石油化工类院校Advanced Space Technology for Oil Spill Detection—毕业设计文献翻译_英文原版+中文翻译

(中文翻译从第11页开始，1——10页为英文原版）希望能帮到那些做毕业设计时为文献翻译而惆怅的童鞋们Advanced Space Technology for Oil Spill DetectionMaral H. Zeynalova, Rustam B. Rustamov and Saida E. SalahovaAbstract Environmental pollution, including oil spill is one of the major ecological problems. Negative human impacts demands to develop appropriate legislations within the national and international framework for marine and coastal environment as well as the onshore protection. Several seas, for instance the Mediterranean, the Baltic and the North Seas were declared as special areas where ship discharges are completely prohibited (Satellite Monitoring, LUKOIL).In this regard environmental protection of the Caspian Sea has a priority status for Azerbaijan as a closed water basin ecosystem. This area, as a highly sensitive area in the World requires permanent ecological monitoring services where oil and gas from the subsurface of the Caspian Sea is developing almost more than a century. This status of the Caspian Sea is expected to be retention at least for the coming fifty years.Remote sensing is a key instrument for successful response to the onshore and offshore oil spills impacts. There is an extreme need for timely recognition of the oil spilled areas with the exact place of location, extent of its oil contamination and verification of predictions of the movement and fate of oil slicks.Black Sea region is expected to have a dramatic increase in the traffic of crud e oil (mainly from the Caspian region). The main reason for these changes is the growth of oil industry in both Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan. The real substantial changes in tanker movements and routs are not clear till now.A necessity for a continuous observation of the marine environment comes afore when clarifying the tendencies of changes in the concentration of the particularly dangerous polluting substances as well as the behavior of different kinds of polluting substances in the detected area i.e., creation of a system for monitoring the pollution (L.A. Stoyanov and G.D. Balashov, UNISPACE III, Varna, Bulgaria).The exploration of geological and oil production started in the shelf of the Caspian Sea a long time ago. The Caspian Sea is a highly sensitive region on ecological and biodiversity point of view. Oil dumps and emergency oil spill have an extremely badinfluence on the marine and earth ecosystem and can lead to the ecological balance.Certainly the general issue of oil and gas pipeline safety includes aspects of natural disasters and problems related to the environment. After successful construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and Baku-Tbilisi-Erzrum gas pipeline these aspects especially became very important for Azerbaijan and definitel y, for the region. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Export Pipeline comprises a regional crude oil export transportation system, approximately 1750 in overall length.Generally, oil spill monitoring in the offshore and onshore is carried out by means of specially equipped airborne, ships and satellites. Obviously, daylights and weather conditions limit marine and aerial surveillance of oil spills.Keywords Space technology. Space image. Oil spil DetectionIntroductionGenerally, oil spillage is categorized into four groups: minor, medium, major and disaster. Minor spill neither takes place when oil discharge is less than 25 barrels in inland waters nor less than 250 barrels on land, the offshore or coastal waters that does nor pose a threat to the public health or welfare. In case of the medium spill the spill must be 250 barrels or less in the inland water or from 250 to 2 500 barrels on land, offshore and coastal water while for the major spill, the discharge to the inland waters is in excess of 250 barrels on land, offshore or coastal waters. The disaster refers to any uncontrolled well blowout, pipeline rupture or storage tank failure which poses an immediate threat to public health or welfare.Satellite-based remote sensing equipment installed in the satellite is used for monitoring, detecting and identifying sources of accidental oil spills. Remote sensing devices include the use of infrared, video and photography from airborne platforms. In the mean time presently a number of systems like air borne radar, laser fluorescence, microwave radiometer, SAR, ERS 1, ERS 2, ENVISAT and LANDSAT satellite systems are applied for the same purposes. Currently more than a dozen satellites are in the orbit producing petabytes of data daily. Detailed description of these satellites, major characteristics of sensors can be summarized as follows:●Spatial resolution of sensors ranges from 1 meter (e.g. IKONOS) to several kilo-meters (e.g. GEOS)●Satellite sensors commonly use visible to near-infrared, infrared and microwaveportions of electromagnetic spectrum;●Spectral resolution of satellite data ranges from single band (Radarsat) to multibands (e.g. MODIS with 36 bands)●Temporal resolution (repeat time) varies from several times a day (e.g. Meteosat)●The majority of satellites are sun synchronous and polar orbiting, crossing the equator at around 10 a.m. local time during theirdescending pass●Digital data are available in both panchromatic (black and white) and multi- spectral modesUsing the recent advanced space technology, the following methodology can be applied for the oil spills detections:●Development of oil spill detection methods for the purpose of practical oil spill surveillance related to the space imagery withapplication of any weather conditions;●Adaptation of the observation to other systems to predict the oil spill spread direction and flow rate characteristics, determ inationthe pollutant contaminations;●Development of appropriate data and user interfaceThere is a need for effectively direct spill countermeasures such as mechanical containment and recovery, dispersant application and burning, protection of sites along threatened coastlines and the preparation of resources for the shoreline clean-up.As it is mentioned in the beginning, the remote sensing is one of the main methods for an effective response to the oil spills environmental monitoring. Timely response to an oil spill requires rapid investigation of the spill site to determine its exact location, extent of oil contamination, oil spill thickness, in particular.Policy makers, managers, scientists and the public can view the changing environment using the satellite images. Remote sensing is the discipline of observing the Earth’s surface without direct contact with the objects located a t the surface. It allows obtaining information about the planet and human activities from a distance which can reveal interesting features that may not be possible or affordable from the ground level. One of the applications of remote sensing is water and coastal resources. It is essential to undertake the following aspects while using the remote sensing method:●Determination of surface water areas●Monitoring the environmental effects of human activities;●Mapping floods and flood plains;●Determination of the extent of snow and ice;●Measuring glacial features;●Mapping shoreline changes;●Tracing oil and pollutions.The fact that remote sensing allows multi-temporal analysis is also very important. This means that an area of interest can be monitored over time so that changes can be detected. It allows analyzing phenomena like vegetation growth during different seasons, the extent of annual floods, the retreat of glaciers or the spread of forest fires or oil spills (Vhenenye Okoro, 2004).Remote sensing is a useful method in several modes of oil spill control, including a large scale area of surveillance ability,specific site monitoring and advantages of technical and technological assistance in emergency cases. There is a significant capacity of providing essential information to enhance strategic and tactical decision-making, decreasing response costs by facilitating rapid oil recovery and ultimately minimizing impacts.Observation can be undertaken visually or by using remote sensing systems. In remote sensing, a sensor other than human vision or conventional photography is used to detect or map oil spills.Oil Spill DetectionOil production and transportation is started on the offshore “Azeri – Chiraq –Guneshli” oilfield, located at the Azerbaijani sector of the Caspian Sea. Therefore development and implementation of onshore and offshore oil spill monitoring and detection are highly important for the Caspian Sea basin countries. Figure 1 shows the overall map of the Caspian Sea region countries.Oil statistics of the major Caspian Sea oil producing countries are presented in Table 1.For visual observations of oil spill from the air using the video photography are the simplest, most common and convenient method of determining the location and extent (scale and size) of an oil spill. There are a number of sensors on surveillance of the sea surface:●Microwave radiometers which allow the determination of the oil thickness;●Ultraviolet and infrared scanners which allow to detect respectively very thin and very thick o il films;●Laser fluorescence sensors which allow the determination of oil type.Fig. 1 Overall map of the Caspian Sea region countriesApplication of remote sensing method for spilled oil can be discovered using a helicopter, particularly over near-shore waters where their flexibility is an advantage along intricate coasting with cliffs, coves and islands. For the spill response efforts to be focused on the most significant areas of the spill, it is important to take into consideration relative and heaviest concentrations of oil. Geographical positioning systems (GPS) or other available aircraft positioning systems creates a positive environment for localization of the oil location. Photography, particularly digital photography is also a useful instrument as a recording tool. It allows viewing the situation on return to base. Many other devices operating in the visible spectrum wavelength, including the conventional video camera are available at a reasonable cost. Dedicated remote sensing aircraft often have built-in downward looking cameras linked with a GPS to assign accurate geographic coordinates.In the open ocean spills show a less need for rapid changes in flying speed, direction and altitude, in these instances the us e of low altitude, fixed-wing aircraft proved to be the most effective tactical method for obtaining information about spills and assisting in spill response.Oil spill detection is still performed mainly by visual observation which is limited to favorable sea and atmospheric conditions and any operation in rain, fog or darkness is eliminated. Visual observations are restricted to the registration of the spill because there is no mechanism for positive oil detection. Very thin oil sheens are also difficult to detect especially in mist y or other conditions that limit vision.Oil is difficult to discover in high seas and among debris or weeds where it can blend in to dark backgrounds such as water, soil or shorelines. Huge naturally occurring substances or phenomena can be mistaken for spilled oil. These include sun glint, wind shadows and wind sheens, biogenic or natural oils from fish and plants, glacialflour (finely, ground mineral material usually from glaciers) and oceanic or revering fronts where two different bodies of water meet. The usefulness of visual observations is limited, however, it is an economical way to document spills and provide baseline data on the extent and movement of the spilled oil.Estimation of the quantity of oil observed at sea is the main issue for the detection of the oil spill. Observers are generally able to distinguish between sheen and thicker patches of oil. However gauging the oil thickness and coverage is not always easy and it can be more difficult if the sea is rough. It is essential to view all such est imates with considerable caution.Purpose of the remote sensing equipment mounted in aircraft is increasingly used to monitor, detect and identify sources of illegal marine discharges and to monitor accidental oil spills. Remote sensing devices except infrared video and photography from airborne platforms, thermal infrared imaging, airborne laser fluourosensors, airborne and satellite optical sensors use satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Advantages of SAR sensors over optical ones is their ability to provide data in poor weather conditions and during darkness. Remote sensing method operates detecting properties of the surface such as color, reflectance, temperature or roughness of the area. Spilled oil can be detected on the surface when it modifies one or more of these properties. Cameras relying on visible light are widely used and may be supplemented by airborne sensors which detect oil outside the visible spectrum and are thus able to provide additional information about the oil. The most commonly applied combinations of sensors include Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) and downward-looking thermal infrared and ultraviolet detectors or imaging systems.A number of remote sensors placed on Earth observation satellites can also detect spilled oil as well. Optical observation of spilled oil by the satellite requires clear skies, thereby limits the usefulness of such system. SAR is not restricted by the presence of cloud, thus it is a more useful tool. However with radar imagery, it is quite difficult to be certain if an anomalous feature on a satellite image is caused by the presence of oil. Consequently, radar imagery from SAR requires expert interpretation by suitably trained and qualified personnel to avoid other features being mistaken for oil spills. However, there is a growing interest of developing SAR to deploy on satellite platforms. Oil on the sea surface dampens some of the small capillary waves that normally are present on clean seas. These capillary waves reflect radar energy producing a “bright” area in radar imagery known as sea clutter. The presence of an oil slick can be detected as a “dark” area or one with the absence of sea clutter. Unfortunately, oil slicks are not the only phenomena that can be detected in similar manner. There are many other interferences including fresh water slick, calm areas (wind slicks), wave shadows behind land or structures, vegetation or weed beds that calm the water just above them, glacial flour, biogenic oils and whale and fish sperm. SAR satellite imagery showed that several false signals are present in a large number of scenes (Bern et al., 1993; Wahl et al., 1993). Despite these limitations, radar is an important tool for oil spill remote sensing since it is the only sensor capable of searching large areas. Radars, as active sensors operating in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum are one of the few sensors that can detect at night and through clouds or fog (Schnick S, InSAR and LIDAR, 2001).Oil Spill Monitoring and Data DevelopmentThe Method of Oil Spill MonitoringDue to the operation of the oilfield “Azeri – Chirag –Guneshli” (ACG), located in the Azerbaijani sector of the Caspian Sea oil production was increased. From the beginning of 1997 development of ACG up to December, 1st, 2006 Azerbaijan International Operating Company (AIOC) could extract a crude oil from interior of the Caspian Sea already 81,25 million tons of oil where oilfield “Chirag” produced 51,06 million tons.The pipeline will extend the capacity and as a result of this it is a need of creating a reliable monitoring system for the more sensitive areas with the greatest oil spill risk.Exploration work and oil production began on the Caspian Sea shelf a long time ago. The Caspian Sea is characterized by an extreme ecological sensitivity and a high biodiversity. Oil damps and emergency of oil spill are an extremely bad influence for the offshore and onshore ecosystems of Absheron peninsula and can lead to an ecological disturbance.Aerial surveys of large areas of the sea to check the presence of oil spills are limited to daylight hours in good weather conditions. Satellite imagery can help greatly in identifying oil spills on water surface.The current challenge to remote sensing and GIS-based investigations is to combine data from the past and the present in order to predict the future. In the meantime it is likely that a long term or integrative study will combine remote sensing data from different sources. This requires a calibration between remote sensing technologies. Discrepancies in post-launch calibrations of certain remote sensing devices may cause artifacts such as surface area change, and so may the shift from one remote sensing source to another. However, it is possible to integrate cartographic and multi-source remote sensing data into a homogeneous time series.Remote sensing plays an integral role in environmental assessment. Remote sensing will never replace the field work and observations but it offers a great support in huge areas as follows:●Remote and difficult access areas like dense forests, glaciated areas, swamps, high elevation, etc;●Areas undergoing rapid changes;●Countries with poor infrastructure and limited transportation;●Areas of active natural hazards and disasters: flooded areas, active volcanic regions, forest fires, earthquake and landslidehazardous areas, etc;●Construction of a broad overview or a detailed map of a large area.Remote sensing techniques can increase the speed in which one can analyze a landscape and therefore help make quick and focused decisions.Among the available remote sensing technologies producing high spatial resolution data, aerial photography was superior to space-borne data, despite the higher spectral resolution of the latter. However, digital air-borne multi-spectral imagery such as theCompact Air-Borne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) is at least as accurate as aerial photography for the same purpose and it is less expensive to obtain and therefore more cost effective. It is also important to proceed in the eva luation of new scientific application of more common imaging techniques such as video and photography from low-flying aircrafts. In space-borne remote sensing, the IKONOS satellite was the first one to challenge the very high spatial resolution (1 m resolution) data obtained from air-borne remote sensing technology. The EROS satellite has a spatial resolution of 1.8 m but no multi-spectral capability. However,its future sensors are reported to generate multi-spectral combined with a spatial resolution of 0.82 m. In the mean time imagery, the QUICKBIRD satellite leads the quality list of optical remote sensing with panchromatic imagery of 0.70 m spatial resolution and multi-spectral imagery of 3 m spatial resolution (W. Ziring et al.,Earth Mapping Information, 2002).Required ParametersSpatial resolution requirements are various but it is necessary to consider even for massive oil spills. It is well known that spills at sea from windrows with widths are often less than 10 m. A spatial resolution is greater than it is required to detect these spills. Furthermore, when considering oil spills, information is often required on a relatively short timescale to be useful to spill response personnel. The spatial and temporal requirements for oil spills depend on what use would be given to the data. Table 2 estimates spatial and time requirements for several oil tasks (Brown and Mervin, Ottawa, Canada).At present time such opportunities are available on board the European Space Agency’s ENVISAT (radar ASAR) and ERS-2 satellites and the Canadian Space Agency’s RADARSAT satellite.Oil spillage on the water surface forms oil sheen. When oil is forming a thin layer on the sea surface it will damp the capillary waves. Due to the difference in backscatter signals from the surface covered by oil and areas with the lack of oil, radar satellites may detect oil spill sheens at the sea surface. Oil spills on radar images can be characterized by following parameters:●form (oil pollution are characterized the simple geometrical form);●edges (smooth border with a greater gradient than oil sheen of natural origin);●sizes (greater oil sheen usually are slicks of natural origins);●eographical location (mainly oil spills occur in oil production areas or ways of oil transportation).Besides an oil spillage area scanning of sheen thickness allows to define the quantity of the spilled oil. Depending on the temperature of water, properties of oil (viscosity, density) thickness of oil spill layer will be different. A critical gap in responding to oil spills is the present lack of capability to measure and accu- rately map the thickness of spilled oil on the water surface. There are no operational sensors, currently available that provide absolute measurement of oil thickness on the surface of water. A thickness sensor would allow spill countermeasures to be effectively directed to the thickest portions of the oil slick. Some infrared sensors have the ability to measure relative oil thickness. Thick oil appears hotter than the surrounding water during daytime. Composite images of an oil slick in both ultraviolet and infrared sensors showed able to show relative thickness in various areas with the thicker portions mapped in infrared and the thin portions mapped in ultraviolet.Oil spills on the sea surface are detectable by imaging radars, because they damp the short surface waves that are responsible for the radar backscattering. The oil spills appear as a dark patches on radar images. However, natural surface films often encountered in the coastal regions with biological activity also damp the short surface waves and thus also give rise to dark patches on radar images. Whereas, the shape can identify oil spills. Furthermore, remote sensing can be in use of initializing and validating models that describe the drift and dispersion of oil spills.Figure 2 shows an example of oil spill of the Absheron peninsula oil spill taken by ENVISAT ASAR. This figure reflects a necessity of the permanent monitoring of the Caspian Sea for more sensitive areas.Fig. 2 ENVISAT ASAR image in the Caspian Sea near the Absheron peninsula for oil spill due to the offshore oil productionUnderwater stream and wind transfers the oil placed on the sea surface. Oil moving speed makes approximately 60% from the underwater stream speed and 2–4% from the wind speed (Sh. Gadimova, Thailand, 2002). The following demonstrates disadvantages of the radar satellite images:●in some cases signatures of oil spill are difficult to distinguish a biogenic origin and other sea phenomena;●presence of wind have an essential influence on oil spill definition on the water surface.At a gentle breeze (0–3.0 m/s), the water surface looks dark on radar images. In this case oil sheens merge with a darkback ground of the sea and identification of pollution becomes impossible. The speed of wind between 3–11 m/s is a sufficient suitable case for identification of oil spills, slicks seem a dark on a light water surface. In the high speed of a wind oil spill identification will be inconvenient as they disappear from images owing to mixing with the top layer of water.For more optimum monitoring of sea oil spill is recommended to carry out the following:(i) analysis of sea surface currents;(ii) analysis of the information about the sea level, wave height and wind speed;(iii) analysis of the meteorological information, allowing to estimate speed and direction of a spot.Figure 3 shows southern of the Caspian Sea at the Volga estuary. This river carries a heavy load of pollutants originating from fertilizers washed out from agricultural fields and from industrial and municipal plants. They serve as nutrients for the marine organisms which experience a rapid growth and then generate biogenic surface slicks. The oceanic eddies which become visible on the radar images because the surface slicks follow the surface currents are very likely wind-induced. The most remarkable feature on this image is the mushroom-like feature consisting of two counter-rotating eddies.This is one more example of application of space technology for environmental monitoring of the sea surface.Except foregoing mentioned areas, an application of satellite monitoring for pipelines can include below indicated problems as: ●detection of oil/gas leaking;●no authorized intrusion into a safety zone of object;●detection of failures and an estimation of ecological damage;●detection and monitoring of pipelines moving (can be caused soil substance).Table 3 demonstrates the basic parameters of used equipment for oil spill monitoringRemote Sensing Data AnalysisInvestigation of the petroleum hydrocarbons on a plot and its analysis is advisable to conduct before and after the oil spill, to characterize changes in vegetative condition through time. Figure 4 shows an example of the oil spill accident occurred due to the third party intervention.This area was used for further investigations as a spilled area indicated for a long term ecological monitoring site (David Reister et al., partnership programme)Fig. 4 Oil spilled areaAn implementation of these studies started from the collection of remotely sensed data from ground, airborne and satellite and the results of all information were combined.Oil spill site has a plant canopy dominated by creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) shrub land. Qualitative field investigations indicated that upper plant canopy contact with the diesel fuel was manifest as etiolation that resulted in a grey to white color of the upper canopy and a white to slight reddening of the lower canopy graminoids and litter, partial and complete defoliation of shrubs, apparent high mortality of much of the above ground phytomass, including grasses, cactiods and biological crusts and darkening of the orange-red alluvial soil. It was an evident that the spill boundary could be delineated on the bases of smell, as diesel was still volatizing from the soil. These features were still valuable evident one year after the release. It is necessary to note that the canopy dominant, creosote bush is expected to recover from the diesel spill. This aspect of plant physiology is significant for studies of resilience in desert ecosystems.Following application of the oil, vegetation damage was assessed visually via changes in leaf color and leaf fall. It showed three main time frames for injuries:●immediate●occurring during the initial growing season and●cumulative, occurring after the initial growing seasonVirtually all aboveground foliage that came into contact with the oil was quickly cleaned up. Turgidity was immediately reduced and foliage appeared dead within several days. The zone of contact was generally limited to the immediate areas and to areas of low relief in the pass of aboveground flowing oil (Jenkins et al., Arctic, 1978). In contrast, cottongrass tussock with a raised, upright growth form and species growing on areas of higher relief kept most of their aboveground biomass above the oil. These species continued to grow and flower despite their being surrounded by oil (Fig. 5)Fig. 5 Cottongrass tussock growing on spill plot despite surrounding oilThe features of vegetation and natural growth as physical and biological parameters depends of the oil spill interaction can be used a key instrument of spectral behaviors of information within the data processing of space images for linear infrastructures.ConclusionAdvances in information systems, satellites imaging systems and improvement software technologies and consequently data processing led to opportunities for a new level of information products from remote sensing data. The integration of these new products into existing response systems can provide a huge range of analysis tools and information products that were not possible in the past. For instance, with the higher resolution of the space imagery and change detection of the linear infrastructure situational awareness and damage and assessment by impact of the variety of reasons can be implemented rapidly and accurately. All this presented information sources can be valuable in the response, recovery and rehabilitation phases of the preparedness management issue.The lack of periodically observation data for satisfaction needs in oil and gas spills is the main obstacle for the mentioned problem. In this regard satellite data can be playing a significant place. For more success in this sphere spatial and non spatial data would be integrated with the geographic information system. This system has to be integrated for the regional scale covering the whole regions state around the Caspian Sea.The presented above results show a sensitivity of parameters of various vegetations to the influences of oil pollution. Such behavior opens an opportunity of use of those behaviors of vegetations for monitoring of the linear infrastructures as environmental indicators. These indicators significantly could be in use as a key instrument within the data processing and interpretation of space images for safety and security issues of the transportations of oil and gas pipeline infrastructure.At the time available technologies for successful implementation of issues related to the pipeline safety were discussed. Depends of the existed huge of problems and tasks appropriate technology as well as system can be applied and carried out for these purposesReferencesBern T-I., Wahl T. Anderssen, and R. Olsen (1993) “Oil Spill Detection Using Satellite Based Sar:Experience From A Field Experiment”, Photogrammetric Engineering And Remote Sensing, 59(3), pp. 423–428.Carl E. Brown, and F.F. Mervin, “Emergencies Science Division, Environmental Technology Cen-tre Environment Canada”, Ottawa, Canada.Dahdouh-Guebas F., Kairo J.G., Jayatissa L.P., Cannicci S., and Koedam N. (2002a) “An Ordina-tion Study To View Past, Present And Future Vegetation Structure Dynamics In Disturbed And Undisturbed Mangroves Forests In Kenya And Sri-Lanka”, Plant Ecology, 162(4).。