言。

D.“号子说”。

19世纪的法国哲学家努阿尔认为,原始人在集体劳动时会发出“咳哟”、“啊哈”等声音,以协调劳动的一致性,大致相当于今天的劳动号子,这就形成语言最初的成分——动词。

E.“劳动说”。

恩格斯首先提出来的。

恩格斯认为:一方面“劳动的发展必然促使社会成员更紧密地互相结合起来因为它使互相帮助和共同协作的场合增多了,并且使每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处。

另一方面,劳动还使人的发音器官和大脑发达起来。

这些都是语言诞生的必要条件。

3语文学A 定义:为注解古代经典(如政治、哲学、历史、文学等经典作品),而对其中的文字\词汇\语法所作的研究.语文学是经学的附庸,没有把语言作为独立的学科研究. 又叫“前语言学”.印度宗教经典梵语:语音、语法研究西欧(希腊-罗马)古典拉丁文:语法、修辞、逻辑中国先秦典籍:汉字形音义研究三个重要的传统古印度巴尼尼<梵语语法>古希腊-罗马底奥尼修<希腊语法> 瓦罗《论拉丁语》中国“小学”中国第一部语法专著马建忠《马氏文通》(1898)采用的也是拉丁语的体系。

语言学概论详细笔记

语言学概论详细笔记

语言学概论详细笔记-CAL-FENGHAI-(2020YEAR-YICAI)_JINGBIAN语言学概论目录目录 ................................................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

导言.................................................................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

一、语言学的对象和任务 ....................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

二、语言学的分类和分支学科................................................................ 错误!未定义书签。

三、语言学的功用 ................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

第一章语言的社会功能................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

第一节语言的社会功能 ........................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

一、语言和说话的关系 .................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)

语言学概论(00541)知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学(一)语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言,这种说法(不正确)2.一般而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言,不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。

语言不是识别民族的可靠标志(二)语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立语言的(谱系分类)2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是(德语),都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化,可以分为分析性语言即(孤立语)和形态语即(屈折语、黏着语)4.汉语属于(分析性语言/孤立语),没有丰富的形态变化,主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的(屈折语),日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于(黏着语)(三)“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是(明确语言学的研究对象)2.(语言)是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统,是社会的,如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.(言语)是具体的、无限的、个人的,如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”(四)“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言,任何一种语言都有口头存在形式,它是书面语产生的基础。

2.书面语:是用文字记录的语言形式,是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的,书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。

3.书面语与口语基本一致,但不是口语绝对忠实的记录,也不是口语的机械记录和重复。

(五)“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是(语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语)2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为(能指),符号所指的意义内容是(所指)3.语言符号的能指是(语音),语言符号的所指是(意义)4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是(索绪尔)5.能指和所指的关系是(不可分割)的,一旦分开,语言符号就不存在了。

(六)“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思,红灯和“停”之间的关系是(约定的)2.语言符号的任意性是指(语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系),即:声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系,在语言符号产生之初,它的声音和意义的结合是任意的,是由社会约定俗成的,它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的(任意性)4.语言符号的强制性是指(个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号)(七)“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征:语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记语言学概论一、语言发展的历史1、古代语言学古中国、古印度、古希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。

中国——“小学”:以文言为研究对象,围绕阅读先秦典籍的需要,人们抓住汉字,分析它的形体,讲求它的古代读音和意义,形成文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学,统称“小学”。

印度——记载宗教典籍的梵语为研究对象,《吠陀经》希腊——以拉丁文为研究对象2、现代意义下的语言学(1)近代语言学历史比较语言学:又称“比较语法”,通过语言亲属关系的比较,拟测它们的共同母语。

历史比较语言学是在十九世纪逐步发展和完善的,主要是印欧语系的历史比较。

它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑、格林施莱赫尔是历史比较语言学的代表人物。

这一阶段最具代表性的语言学。

(2)现代语言学结构主义语言学:奠定现代语言学基础的是:(德国)洪堡特兴起于20世纪三十年代现代语言学真正从(瑞士)索绪尔开始,代表作《普通语言学教程》(1916年出版)。

他被称作“现代语言学之父”。

他所创建的语言学被称为“结构主义语言学”。

在他的影响下,语言学得到迅速发展,出现了许多流派,代表性的有:布拉格学派(音位学—语音)欧美结构主义学派哥本哈根学派(符号学)美国描写学派(3)当代语言学转换生成语言学:代表人物:乔姆斯基他的转换生成语言学是当代语言学中最具影响的理论。

1957年《句法结构》的发表标志着它的诞生。

强调从认知学角度对人类语言共性进行解释,区分先天的语言能力和后天的语言知识,认为语言有生成能力。

二、语言学在科学体系中的地位(论述题——书p4)语言学既是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学;语言学既与社会科学有密切的关系,也与自然科学有密切的关系。

在整个科学体系中的占有重要的地位。

运用语言进行交际的过程,用信息论术语来说,大体上可分为:“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”(填空)五个阶段。

三、语言学的分科理论语言普通语言学(一般语言学):它是语言学的重要理论部分,是人们在对各种具体语言的研究成果的基础上建立起来的,同时对专语语言学的研究具有指导作用,可以说是人类研究语言成果的综合反映和运用。

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记

第三章语音第一节语音概说一、语音的性质和特点1. 性质:语音即语言的声音,是语言符号系统的物质载体,是语言符号的形式。

它由人的发音器官发出,负载着一定的语言意义,能起到社会交际的作用。

2. 特点:自然性(不同于其他符号系统);社会性;系统性;民族性。

二、语音的属性及单位1. 语音的属性1.1自然属性:语音作为语言的物质外壳,必然有其自然属性。

(1)生理属性:语音由人的发音器官发出,这是语音的生理属性。

发音学研究语音的发音原理和过程。

(2)物理属性:语音也是一种声音,发出后在介质中以音波的形式传递,这是语音物理属性。

音响学研究语音的种种物理表现。

(3)心理属性:语音能被人感知和理解,这是语音的心理属性。

听觉语音学研究语音感知过程及大脑处理语音的机制。

1.2社会属性:语言是人类最重要的交际工具,语音作为其物质外壳,必然有社会性。

(1)与语义的结合由社会约定俗成,离开了社会的约定俗成,就没有语言的产生,也就,没有语音的存在。

一个意义可以用不同的语音形式表示,同一个音也可以表示不同的意义。

(2)语音具有民族性和地域性。

a.不同语言有不同的音位系统。

同一个音素,有的语言使用,有的语言不使用;同样两个音素,有的语言区分意义,有的语言不区分。

b.不同的语言对语音物理属性有不同的利用情况。

2. 语音单位2.1 音素:音素是最小的语音单位,是从音色角度划分的。

可分为元音和辅音。

2.2 音位:一个语音系统中能够区别意义的最小语音单位。

2.3 音节:有音素(或音位)构成的语音片段,是听话时自然感到的最小的语音单位。

(1)音节的基本类型开音节:以元音结尾的音节。

闭音节:以辅音结尾的音节。

(2)汉语音节的构成:声母,韵母,声调※四呼:汉语韵母按开头的元音发音口型可分为开口呼、齐齿呼、合口呼、撮口呼。

开口呼为没有韵头而以/a/、/o/、/e/为主要元音的韵母;齐齿呼以/i/为主要元音或介音;合口呼以/u/为主要元音或介音;撮口呼以/y/为主要元音或介音。

语言学概论复习重点整理

语言学概论复习重点整理

语言学概论复习重点整理语言学是研究语言的科学,是人类学科中的重要分支之一。

它探讨语言的构成、发展、使用、习得等方面的问题。

在语言学的学习中,有几个重点需要重点关注和复习,包括语言的定义与特点、语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。

一、语言的定义与特点语言可以定义为人类交流思想和感情的工具,它具有符号性、产生性、传递性和交际性等特点。

符号性是指语言以音、形、色、势等形式来表达,具有特定的语音、文字等符号。

产生性是指语言是人类天生具备的能力,可以随意创造和组合新的语言表达。

传递性是指语言是为了交流而产生的,可以传递信息和意义。

交际性是指语言是社会交往的工具,是人类社会生活的基础。

二、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、组织、传播和知觉等问题。

语音由音段和音素组成,音段是语言中的基本音单位,而音素则是语音学上对音段的理论抽象。

语音学重点研究了语音的发音和声音的特征,包括元音、辅音、音节结构、音位等内容。

三、语法学语法学研究语言的结构和规则,包括句子的构成、词汇的分类和句子的句法规则等。

语法学可以分为句法学、词法学和语法规则等方面的研究。

句法学研究句子的结构和组成,包括词语的层次、短语的组成和句子的句法规则。

词法学研究词汇的构成和分类,包括名词、动词、形容词等的形态学特点和语义学特征。

四、语义学语义学研究语言的意义和语义关系,研究词汇的意义、句子的意义和语义关系的表达方式等。

语义学包括词汇语义学和句子语义学两个方面的内容。

词汇语义学研究词汇的意义和词汇之间的关系,包括语义原理、词汇关系等。

句子语义学研究句子的意义和句子之间的关系,包括句子的逻辑关系、语义角色等。

五、语用学语用学研究语言使用的实际情况,分析语言使用者之间的交际行为和交际行为产生的效果等。

语用学主要研究语言的使用环境、语言行为的目的、语言行为的影响等方面的问题。

例如,研究语言中的礼貌用语、谈话中的暗示和推理、言语行为的意义和效果等。

六、其他相关内容除了以上几个重点内容外,还有一些其他与语言学相关的内容也值得复习和关注。

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点一、名词解释:历史语言学:主要用历史的方法研究某种语言的短期的和长期的变化规律,如汉语史、英语史。

共时语言学:研究语言在某一时期的相对静止的情况,如现代汉语。

普通语言学:研究对象是人类语言,着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律,也叫一般语言学。

隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为施事与动作,动作与受事的关系等。

隐性形式:从微观角度看,句法结构的外部形式具有层次性。

这种层次性不能从外表一眼看出来,需要我们从小到大或从大到小地分析。

显性形式:从宏观上看,句法结构外部形式是线条性,我们把它叫显性形式。

语言学:是研究语言的科学。

语言学家研究的只是经过语言学家主观概括和不同程度上理想化和简单化了的语言。

符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

“符号”必然包括有任何情况下永远不可分割的两个方面,一个方面是物质的实体,另一个方面是约定俗成的意义。

“能指”:是索绪尔给语言符号的物质实体创制的一个专门的术语。

也就是能够指称某种意义的成分。

“所指”:是索绪尔给符号所指的意义内容创制的一个专门术语,也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。

语音:虽是一种声音,但又与一般的声音有着本质的区别。

它是由人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。

音素:是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。

根据音质的不同,对一串语音不断加以切分,直到不能切分为止,这样得到的语音就是“音素”。

标写语音的书面符号叫做“音标”。

“音位”:就是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。

“音质音位”和“非音质音位”:音位从构成材料上看,可以分为音质音位和非音质音位。

以音素为材料,通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位叫“音质音位”。

语音中除音质外,音高、音强、音长也能起这种作用,因此也构成音位。

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论读书笔记第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。

2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。

口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。

书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。

3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。

就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。

第二节语言的性质句子是最小的交际单位。

2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。

4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。

5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。

它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。

6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。

7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。

即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。

8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。

人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。

语言学概论蓝纯笔记整理

语言学概论蓝纯笔记整理

语言学概论蓝纯笔记整理语言学概论笔记(第一章第一章:语言和语言学一、识记内容。

1、口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。

2、书面语:文字出现以后,语言的第二种客观存在形式。

3、符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

4、能指:语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。

5、所指:也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。

6、聚合关系:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类。

7、组合关系:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。

8、语言学:是研究语言的科学。

9、普通语言学:语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。

10、理论语言学:把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。

11、应用语言学:把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。

12、传统语言学:一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学,特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。

13、结构主义语言学:索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”,至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”,往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学,那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派,并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。

二、领会内容(不用识记,大体知道即可)1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。

答:人要说话所需要的因素:生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。

人要接受语言所需要的因素:组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题;发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力;复杂的生理和物理问题。

总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码。

语言学概论的读书笔记

语言学概论的读书笔记

语言学概论的读书笔记语言学概论的读书笔记篇1标题:语言学概论语言学是一门研究人类语言的科学,它涵盖了从语言的起源、发展、结构、功能到使用等各个方面。

这门课程由三位教授分别授课,他们从各自的研究领域出发,深入浅出地介绍了语言学的基础知识。

首先,王教授从语言的起源讲起,带领我们探讨了语言的本质和功能。

他认为,语言是一种社会现象,是人们交流思想和信息的工具。

通过深入浅出的解释和生动的例子,他让我们理解了语言的基本概念和语言习得的过程。

他还详细阐述了语言的功能,包括表达意义、社交互动、文化传承等。

接下来,李教授介绍了语言的分类和多样性。

他从全球视野出发,阐述了不同语言之间的差异和相似之处。

他强调了语言与文化的关系,认为每种语言都承载着一种独特的文化传统和价值观。

他还介绍了全球的语言政策和文化多样性保护等问题。

最后,张教授探讨了语言的结构和语法。

他从语音、词汇、语法等方面详细阐述了语言的构成要素。

他通过对比不同语言的语法结构,阐述了语言结构的发展和变化规律。

他还强调了语言习得和语言智能等方面的话题。

在这门课程中,我学习到了许多关于语言的知识和理论。

我对语言学这门学科有了更深入的了解,也对语言的功能和多样性有了更全面的认识。

同时,这门课程也让我认识到语言的重要性,以及保护和传承语言文化的意义。

总的来说,这门课程让我对语言学有了更深入的了解,也为我未来的学习和职业发展提供了有益的启示。

我相信,这门课程的知识和理论将会对我未来的学习和职业发展产生积极的影响。

语言学概论的读书笔记篇2语言学概论:探索人类沟通的奥秘在我阅读《语言学概论》这本书的过程中,我深感语言学是一门既深奥又有趣的学科。

它研究人类沟通的符号系统,从微观的语音学和句法学,到宏观的方言学和民族语学,涵盖了语言从发音到语法再到语义的各个方面。

本书的作者对语言学的基本概念和理论进行了深入浅出的介绍,包括语音、音韵、语法、语义、方言、语言习得等。

作者以清晰、简洁的语言,将复杂的理论娓娓道来,使我对语言学有了更深入的理解。

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《. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties ofhuman language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo wor ds, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or m ore transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, languageis analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those tha t has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by .is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now a nd there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to thelistener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”infunctions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,, language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. , representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language . “How are you” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insin cere iftaken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, ., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to and ’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, ., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to ’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have t his function as well, ., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own a ttitudes.is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, ., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well (see ’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, .is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the languagestructure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics,psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachroni c). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language,writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high”(literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. (2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point ofview than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.is linguistic potential What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or thepotential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree In what way do they differ And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see . Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actualutterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on thehearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, , z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed“labial-velar”.is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, .,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, .[I,].is IPA When did it come into beingThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”,is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.is phonology What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in , is the branch oflinguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.is a phone What is a phoneme What is an allophone(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” i s a phonological unit; it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So th e different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.are minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They areidentical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the asp iratedEnglish plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the w ords “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.is the assimilation rule What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It ma y be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar)。

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