中英对照英国历史简介
英国中英文介绍
Britain, the whole is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, in ancient Britain is known as the "day not fall" empire is England, Scotland, wales and Northern Ireland the United Kingdom.It is a capitalist country in Western EuropeTHE British national anthem is "GOD SAVE THE Queen", which is THE translation of Chinese GOD SAVE THE Queen.And that diamonds are the country by, white heart red rose is a symbol of the country.In London, the capital of the UK takes a seat.The city of London a and economy, politics and culture in one place.Here, you can appreciate the wide of the Thames, Big Ben's majesty.Britain also has a long history, from the earliest civilizations to Roman times, and then through the medieval period, the industrial revolution, the colonial expansion, and the world war ii, has been in the present day.The UK is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.In this country, the king is the head of state, however, the real power in the cabinet, actually.Parliament is the highest judicial and regulatory institutions, by the king, under the house of lords and the house of CommonsOn the economic front, the UK is the world's one of the important economic and trade and the global financial center.He is still the world's sixth-largest economy system, is the world fastest growing economy and one of the highest living standards.Among them, the household is its export of Rolls-RoyceBritish culture is also very rich.First,the education popularity is very high, it also promoted the development of the British education.Britain's education and academic research level is currently in the world's leading position.The world-famous education have a holy land at the university of Cambridge and Oxford University.Except, of course, education, the British sports is also very rich.One of the most famous ball sport is football, rugby and cricket.Among them, the cricket is also known as "the movement of a gentleman, it is by 11 people alternating attacks by both teams and Fielding a team sport.And, the British are sports stars, David Beckham is the most typical representativeIn Britain, there are a variety of delicious.If you are in the UK, you can enjoy a hearty breakfast.The British for breakfast is very exquisite!Restaurant supply in Britain there are many different kinds of food, fruit juice, fruit, eggs, meat, wheat rice porridge, bread, jam and coffee, etc.In the popular afternoon TEA (HIGH TEA) was given from the UK, its a famous Victoria typeMore is also very suitable for living, Britain's climate is temperate maritime climate throughout the year.In Britain, is humid warm all year round.Especially suitable for living.All in all, Britain is a European country full of cultural atmosphere.If you want to learn native English and European culture, English is definitely a good choice英国英国，全程是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，在古代英国又被叫做“日不落”帝国是有英格兰苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰所组成的联合王国。
英国历史简介英文
Roman influence on Britain was limited.
First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.
Christianity to Britain • Extraordinary achievement in
building roads – “All Roads Lead to Rome” • Hadrian's Wall – England’s great wall – 2000 years ago
Conqueror. ������
On October 14, 1066
William and his army defeated the English army in the battle of Hastings.
William was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey, known as William I of England.
monarchs
Robin Hood
• England’s best-loved legend • Heroic Saxon noblemen oppressed by the Normans • ―“Merry men” robbed from the rich to
中英对照英国历史5
中英对照英国历史简介(5)在新概念英语的部分文章中涉及到了英国历史方面的知识，老师在课上限于时间，只能对相关的内容作简要的介绍，有些朋友可能觉得不够解渴。
而课下阅读大部头的英国历史书籍对非英语专业的同学来说既不现实也无必要。
因此我在博客上贴一篇中英对照的英国历史简介，既能使朋友们对英国史有个大致的了解，也是学习英语的一篇好材料。
延隆大英帝国的兴衰（公元1688-1990）（续）The Rise and Fall of the British Empire（1688-1990）（part 2）III. The Chartist Movement （1836-1848）宪章运动（1836-1848）1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.议会改革的原因（1）Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.权力由贵族操纵。
（2）Representation of town and country，and North and South was unfair.城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。
（3）There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。
2.Three Reform Bills三个改革法案Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。
a）The Reform Act of 1832 （also called the “Greater Charter of 1832）abolished ”rotten boroughs“，and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant…s，based on the value of their property.1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了“衰败选区”；在新兴城镇中较为公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。
TheUnitedKingdom英国介绍详细中英文
The United Kingdom, including Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland "and Northern Ireland, is a member of the European Community 12. Its full name is the United Kingdom.Britain is the British Isles by the majority of islands, of which the largest islands are Great Britain, the second largest island Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. The west coast of Scotland there is a large islands called the Hebrides. Native north-east coast of Scotland Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, and Samoa. Of these islands with the mainland have administrative relations, but the Irish Sea between Great Britain and the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands between France is largely autonomous and not an integral part of the United Kingdom.The United Kingdom area of approximately 242.5 thousand square kilometers (93600 square miles), from the south coast to Scotland is almost the most northern part of nearly 1,000 kilometers (about 600 miles), nearly horizontal at its widest point about 500 kilometers (about 300 miles)."Britain" the term originated in the Greek and Latin words, which may eventually be traced back to Celtic. Although the use of "Prehistoric" This yardstick to measure, the Celtics went to the British Isles is also a later (and before that had created those civilizations such as the Avebury stone circle Stonehenge construction sites and Such well-known historical monuments), but the history of written records relating to England, after all, about the Celtics from the start. "Celtic" This phrase is very common and regularly used to distinguish the early inhabitants of the British Isles and later the Anglo - Saxon invaders.The Romans ruled from AD 43 onwards lasted 300 years. The Romans in 408 before the final withdrawal of the island were from Northern Europe began to Angles, Saxons and Jutes intrusion, has undergone a period of growing chaos. "England" is the word from the "Angles" came. Over the next two centuries, and gradually became a settler harassment and the establishment of a number of small kingdom. British people in today's Wales and Cornwall Regional Independent survive. These small kingdom there was relatively strong to dominate the country's kingdom, first in the North (Northumbria Kingdom), and then in the central (the Kingdom of Mercia), and finally in the south (Wessex kingdoms). However, from the Scandinavian Vikings then invaded England and settled down, although in the 10th century Wessex dynasty, beat off the invading Danes and for a time to dominate the vast region of England.In 1066 took place on the last successful invasion of England. Duke William of Normandy in the Battle of Hastings defeated the British, the Normans from France and others come here to settle. In the ensuing three centuries, the French became the language of nobility, the legal structure has been the English Channel on the other side of the passage of that set of consequences, and social structure, to some extent been affected.Wales, though often in England within the sphere of influence, but has been a bastion of Boston. However, in the Prince Llewellyn was killed in 1282, after Edward I waged a battle and victory to put England under the rule of Wales. Welsh nationalist sentiment continues to rise, the beginning of the 15th century rebellion led by Owen Gerlind illustrated this point. In 1536 and in 1542 a joint decree to England and Wales in the administrative, political and legal integration into one.Originally lived in Scotland most of Picts. The 6th century, the Scots from Ireland to settle in today's Argyll area. Lothian home to England, while others continue to go north Wales, Britain came to Strathclyde. The 9th century, the various regions of Scotland to unite against Viking. Throughout the Middle Ages, when England's monarchy has always been a powerful threat to Scotland's independence.England and Scotland, the joint that eventually, when the religious differences of the ethnic hatred in the past than the more crucial. In England, Elizabeth I in 1603 by James VI of Scotland (James I of England) to the throne. Even so, England and Scotland in addition to Oliver Cromwell's rule was once forced to bring together, in the 17th century they have been independe nt of each other. To 1707, aware of a closer political and economic union benefits, the two sides agreed to establish a single British Parliament. Scotland retained its own legal system and religious communities. But in George I and George II of Hanover, two Protestants during the reign of the royal family of England and Scotland, the relationship between the nervous and James II, has launched two rebellions revolutionaries to try to restore the Catholic House of Stuart.Ireland before the Christian era there were many of the Kingdom, but Ireland is not immune from a violation of Viking, to the 10th century AD, when, suddenly became a Viking pre-eminence.Henry II of England in 1169 to launch the invasion of Ireland. England Ji Pope Adrian IV, Henry II granted the powers of the supreme ruler, because he was anxious to make Irish church fully compliant Rome. Fell in most parts of Ireland, Anglo - Norman power and privilege in the hands, but in medieval England, almost no direct exercise of jurisdiction in this.Tudor monarchs of several interventions in Ireland tend to be much stronger. In the reign of Elizabeth I, the Irish rebels launched a series of battles. 'Resistance Movement, mainly concentrated in the northern province of Ulster, 1607, due to the failure of the resistance movement as well as leaders of the exodus of Ulster from Scotland and England into areas inhabited by immigrants.As the English Civil War (1642 ~ 1652), Ireland was attacked by a number of uprisings, but have been Cromwell suppressed. 1688 James II was spent dim after the war between England and Ireland is constantly. 18th century, most of them are fragile peace. 18 century, the British Government has made various efforts to seek stability. In 1782, the Irish Parliament (established in the Middle Ages) to obtain legislative autonomy; in the Constitution than withBritain the only major link is to the Royal Government. However, the Parliament represents just a small number of Anglo - Irish privileged class, Catholics were excluded. In 1798 an uprising took place, but without success;in 1801, Ireland and Great Britain combined into one.Although the 1916 uprising in Dublin, the national insurrection was crushed, but in the First World War-stage, a stream known as the Irish Republican Army guerrilla forces began military action against the British authorities. In 1920 the Government of Ireland Act passed to set up two local government councils,one based in Dublin and one in Belfast. The Act was implemented in 1921 in Northern Ireland, Ulster Province, nine counties have six received their own parliament, while still have seats in the British Parliament, and subject to the jurisdiction of the British Parliament the highest. However, the Irish Republican Army continues to fight for the South to win its independence from Britain inthe fight. In June 1921 after the signing of an armistice agreement, accordingto conclude in December the same year, the British - Irish Treaty the Irish Free State was established in 1949, the Free State became the Republic of Ireland.Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, although not belonging to the United Kingdom, but have a special relationship with the United Kingdom. Channel Islands during the 10th century and 11th century part of the Duchy of Normandy. Isle of Man has been nominally in 1266 prior to the exercise of sovereignty by Norway to the 1765 final was governed directly by the Government of the Kingdom. Today, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man have their own legislative bodies and the legal system, where the British Government is responsible for defense and international relations.翻译：英国包括大不列颠(英格兰、威尔士和苏格兰〉和北爱尔兰,是欧洲共同体12个成员国之一。
中英对照英国历史简介
一、英国的起源�公元前5000年—1066年�T h e O r i g i n s o f a N a t i o n(5000B C-1066)I.E a r l y S e t t l e r s�5000B C-55B C�早期的居民�公元前5000年—公元前55年�1�T h e f i r s t k n o w n s e t t l e r s o f B r i t a i n w e r e t h e I b e r i a n s.人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。
2�A t a b o u t2000B C t h e B e a k e r F o l k a r r i v e d f r o m t h e a r e a s n o w k n o w a s H o l l a n d a n d R h i n e l a n d.约公元前2000年�从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。
3�T h e C e l t s b e g a n t o a r r i v e B r i t a i n a b o u t700B C.约公元前700年�克尔特人来到不列颠岛。
4�T h e C e l t s c a m e t o B r i t a i n i n t h r e e m a i n w a v e s.克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
1�T h e f i r s t w a v e w e r e t h e G a e l s-c a m e a b o u t600B C.第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
2�T h e s e c o n d w a v e w e r e t h e B r y t h o n s-c a m e a b o u t400B C.第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞�不列颠�人的抵达。
3�T h e t h i r d w a v e w e r e t h e B e l g a e-c a m e a b o u t150B C.第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。
英国简介中英文版
英国简介中英文版Here is an essay about the United Kingdom with over 1000 words, written in English without any additional titles or unnecessary punctuation marks.The United Kingdom is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of the European mainland. It is an island nation comprising the island of Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller surrounding islands. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and unitary parliamentary democracy. Its capital and largest city is London, which serves as the country's economic, political, and cultural center.The United Kingdom has a long and storied history dating back to the 5th century AD when various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established across the region. These kingdoms were gradually united under the rule of the English monarchy, culminating in the Act of Union in 1707 which merged the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain. The United Kingdom as it is known today was further solidified in 1801 with the Act of Union which incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland.The United Kingdom has played a pivotal role in global affairs for centuries. As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, the UK was the world's first industrialized nation and went on to build the largest empire in history, covering a quarter of the global population at its peak. The UK was a leading power in the 19th and early 20th centuries and played a central role in World War I and World War II, emerging as one of the victorious Allied powers.Today, the United Kingdom remains a major global power with a highly developed economy, significant cultural influence, and permanent membership on the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of numerous international organizations including the European Union, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7, the G20, NATO, and the OECD among others. The UK has a population of over 66 million people and is ethnically diverse, with significant immigrant populations from across the world.The geography of the United Kingdom is diverse and picturesque. The main island of Great Britain is predominantly hilly and mountainous, particularly in the north and west, with lowland areas in the east and southeast. Notable geographic features include the Pennines, the Lake District, Snowdonia, and the Scottish Highlands. The climate is generally temperate, with rainfall distributed throughout the year.The United Kingdom has a highly advanced and diversified economy. It is the sixth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. The service sector dominates the UK economy, accounting for around 80% of GDP. Key industries include financial services, information technology, the creative arts, tourism, and advanced manufacturing. The UK is a global leader in numerous industries including pharmaceuticals, aerospace, telecommunications, and renewable energy.The United Kingdom is renowned for its rich cultural heritage and contributions to the world in fields such as literature, art, music, theater, architecture, and science. It is home to numerous world-famous cultural institutions and landmarks including the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Royal Opera House, Buckingham Palace, and the Tower of London among many others. The UK has produced countless influential writers, artists, musicians, scientists, and public figures over the centuries.The political system of the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The UK has a unitary state with devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the head of state, while the Prime Minister, currently Rishi Sunak, is the head of government and leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons.The United Kingdom is known for its vibrant and diverse society. It is home to people from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds, with significant immigrant populations from former British colonies and other parts of the world. The UK has a robust system of civil liberties and human rights protections, and is considered one of the most socially progressive countries in the world on issues such as LGBTQ+ rights.In conclusion, the United Kingdom is a highly influential global power with a rich history, diverse culture, and advanced economy. As a member of numerous international organizations and a permanent member of the UN Security Council, the UK continues to play a central role in world affairs. Despite the challenges it has faced in recent years, the United Kingdom remains a dynamic and resilient nation that is deeply respected around the world.。
英国历史简介
［英国］英国简史(英文)2006-1-23页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】HistoryUntil 1707, this section deals primarily with English history. England and Wales were formally united in 1536. In 1707, when Great Britain was created by the Act of Union between Scotland and England, English history became part of British history. For the early history of Scotland and Wales, see separate articles. See also Ireland; Ireland, Northern; and the tables entitled Rulers of England and Great Britain and Prime Ministers of Great Britain.Early Period to the Norman ConquestLittle is known about the earliest inhabitants of Britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at Stonehenge and Avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric Britons. They had developed a Bronze Age culture by the time the first Celtic invaders (early 5th cent. B.C.) brought their energetic Iron Age culture to Britain. It is believed that Julius Caesar's successful military campaign in Britain in 54 B.C. was aimed at preventing incursions into Gaul from the island.In A.D. 43 the emperor Claudius began the Roman conquest of Britain, establishing bases at present-day London and Colchester. By A.D. 85, Rome controlled Britain south of the Clyde River. There were a number of revolts in the early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of Boadicea. In the 2d cent. A.D., Hadrian's Wall was constructed as a northern defense line. Under the Roman occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military occupation. These roads were the most lasting Roman achievement in Britain (see Watling Street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in England. Colchester, Lincoln, and Gloucester were founded by the Romans as colonia, settlements of ex-legionaries.Trade contributed to town prosperity; wine, olive oil, plate, and furnishings were imported, and lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool were exported. This trade declined with the economic dislocation of the late Roman Empire and the withdrawal of Roman troops to meet barbarian threats elsewhere. The garrisons had been consumers of the products of local artisans as well as of imports; as they were disbanded, the towns decayed. Barbarian incursions became frequent. In 410 an appeal to Rome for military aid was refused, and Roman officials subsequently were withdrawn.As Rome withdrew its legions from Britain, Germanic peoples〞the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes〞began raids that turned into great waves of invasion and settlement in the later 5th cent. The Celts fell back into Wales and Cornwall and across the English Channel to Brittany, and the loosely knit tribes of the newcomers gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of kingdoms (see Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria).Late in the 8th cent., and with increasing severity until the middle of the 9th cent., raiding Vikings (known in English history as Danes) harassed coastal England and finally, in 865, launched a full-scale invasion. They were first effectively checked by King Alfred of Wessex and were with great difficulty confined to the Danelaw, where their leaders divided land among the soldiers for settlement. Alfred's successors conquered the Danelaw to form a united England, but new Danish invasions late in the 10th cent. overcame ineffective resistance (see ?thelred, 965?——1016). The Dane Canute ruled all England by 1016. At the expiration of the Scandinavian line in 1042, the Wessex dynasty (see Edward the Confessor) regained the throne. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy (William I of England), ended the Anglo-Saxon period.The freeman (ceorl) of the early Germanic invaders had been responsible to the king and superior to the serf. Subsequent centuries of war and subsistence farming, however, had forced the majority of freemen into serfdom, or dependence on the aristocracy of lords and thanes, who came to enjoy a large measure of autonomous control over manors granted them by the king (see manorial system). The central government evolved from tribal chieftainships to become a monarchy in which executive and judicial powers were usually vested in the king. The aristocracy made up his witan, or council of advisers (see witenagemot). The king set up shires as units of local government ruled by earldormen. In some instances these earldormen became powerful hereditary earls, ruling several shires. Subdivisions of shires were called hundreds. There were shire and hundred courts, the former headed by sheriffs, the latter by reeves. Agriculture was the principal industry, but the Danes were aggressive traders, and towns increased in importance starting in the 9th cent.The Anglo-Saxons had been Christianized by missionaries from Rome and from Ireland, and the influence of Christianity became strongly manifest in all phases of culture (see Anglo-Saxon literature). Differences between Irish and continental religious customs were decided in favor of the Roman forms at the Synod of Whitby (663). Monastic communities, outstanding in the later 7th and in the 8th cent. and strongly revived in the 10th, developed great proficiency in manuscript illumination. Church scholars, such as Bede, Alcuin, and Aelfric〞as well as King Alfred himself〞preserved and advanced learning.Medieval EnglandA new era in English history began with the Norman Conquest. William I introducedNorman-style political and military feudalism. He used the feudal system to collect taxes, employed the bureaucracy of the church to strengthen the central government, and made the administration of royal justice more efficient.After the death of William's second son, Henry I, the country was subjected to a period of civil war that ended one year before the accession of Henry II in 1154. Henry II's reign was marked by the sharp conflict between king and church that led to the murder of Thomas 角 Becket. Henry carried out great judicial reforms that increased the power and scope of the royal courts. During his reign, in 1171, began the English conquest of Ireland. As part of his inheritance he brought to the throne Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine. The defense and enlargement of these French territories engaged the energies of successive English kings. In their need for money the kings stimulated the growth of English towns by selling them charters of liberties.Conflict between kings and nobles, which had begun under Richard I, came to a head under John, who made unprecedented financial demands and whose foreign and church policies were unsuccessful. A temporary victory of the nobles bore fruit in the most noted of all English constitutional documents, the Magna Carta (1215). The recurring baronial wars of the 13th cent. (see Barons' War; Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester) were roughly contemporaneous with the first steps in the development of Parliament.Edward I began the conquest of Wales and Scotland. He also carried out an elaborate reform and expansion of the central courts and of other aspects of the legal system. The Hundred Years War with France began (1337) in the reign of Edward III. The Black Death (see plague) first arrived in 1348 and had a tremendous effect on economic life, hastening the breakdown (long since under way) of the manorial and feudal systems, including the institution of serfdom. At the same time the fast-growing towns and trades gave new prominence to the burgess and artisan classes.In the 14th cent. the English began exporting their wool, rather than depending on foreign traders of English wool. Later in the century, trade in woolen cloth began to gain on the raw wool trade. The confusion resulting from such rapid social and economic change fostered radical thought, typified in the teachings of John Wyclif (or Wycliffe; see also Lollardry, and the revolt led by Wat Tyler. Dynastic wars (see Roses, Wars of the), which weakened both the nobility and the monarchy in the 15th cent., ended with the accession of the Tudor family in 1485.Tudor EnglandThe reign of the Tudors (1485——1603) is one of the most fascinating periods in English history. Henry VII restored political order and the financial solvency of the crown, bequeathing his son, Henry VIII, a full exchequer. In 1536, Henry VIII brought about the political union of England and Wales. Henry and his minister Thomas Cromwell greatly expanded the central administration. During Henry's reign commerce flourished and the New Learning of the Renaissance came to England. Several factors〞the revivalof Lollardry, anticlericalism, the influence of humanism, and burgeoning nationalism〞climaxed by the pope's refusal to grant Henry a divorce from Katharine of Arag车n so that he could remarry and have a male heir〞led the king to break with Roman Catholicism and establish the Church of England.As part of the English Reformation (1529——39), Henry suppressed the orders of monks and friars and secularized their property. Although these actions aroused some popular opposition (see Pilgrimage of Grace), Henry's judicious use of Parliament helped secure support for his policies and set important precedents for the future of Parliament. England moved farther toward Protestantism under Edward VI; after a generally hated Roman Catholic revival under Mary I, the Roman tie was again cut under Elizabeth I, who attempted without complete success to moderate the religious differences among her people.The Elizabethan age was one of great artistic and intellectual achievement, its most notable figure being William Shakespeare. National pride basked in the exploits of Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and the other ※sea dogs.§ Overseas trading compan ies were formed and colonization attempts in the New World were made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. A long conflict with Spain, growing partly out of commercial and maritime rivalry and partly out of religious differences, culminated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), although the war continued another 15 years.Inflated prices (caused, in part, by an influx of precious metals from the New World) and the reservation of land by the process of inclosure for sheep pasture (stimulated by the expansion of the wool trade) caused great changes in the social and economic structure of England. The enclosures displaced many tenant farmers from their lands and produced a class of wandering, unemployed ※sturdy beggars.§ The Elizabethan poor l aws were an attempt to deal with this problem. Rising prices affected the monarchy as well, by reducing the value of its fixed customary and hereditary revenues. The country gentry were enriched by the inclosures and by their purchase of former monastic lands, which were also used for grazing. The gentry became leaders in what, toward the end of Elizabeth's reign, was an increasingly assertive Parliament.The StuartsThe accession in 1603 of the Stuart James I, who was also James VI of Scotland, united the thrones of England and Scotland. The chronic need for money of both James and his son, Charles I, which they attempted to meet by unusual and extralegal means; their espousal of the divine right of kings; their determination to enforce their high Anglican preferences in religion; and their use of royal courts such as Star Chamber, which were not bound by the common law, to persecute opponents, together produced a bitter conflict with Parliament that culminated (1642) in the English civil war.In the war the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The king was tried for treason and beheaded (1649). The monarchywas abolished, and the country was governed by the Rump Parliament, the remainder of the last Parliament (the Long Parliament) Charles had called (1640), until 1653, when Cromwell dissolved it and established the Protectorate. Cromwell brutally subjugated Ireland, made a single commonwealth of Scotland and England, and strengthened England's naval power and position in international trade. When he died (1658), his son, Richard, succeeded as Lord Protector but governed ineffectively.The threat of anarchy led to an invitation by a newly elected Parliament (the Convention Parliament) to Charles, son of Charles I, to become king, ushering in the Restoration (1660). It was significant that Parliament had summoned the king, rather than the reverse; it was now clear that to be successful the king had to cooperate with Parliament. The Whig and Tory parties developed in the Restoration period. Although Charles II was personally popular, the old issues of religion, money, and the royal prerogative came to the fore again. Parliament revived official Anglicanism (see Clarendon Code), but Charles's private sympathies lay with Catholicism. He attempted to bypass Parliament in the matter of revenue by receiving subsidies from Louis XIV of France.Charles's brother and successor, James II, was an avowed Catholic. James tried to strengthen his position in Parliament by tampering with the methods of selecting members; he put Catholics in high university positions, maintained a standing army (which later deserted him), and claimed the right to suspend laws. The birth (1688) of a male heir, who, it was assumed, would be raised as a Catholic, precipitated a crisis.In the Glorious Revolution, Whig and Tory leaders offered the throne to William of Orange (William III), whose Protestant wife, Mary, was James's daughter. William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen by Parliament in 1689. The Bill of Rights confirmed that sovereignty resided in Parliament. The Act of Toleration (1689) extended religious liberty to all Protestant sects; in subsequent years, religious passions slowly subsided.By the Act of Settlement (1701) the succession to the English throne was determined. Since 1603, with the exception of the 1654——60 portion of the interregnum, Scotland and England had remained two kingdoms united only in the person of the monarch. When it appeared that William's successor, Queen Anne, Mary's Protestant sister, would not have an heir, the Scottish succession became of concern, since the Scottish Parliament had not passed legislation corresponding to the Act of Settlement. England feared that under a separate monarch Scotland might ally itself with France, or worse still, permit a restoration of the Catholic heirs of James II〞although a non-Protestant succession had been barred by the Scottish Parliament. On its part, Scotland wished to achieve economic equality with England. The result was the Act of Union (1707), by which the two kingdoms became one. Scotland obtained representation in (what then became) the British Parliament at Westminster, and the Scottish Parliament was abolished.The Growth of Empire and Eighteenth-Century Political DevelopmentsThe beginnings of Britain's national debt (1692) and the founding of the Bank of England (1694) were closely tied with the nation's more active role in world affairs. Britain's overseas possessions (see British Empire) were augmented by the victorious outcome of the War of the Spanish Succession, ratified in the Peace of Utrecht (1713). Britain emerged from the War of the Austrian Succession and from the Seven Years War as the possessor of the world's greatest empire. The peace of 1763 (see Paris, Treaty of) confirmed British predominance in India and North America. Settlements were made in Australia toward the end of the 18th cent.; however, a serious loss was sustained when 13 North American colonies broke away in the American Revolution. Additional colonies were won in the wars against Napoleon I, notable for the victories of Horatio Nelson and Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington.In Ireland, the Irish Parliament was granted independence in 1782, but in 1798 there was an Irish rebellion. A vain attempt to solve the centuries-old Irish problem was the abrogation of the Irish Parliament and the union (1801) of Great Britain and Ireland, with Ireland represented in the British Parliament.Domestically the long ministry of Sir Robert Walpole (1721——42), during the reigns of George I and George II, was a period of relative stability that saw the beginnings of the development of the cabinet as the chief executive organ of government.The 18th cent. was a time of transition in the growth of the British parliamentary system. The monarch still played a very active role in government, choosing and dismissing ministers as he wished. Occasionally, sentiment in Parliament might force an unwanted minister on him, as when George III was forced to choose Rockingham in 1782, but the king could dissolve Parliament and use his considerable patronage power to secure a new one more amenable to his views.Great political leaders of the late 18th cent., such as the earl of Chatham (see Chatham, William Pitt, 1st earl of) and his son William Pitt, could not govern in disregard of the crown. Important movements for political and social reform arose in the second half of the 18th cent. George III's arrogant and somewhat anachronistic conception of the crown's role produced a movement among Whigs in Parliament that called for a reform and reduction of the king's power. Edmund Burke was a leader of this group, as was the eccentric John Wilkes. The Tory Pitt was also a reformer. These men also opposed Britain's colonial policy in North America.Outside Parliament, religious dissenters (who were excluded from political office), intellectuals, and others advocated sweeping reforms of established practices and institutions. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, advocating laissez-faire, appeared in 1776, the same year as the first publication by Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism. The cause of reform, however, was greatly set back by the French Revolution and the ensuing wars with France, which greatly alarmed British society. Burkebecame Britain's leading intellectual opponent of the Revolution, while many British reformers who supported (to varying degrees) the changes in France were branded by British public opinion as extreme Jacobins.Economic, Social, and Political ChangeGeorge III was succeeded by George IV and William IV. During the last ten years of his reign, George III was insane, and sovereignty was exercised by the future George IV. This was the ※Regency§ period. In the mid-18th cent., wealth and power in Great Britain still resided in the aristocracy, the landed gentry, and the commercial oligarchy of the towns. The mass of the population consisted of agricultural laborers, semiliterate and landless, governed locally (in England) by justices of the peace. The countryside was fragmented into semi-isolated agricultural villages and provincial capitals.However, the period of the late 18th and early 19th cent. was a time of dynamic economic change. The factory system, the discovery and use of steam power, improved inland transportation (canals and turnpikes), the ready supply of coal and iron, a remarkable series of inventions, and men with capital who were eager to invest〞all these elements came together to produce the epochal change known as the Industrial Revolution.The impact of these developments on social conditions was enormous, but the most significant socioeconomic fact of all from 1750 to 1850 was the growth of population. The population of Great Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) grew from an estimated 7,500,000 in 1750 to about 10,800,000 in 1801 (the year of the first national census) and to about 23,130,000 in 1861. The growing population provided needed labor for industrial expansion and was accompanied by rapid urbanization. Urban problems multiplied. At the same time a new period of inclosures (1750——1810; this time to increase the arable farmland) deprived small farmers of their common land. The Speenhamland System (begun in 1795), which supplemented wages according to the size of a man's family and the price of bread, and the Poor Law of 1834 were harsh revisions of the relief laws.The social unrest following these developments provided a fertile field for Methodism, which had been begun by John Wesley in the mid-18th cent. Methodism was especially popular in the new industrial areas, in some of which the Church of England provided no services. It has been theorized that by pacifying social unrest Methodism contributed to the prevention of political and social revolution in Britain.In the 1820s the reform impulse that had been largely stifled during the French Revolution revived. Catholic Emancipation (1829) restored to Catholics political and civil rights. In 1833 slavery in the British Empire was abolished. (The slave trade had been ended in 1807.) Parliamentary reform was made imperative by the new patterns of population distribution and by the great growth during the industrial expansion in the size and wealth of the middle class, which lacked commensurate political power. The general elections that followed the death of George IV brought to power a Whig ministrycommitted to parliamentary reform. The Reform Bill of 1832 (see under Reform Acts) enfranchised the middle class and redistributed seats to give greater representation to London and the urban boroughs of N England. Other parliamentary legislation established the institutional basis for efficient city government and municipal services and for government inspection of factories, schools, and poorhouses.The competitive advantage British exports had gained from the Industrial Revolution lent new force to the arguments for free trade. The efforts of the Anti-Corn-Law League, organized by Richard Cobden and John Bright, succeeded in 1846 when Robert Peel was converted to the cause of free trade, and the corn laws were repealed. But Chartism, a mass movement for more thorough political reform, was unsuccessful (1848). Further important reforms were delayed nearly 20 years.The Reform Bill of 1867, sponsored by Disraeli and the Conservatives for political reasons, enfranchised the urban working classes and was followed shortly (under Gladstone and the Liberals) by enactment of the secret ballot and the first steps toward a national education system. In 1884 a third Reform Bill extended the vote to agricultural laborers. (Women could not vote until 1918.) In the 1880s trade unions, which had first appeared earlier in the century, grew larger and more militant as increasing numbers of unskilled workers were unionized. A coalition of labor and socialist groups, organized in 1900, became the Labour party in 1906. In the 19th cent. Britain's economy took on its characteristic patterns. Trade deficits, incurred as the value of food imports exceeded the value of exports such as textiles, iron, steel, and coal, were overcome by income from shipping, insurance services, and foreign investments.Victorian Foreign PolicyThe reign of Victoria (1837——1901) covered the period of Britain's commercial and industrial leadership of the world and of its greatest political influence. Initial steps toward granting self-government for Canada were taken at the start of Victoria's reign, while in India conquest and expansion continued. Great Britain's commercial interests, advanced by the British navy, brought on in 1839 the first Opium War with China, which opened five Chinese ports to British trade and made Hong Kong a British colony. The aggressive diplomacy of Lord Palmerston in the 1850s and 60s, including involvement in the Crimean War, was popular at home.From 1868 to 1880 political life in Great Britain was dominated by Benjamin Disraeli and William E. Gladstone, who differed dramatically over domestic and foreign policy. Disraeli, who had attacked Gladstone for failing to defend Britain's imperial interests, pursued an active foreign policy, determined by considerations of British prestige and the desire to protect the route to India. Under Disraeli (1874——80) the British acquired the Transvaal, the Fiji Islands, and Cyprus, fought frontier wars in Africa and Afghanistan, and became the largest shareholder in the Suez Canal Company. Gladstone strongly condemned Disraeli's expansionist policies, but his later ministries involvedBritain in Egypt, Afghanistan, and Uganda.Gladstone's first ministry (1868——74) had disestablished the Church of England in Ireland, and in 1886, Gladstone unsuccessfully advocated Home Rule for Ireland. The proposal split the Liberal party and overturned his ministry. In the last decades of the 19th cent. competition with other European powers and enchantment with the glories of empire led Britain to acquire vast territories in Asia and Africa. By the end of the century the country was entangled in the South African War (1899——1902). Great Britain's period of hegemony was ending, as both Germany and the United States were surpassing it in industrial production.World War I and Its AftermathVictoria was succeeded by her son Edward VII, then by his son, George V. The Liberals, in power 1905——15, enacted much social legislation, including old-age pensions, health and unemployment insurance, child health laws, and more progressive taxation. The budget sponsored by David Lloyd George to finance the Liberals' program brought on a parliamentary struggle that ended in a drastic reduction of the power of the House of Lords (1911). Growing military and economic rivalry with Germany led Great Britain to form ententes with its former colonial rivals, France and Russia (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente).In 1914, Germany's violation of Belgium's neutrality, which since 1839 Britain had been pledged to uphold, caused Britain to go to war against Germany (see World War I). Although the British emerged as victors, the war took a terrible toll on the nation. About 750,000 men had died and seven million tons of shipping had been lost. In the peace settlement (see Versailles, Treaty of) Britain acquired, as League of Nations mandates, additional territories in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. But the four years of fighting had drained the nation of wealth and manpower.The postwar years were a time of great moral disillusionment and material difficulties. To the international problems stemming directly from the war, such as disarmament, reparations, and war debts, were added complex domestic economic problems, the task of reorganizing the British Empire, and the tangled Irish problem. Northern Ireland was created in 1920, and the Irish Free State (see Ireland, Republic of) in 1921——22.The basic domestic economic problem of the post——World War I years was the decline of Britain's traditional export industries, which made it more difficult for the country to pay for its imports of foods and raw materials. A Labour government, under Ramsay MacDonald, was in power for the first time briefly in 1924. In 1926 the country suffered a general strike. Severe economic stress increased during the worldwide economic depression of the late 1920s and early 30s. During the financial crisis of 1931, George V asked MacDonald to head a coalition government, which took the country off the gold standard, ceased the repayment of war debts, and supplanted free trade with protectivetariffs modified by preferential treatment within the empire (see Commonwealth of Nations) and with treaty nations.Recovery from the depression began to be evident in 1933. Although old export industries such as coal mining and cotton manufacturing remained depressed, other industries, such as electrical engineering, automobile manufacture, and industrial chemistry, were developed or strengthened. George V was succeeded by Edward VIII, after whose abdication (1936) George VI came to the throne. In 1937, Neville Chamberlain became prime minister.The years prior to the outbreak of World War II were characterized by the ineffective attempts to stem the rising tide of German and Italian aggression. The League of Nations, in which Britain was a leader, declined rapidly by failing to take decisive action, and British prestige fell further because of a policy of nonintervention in the Spanish civil war. Appeasement of the Axis powers, which was the policy of the Chamberlain government, reached its climactic failure (as became evident later) in the Munich Pact of Sept., 1938. Great Britain had begun to rearm in 1936 and, after Munich, instituted conscription. With the signing of the Soviet-German pact of Aug., 1939, war was recognized as inevitable.World War II and the Welfare StateOn Sept. 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on Sept. 3, and all the dominions of the Commonwealth except Ireland followed suit (see World War II). Chamberlain broadened his cabinet to include Labour representatives, but after German victories in Scandinavia he resigned (May, 1940) and was replaced by Winston S. Churchill. France fell in June, 1940, but the heroic rescue of a substantial part of the British army from Dunkirk (May——June) enabled Britain, now virtually alone, to remain in the war.The nation withstood intensive bombardment (see Battle of Britain), but ultimately the Royal Air Force was able to drive off the Luftwaffe. Extensive damage was sustained, and great urban areas, including large sections of London, were devastated. The British people rose to a supreme war effort; American aid (see lend-lease) provided vital help. In 1941, Great Britain gained two allies when Germany invaded the USSR (June) and the United States entered the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7). Britain declared war on Japan on Dec. 8.The wartime alliance of Great Britain, the USSR, and the United States led to the formation of the United Nations and brought about the defeat of Germany (May, 1945) and Japan (Sept., 1945). The British economy suffered severely from the war. Manpower losses had been severe, including about 420,000 dead; large urban areas had to be rebuilt, and the industrial plant needed reconstruction and modernization. Leadership in world trade, shipping, and banking had passed to the United States, and overseas investments had been largely liquidated to pay the cost of the world wars. This was a serious blow to the。
英国历史的英语介绍带翻译
通过对英国历史的英语介绍，我们可以理解这个国家的文化和传统的形成过程。对于学习英国文化和了解世界历史的人来说，深入了解英国历史是非常有价值的。无论是古罗马时期、盎格鲁-撒克逊时期、诺曼底征服时期，还是宪法发展和工业革命，这些重要的时期和事件塑造了英国的现代社会和文化面貌。
二、盎格鲁-撒克逊时期 Anglo-Saxon Period
5世纪至11世纪是盎格鲁-撒克逊时期。在这一时期，来自日耳曼地区的盎格鲁-撒克逊人占领了不列颠，并建立了七主要王国。这段时期见证了英国基督教的传入，以及英语作为主要语言的形成。盎格鲁-撒克逊文化对英国文化产生了深远的影响，英国的传统节日和习俗中仍可以看到其痕迹。
五、工业革命 Industrial Revolution
18世纪的英国经历了工业革命，这次革命对英国和世界产生了深远的影响。领导着全球工业变革的英国通过发明和创新推动了工业化进程，从而带动了经济繁荣。工业革命改变了英国社会结构，也引发了许多社会问题。然而，这段时期同时也催生了现代科学、技术和制度的重大进步。
英国文学史简介(中文版)
Early and Medieval English Literature(449-1485)英国中世纪文学史大致可分为盎格鲁-撒克逊（The Anglo-Saxon Period,449-1066）和中古英语（The Middle English Period,1066-1485）两个时期。
公元前八九世纪高卢（Gaul,今法国）人迁入不列颠岛，成为英国最早的居民。
公元1世纪至410年，英伦三岛为罗马人占领。
449年开始，北欧日耳曼部族的朱特人（Jutes）、盎格鲁人（Angles）和撒克逊人（Saxons）陆续入侵不列颠。
他们的语言——盎格鲁-撒克逊语（Anglo-Saxon）或古英语（Old English）——也开始广为传播。
597年，奥古斯丁（Saint Augustine,?-604）率40余名修士来到英格兰传教，基督教开始在不列颠岛盛行。
盎格鲁-撒克逊时代最重要的文学作品是长达3 000多行的头韵史诗《贝奥武甫》（Beowulf,700-750）,讲述了一个斯堪的纳维亚的民间传说。
古英语散文的杰出代表是比德（the Venerable Bede,673-735）的《英吉利人民宗教史》（Ecclesiastical History of the English People,731-732）,其中包括英国第一宗教诗人开德蒙（Caedmon）充满神奇色彩的生平事迹。
该作品用拉丁文写成，后译成英文，是了解早期英国历史的珍贵史料。
公元891年，韦塞克斯(Wessex)国王艾尔弗雷德（Alfred，849-901）开始组织修士汇编《盎格鲁-撒克逊编年史》(The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle),后人一直续编至1154年。
这是第一部用英语写成的散文巨著，文风简约、质朴，对英国散文的发展产生了深远的影响。
1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉（William,Duke of Normandy）打败英军，夺得王位，成为英国威廉一世（William I）,史称“诺曼征服”（the Norman Conquest）.此后今300年的时间里，法语一直是英国统治阶层的语言，教会学者用拉丁文写作，英语只在民众中通用，以至于在12世纪之前几乎没有用英文写成的文学作品。
英国的简介（中英文对照）
英国的简介（中英文对照）英国的全称是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，行政区划包括了英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰地区。
除本土之外，其还拥有十四个海外领地，总人口超过6600万，其中以英格兰人（盎格鲁-撒克逊人）为主体民族，占全国总人口的占83.9%。
The full name of Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Its administrative divisions include England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In addition to the mainland, it also has 14 overseas territories with a total population of over 66 million, of which the English (Anglo-Saxons) are the main ethnic group, accounting for 83.9% of the total population of the country.英国是一个高度发达的资本主义国家，欧洲四大经济体之一，其国民拥有极高的生活水平和良好的社会保障制度。
作为英联邦元首国、七国集团成员国、北约创始会员国、英国同时也是联合国安全理事会五大常任理事国之一。
Britain is a highly developed capitalist country and one of the four major European economies. Its citizens have a very high standard of living and a good social security system. As the head of the monwealth, member of the Group of Seven, founding member of NATO, Britain is also one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.魅力大都市伦敦、历史文化名城约克、巴斯、坎特伯雷、名校所在地剑桥和牛津、风华旖旎的湖区、还有让球迷疯狂的曼彻斯特、利物浦，《哈利波特》的诞生地爱丁堡，《勇敢的心》发生地斯特灵。
uk history英国历史(英语国家概况)
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The Black Death
• 3 plagues
• 在1348年，一场瘟疫 或者黑死病通过从亚 洲来的商人来到欧洲， 并被在那些商人的商 船里的老鼠传播开来。 黑死病在1348年到 1353年这短短的五年 时间里夺去了欧洲大 陆近三分之一的人口。
The 16th Century
• The Wars of the Roses • A New Monarchy • The Reformation Movement / Protestant Movement Bloody Mary The Reign of Queen Elizabeth I)
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Stone Henge (石林，巨石阵)
Celtic People
• Original inhabitants---the Celts 凯尔特人 • Britons, a tribe of Celts.
The Romans
• First landing in 55 BC • Complete control over the land in 43 AD • leaving in around 410 AD • Roman influence
– Invention of the steam engine – Factories and coal-mines multiplied with big towns spring up – Conflicts between labor and capital
• Loss of American colonies
The Norman Conquest 诺曼征服
• • • • William of Normandy (or William the Conqueror) King Harold of England 哈罗德国王 the Battle of Hastings黑斯廷斯之战 Norman Conquest The French-speaking Normans under Duke William came in 1066. After defeating the English at Hastings, William was crowned as King of England. Revolts were cruelly suppressed and the conquest was completed with sword and fire. • Norman influence
英国历史英文版
1066年，诺曼底ຫໍສະໝຸດ 爵威廉渡海征服 英格兰，建立诺曼底王朝。
第六页，编辑于星期六：二十点 五十二分。
The Great Charter
1215年大宪章
第七页，编辑于星期六：二十点 五十二分。
The Beginning of Parliament议
会的雏形
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the bestknown event in English history. In 1066, William the Conqueror landed in England and build the Norman
Empire ,thus the feudal system was completely
英国历史英文介绍简短
英国历史英文介绍简短The history of the United Kingdom is long and complex, stretching back thousands of years. It is a story of invasions, conquests, and migrations, of kings and queens, of wars and revolutions, and of the development of a unique and diverse culture.The earliest inhabitants of the British Isles were the Celts, who arrived around 500 BC. They were followed by the Romans, who invaded in 43 AD and ruled for nearly 400 years. In the 5th century, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes arrived from northern Europe and established the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Wales.In 1066, the Normans invaded England and brought with them a new language, culture, and government. This period saw the development of the English language and the establishment of the monarchy. In the 16th century, England began to expand its empire, colonizing North America, India, and other parts of the world.The 18th century saw the Industrial Revolution, which transformed the country and made it one of the most powerful nations in the world. In the 19th century, the British Empire reached its peak, ruling over a quarter of the world’s population.The 20th century saw two world wars, the decline of the British Empire, and the emergence of the United Kingdom as amodern, democratic nation. Today, the UK is a member of the European Union and a major player in world affairs. Its history is a fascinating and complex one, and its culture is unique and diverse.。
abriefhistoryofBritain英国历史简述（精选五篇）
abriefhistoryofBritain英国历史简述（精选五篇）第一篇：a brief history of Britain 英国历史简述A Brief History of Britainby Pam BarrettWhen French and British construction workers met beneath the English Channel in 1990, Britain became linked to Continental Europe for the first time in 7,000 years.For it was then, when the last Ice Age ended, that melting ice flooded the low-lying lands, creating the English Channel and the North Sea and turning Britain into an island.This fact of being “set apart” was one of the two seemingly contradictory factors which would affect every aspect of the country’s subsequent history.The other was a genius for absorbing every invader and immigrant, creating a mongrel breed whose energies would establish an empire incorporating a quarter of the population of the planet.Early settlers: Stone Age people arrived, probably from the Iberian peninsula, in around 3000 BC.They lived by farming but left few traces.The most dramatic ancient monument is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, built during the next 1,000 years.How and why it was built was a mystery, but it must have had religious and political significance.The Beaker people, named after their pottery, were next to arrive.But a more importance wave of immigration, in 700 BC, was that of the Celts from eastern and central Europe.The ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Welsh and the Irish, they left behind a rich legacy of intricate and beautiful metalwork.The Romans: British recorded history began when Julius Caesar first crossed the English Channel in 55 BC.Roman rule continued for nearly 400 years, failing to subjugate only Scottish tribes, whose raiding parties were contained by Emperor Hadrian who built adefended wall right across the north of England.Eventually, threatened by barbarians at the gates of Rome, they abandoned Britain, leaving behind them a network of towns, mostly walled, a superb road system, and a new religion, Christianity.The next wave of invaders from central Europe – Angles, Saxons and Jutes – gradually pushed the native Celts west into Wales and north into Scotland.Anglo-Saxon dominance, too, lasted for four centuries, though it did not extend to Scotland, where a separate kingdom was forged by the Picts and the Scots.Although the Anglo-Saxons were a ferocious bunch, constantly squabbling, they laid the foundations of the English state, dividing the country into shires and devising an effective farming system.Their Teutonic religion, worshipping gods such as Woden and Thor, eclipsed Christianity until, at the end of the 6th century, the monk Augustine(once heard to remark “O Lord, make me chaste, but not yet”)converted the kings and the nobles.Monasteries sprang up, becoming places of learning.Treasures contained in the monasteries were a lure for the Vikings, whose ruthless raids from across the North Sea began in the 9th century.Initially they were defeated at sea by Alfred the Great, founder of the British Navy, but eventually they too were assimilated.Canute, the Danish leader, became king of Britain.The Norman Conquest: Links with Normandy, the part of France settled by the Vikings, were strong, and in 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne.His triumph at the battle of Hastings decisively changed English history.As W.C.Sellar and R.J.Yeatman put it in their classic humorous history 1066 And All That: “The Norman Conquest was a Good Thing, as from this time onwards England stopped being conquered and thus was able to become top nation.”William parceled out the land to barons in return for their loyalty, and the barons parceled out land in turn to lesser nobles in return for goods and services.At the bottom were the peasants, whose feudal status resembled slavery – hence the potency of the Robin Hood legend, celebrating the Nottingham outlaw who stole from the rich to give to the poor.Although much of the Norman kings’ energies were devoted to protecting their borders, there was a great flowering of Norman culture, producing many erudite historians and scholars.In 1167 Oxford University was founded.Thanks to the influence of William Shakespeare’s history plays, much of the next period of English history is popularly remembered through his view of the shifting alliances of the Plantagenet and Tudor kings who ruled from 1154 to 1547.During this period of conflict and disease –the Black Death alone killed nearly half the population in 1348-49 –the royal succession was by no means assured.Power struggles propelled to the throne those who could command the greatest military backing from the majority of the rival barons, a process vividly illustrated by the Wars of Roses, the tussles between the House of Lancaster and York between 1455 and 1485.Frequent strife with France(including the intermittent Hundred Years’ War from 1337 to 1453)dominated international relationships.Internally, Wales was subjugated by 1288, though Scottish independence was recognized when Robert Bruce defeated English forces at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.Britain’s most famous king, Henry VIII, is remembered not only for his six wives(two of whom he had beheaded)but also for bringing about the Reformation, making England a Protestant rather than a Catholic countr y.His quarrel centred on the Pope’s refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who couldnot oblige him with a male heir.Doctrinal differences aside, however, Henry capitalized on a growing distaste for the church’s excessive privilege and wealt h, and was thus able to get away with seizing enough monastic lands and property to finance his rule.Under Henry, Wales was formally united with England in 1536.The Age of Elizabeth: England entered its Golden Age under Elizabeth I, Henry’s daughter by Ann e Boleyn.The Elizabethan Age has a swashbuckling ring to it: the Virgin Queen and her dashing courtiers;the defeat of the Spanish Armada;Sir Walter Raleigh’s discovery of tobacco in Virginia;Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the world.Poetry, plays a nd pageantry flourished during her 45-year reign.When Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen”, died without an heir, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England, inaugurating the Stuart dynasty and effectively joining together the two kingdoms.The Stuart period was one of conflict between Crown and Parliament.James I, a staunch believer in the Divine Right of Kings, would have preferred no Parliament at all, and Charles I dissolved Parliament and initiated an 11-year period of absolute rule.The upshot was a civil war from 1622 to 1649;Charles lost and was beheaded.A period of republicanism followed, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, but after his death the monarchy was restored and prospered under Charles II.His brother, who succeeded him as James II, was less circumspect and tried to restore absolute monarchy and the Catholic religion.The newly emerging political parties, growing in confidence, forced him to flee and invited his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince William of Orang e, to take the throne.This “Glorious Revolution”, although bloodless, was nonetheless a revolution and paved the way for Parliament’s permanent dominance overthe Crown.In 1707 an Act of Union united England and Scotland, although Scotland was allowed to retain its own Church and legislature.Many Scots felt that the union was bulldozed through by English politicians’ intent on improving their international trade prospects, and Scottish pressure to unravel the union is still a political issue.Political pragmatism triumphed again in 1714 when, a reliable Protestant monarch being needed in a hurry, a search through the family tree came up with George I of Hanover in Germany.Although he spoke no English and had little interest in his subjects, he founded a dynasty which was to span 115 years and encompass an expanding empire and an industrial revolution.The age of empire: Despite the loss of its American colonies in 1783, Britain’s trade-driven adventurism was undiminished, giving it control of West Africa and India, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, some Caribbean island, and Australia and New Zealand.At home, farmers embraced more efficient and profitable methods, which led to the eviction of many peasant farmers who either emigrated to the New World, carrying with them a resentment that would bequeathed to future generations, or left the land to find work in the towns, which rapidly became overcrowded.This combination of landowners with surplus capital to invest and laborers in search of a living was one reason why British became the first country to industrialize.Political stability helped too, as did the security of being an island, natural resources, good trade arrangements and a native genius for inventing things.The Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the steam engine in the 1770s, opening the way for the efficient powering of trains, ships and factory machinery.The invention of the Spinning Jenny and the power loom created mass production in textiles.The smelting ofiron with coke, instead of charcoal, hugely increased the production of iron.A massive building program of railways, roads and canals created a new class of industrialist, whose fortunes rivaled those of the aristocracy.But it also created abominable working conditions in mines and factories, conditions which led to the slow and painful development of trade unionism.Political reforms, seized elsewhere in Europe by revolution, came gradually in Britain.Parliamentary seats were distributed more fairly among the growing new towns, but voting was still based on property ownership and universal suffrage didn’t come until 1918(and even then was scarcely universal since it excluded women under 30).The problem that dominated parliamentary debate during this period was the intractable Irish Question.The resentment over centuries of British rule in Ireland bubbled to the surface after the potato famines of the mid-1840s, when about 20 percent of Ireland’s population died of starvation and more than a million people emigrated to escape a similar fate.Demands for Irish independence grew but they were demands which many English politicians, conscious of the security problems of having an independent and possibly none-too-friendly neighbor to their west, were reluctant to grant.As with today’s IRA campai gn, the debate had a backdrop of violence.T oday, however, the Victorian Age is remembered as a time of exuberant self-confidence, symbolized by the building in London of the Crystal Palace to showcase Britain’s industrial and technical achievements in the Great Exhibition of 1851.But many of London’s inhabitants might well have wondered when they would benefit from all these accomplishments.For them, the squalor and crime which Charles Dickens portrayed so evocatively in his novels were all too real.Working-class lifeimproved considerably during the last quarter of the 19th century.Many homes had gas lighting and streets were cleaned by the new municipal councils.A new police force contained crime.The music hall provided inexpensive entertainment in towns.Bicycles became a common method of transport, and a trip by train to seaside resorts was for many a highlight of summer.In London, trains in the world’s first underground railway began puffing their way through smoke-filled tunnels between Paddington and Farrington in 1863.Art and drama flourished.By the time of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, the country was feeling quite pleased with itself.Britannia ruled the waves, and anything seemed possible.The 20th century: But all good things come to an end.The Boer War of 1900 ended in victory for the British in South Africa but damaged its international reputation.France, Germany and America were becoming powerful competitors for world markets.The newly united German state was flexing its military muscles.The Edwardian era of the early 20th century, seemingly an idyllic time, was built on shifting sands.Dragged into World War I by a complex web of international alliances, Britain faced unimaginable carnage in which more than a million of its young men died.Social unrest at the end of the war, though less devastating than in the defeated Germany, gave more power to women(who had shouldered a heavy burden while the men were at war)and led to a General Strike by dissatisfied workers in 1926.The Irish Question was partly answered with the creation of an independent Irish free State, but six Protestant-dominated counties in the north stayed under UK rule – a time bomb which exploded in 1969.The shock waves from the 1929 New York Stock Market crash plunged Britain into depression, throwing millionsout of work, especially in the industrial areas of northern England, south Wales and Clydeside in Scotland.The monarchy was rocked by crisis in 1936 when Edward VIII, who had just become king, decided to marry the twice-divorced Mrs Wallis Simpson.His family, the church and the government opposed the match, forcing him to abdicate.His brother, a reluctant George VI, restored the monarchy’s popularity, not least through the support which he and his wife Elizabeth(later the Queen Mother)gave to their subjects during the German air raids of World War II.Although Britain’s island status saved it from invasion, this war involved civilians in an unprecedented way.Cities like Coventry were devastated by bombing and the Blitz radically changed the face of London for the first time since the Great Fire of 1666.Many children were sent to live in the countryside.Most social inequalities were set aside during the war and, when peace returned in 1945, voters turned to the Labour party in hope that it could develop an even greater egalitarianism.It laid the basis of a welfare state, providing free medical care for everyone as well as financial help for the old, the sick and the unemployed.But the war had left Britain broke.While Germany and Japan rebuilt their industries almost from scratch, helped by international aid, Britain was left to patch together a severely damaged economy.It could no longer sustain an empire, and gradually its colonies became independent.Many former subjects, especially from the Caribbean and the Indian sub-continent, settled in Britain, raising fears of racial conflict that, despite some serious tensions, were never(quite)fulfilled.As the austere 1950s gave way to the ’60s, things started to look up.New universities were built, a motorway network launched, and a reinvigorated culture promoted by a group of writersdubbed “the angry young men”.Much of the explosion of new talent came from the north of England: actors like Albert Finney, playwrights like Alan Sillitoe, and pop groups galore, led by the Beatles.The swinging Sixties, powered by a newly affluent youth, had arrived.Britain’s heavy industry might be in trouble, but in fashion and pop music it led the world.The good times died in the 1970s as inflation and unemployment soared and labour unrest led to endless strikes.Joining the European Community in 1973 seemed to produce few obvious economic benefits and revenues from North Sea oil were quickly spent rather than invested.Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979 promising tough new policies.Her popularity quickly faded, but was revived in 1982 by the Falklands War when an invading Argentinean force was beaten off the South Atlantic islands, remnants of the old empire.Although she went on to win two further elections convincingly, by 1990 her popularity, always firmer abroad than at home, was so shaky that her party, fearing that she would not win them the next election, replaced her with a less combative leader, John Major.He duly won the 1992 election, but a reinvigorated Labour Party under T ony Blair won in 1997.The overall problems did not change, though.The economy remained weak, distrust of the European Community did not abate, nationalism simmered in Wales and Scotland, the conflict in Northern Ireland dra gged on, and the Royal Family’s private life continued to obsess the tabloid press.It was business as usual, in fact – which, in a country obsessed by continuity, was immensely reassuring.第二篇：材料学的历史简述姓名：何莞晨学号：2014012075材料学的历史简述1.按材料划分的时代生活离不开材料，人类的一切生产活动所需的工具都建立在合适的材料的基础上。
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一、英国的起源�公元前5000年—1066年�T h e O r i g i n s o f a N a t i o n(5000B C-1066)I.E a r l y S e t t l e r s�5000B C-55B C�早期的居民�公元前5000年—公元前55年�1�T h e f i r s t k n o w n s e t t l e r s o f B r i t a i n w e r e t h e I b e r i a n s.人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。
2�A t a b o u t2000B C t h e B e a k e r F o l k a r r i v e d f r o m t h e a r e a s n o w k n o w a s H o l l a n d a n d R h i n e l a n d.约公元前2000年�从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。
3�T h e C e l t s b e g a n t o a r r i v e B r i t a i n a b o u t700B C.约公元前700年�克尔特人来到不列颠岛。
4�T h e C e l t s c a m e t o B r i t a i n i n t h r e e m a i n w a v e s.克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
1�T h e f i r s t w a v e w e r e t h e G a e l s-c a m e a b o u t600B C.第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
2�T h e s e c o n d w a v e w e r e t h e B r y t h o n s-c a m e a b o u t400B C.第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞�不列颠�人的抵达。
3�T h e t h i r d w a v e w e r e t h e B e l g a e-c a m e a b o u t150B C.第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。
I I.R o m a n B r i t a i n(55B C-410A D)罗马人统治时期的英国�公元前55年—410年�1.B r i t i s h r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y b e g i n s w i t h t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n.I n55B C a n d54B C,J u l i u sC a e s a r,a R o m a n g e n e r a l,i n v a d e d B r i t a i n t w i c e.I n A D43,t h e E m p e r o r C l a u d i u s i n v a d e d B r i t a i n s u c c e s s f u l l y.F o r n e a r l y400y e a r s,B r i t a i n w a s u n d e r t h e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n, t h o u g h i t w a s n e v e r a t o t a l o c c u p a t i o n.有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。
公元前55年和54年�罗马将军朱略斯"凯撒两次入侵英国�均未成功。
直到公元43年�克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。
将近四百年里�英国人处于罗马人的占领下�但这并非是完全的占领。
2.R o m a n’s i n f l u e n c e o n B r i t a i n.T h e R o m a n b u i l t m a n y t o w n s,r o a d,b a t h s,t e m p l e s a n d b u i l d i n g s.T h e y m a k e g o o d u s e o f B r i t a i n’s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s.T h e y a l s o b r o u g h t t h e n e w r e l i g i o n,C h r i s t i a n i t y, t o B r i t a i n.罗马人修建了许多城镇网�道路�澡堂�庙宇和其他建筑物。
他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。
罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。
3.R e a s o n s f o r l i m i t e d R o m a n i n f l u e n c e o n B r i t a i n.罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。
F i r s t,t h e R o m a n s a l w a y s t r e a t e d t h e B r i t o n s a s a s u b j e c t p e o p l e o f s l a v e c l a s s.S e c o n d, n e v e r d u r i n g t h e4c e n t u r i e s d i d t h e R o m a n s a n d B r i t o n s i n t e r m a r r y.T h i r d,t h e R o m a n s h a d n o i m p a c t o n t h e l a n g u a g e o r c u l t u r e o f o r d i n a r y B r i t o n s.首先�罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。
其次�在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。
最后�罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
S u m m a r y:T h i s i s t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f C h a p t e r2(T h e O r i g i n s o f a N a t i o n).I t i n t r o d u c e ds o m e i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s a n d i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e i n E n g l a n d f r o m446t o1066.T h e s e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s a r e T h e A n g l o s-S a x o n s’i n v a s i o n;T h e V i k i n g a n d D a n i s h I n v a s i o n s a n d T h e N o r m a n C o n q u e s t.(简要�这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。
在这一部分里�主要是介绍了英国从公元446年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。
这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵�北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。
I I I.T h e A n g l o-S a x o n s(446-871)盎格鲁—撒克逊人�公元446—871年�1�B a s i s o f M o d e r n E n g l i s h r a c e:t h e A n g l o-S a x o n s.盎格鲁—萨克逊时代�奠定了英国的基础�I n t h e m i d-5t h c e n t u r y a n e w w a v e o f i n v a d e r s,J u t e s,S a x o n s,a n d A n g l e s c a m e t o B r i t a i n.T h e y w e r e t h r e e T e u t o n i c t r i b e s.五世纪中叶�朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。
这是三支日耳曼�条顿�部落。
T h e J u t e s,w h o f i s h e d a n d f a r m e d i n J u t l a n d,c a m e t o B r i t a i n f i r s t.A J u t i s h c h i e f b e c a m e t h e K i n g o f K e n t i n449.T h e n t h e S a x o n s,u s e r s o f t h e s h o r t-s w o r d f r o m n o r t h e r n G e r m a n y,e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r k i n g d o m i n E s s e x,S u s s e x a n d W e s s e x f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e 5t h c e n t u r y t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e6t h c e n t u r y.I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e6t h c e n t u r y.I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e6t h c e n t u r y,t h e A n g l e s,w h o a l s o c a m e f r o m n o r t h e r n G e r m a n ya n d w e r e t o g i v e t h e i r n a m e t o t h e E n g l i s h p e o p l e,s e t t l e d i n E a s t A n g l i a,M e r c i a a n d N o r t h u mb r i a.T h e s e s e v e n p r i nc i p a l k i n gd o m s o f Ke n t,E s s e x,S u s s e x,W e s s e x,E a s t A n g l i a,M e r c i a a n d N o r t h u m b r i a h a v e b e e n g i v e n t h e n a m e of H e p t a r c h y.居住在朱特兰岛�现丹麦南部�上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。