CIVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999–2005 REVOLUTIONARY FAILURE OR EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS

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civil service exam

• One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on meritocracy is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) the xiaolian system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office was established. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit. • After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system; in this system noble birthright became the most significant prerequisite先决条件 for gaining access to more authoritative posts. • This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581–618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations and recommendation. The following Tang Dynasty (618–907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations.

America in Decay

America in Decay-The Sources of Political DysfunctionThe creation of the U.S. Forest Service at the turn of the twentieth century was the premier example of American state building during the Progressive Era. Prior to the passage of the Pendleton Act in 1883, public offices in the United States had been allocated by political parties on the basis of patronage. The Forest Service, in contrast, was the prototype of a new model of merit-based bureaucracy. It was staffed with university-educated agronomists and foresters chosen on the basis of competence and technical expertise, and its defining struggle was the successful effort by its initial leader, Gifford Pinchot, to secure bureaucratic autonomy and escape routine interference by Congress. At the time, the idea that forestry professionals, rather than politicians, should manage public lands and handle the department’s staffing was revolutionary, but it was vindicated by the service’s impressive performance. Several major academic studies have treated its early decades as a classic case of successful public administration.20世纪之交，美国林业局的创立是美国进步时代国家建设的典范。

英国制度发展历程英文

英国制度发展历程英文The development of the British system of government has a deep-rooted history that spans over centuries. It has evolved from a monarchy with absolute power to a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. This article will provide a brief overview of the key milestones in British constitutional development.The first significant development in British governance was the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This document, forced upon King John of England by rebellious barons, established the principle that the monarch is not above the law and that the rights of the people should be protected. Although the Magna Carta was initially only intended to safeguard the interests of the nobility, it laid the groundwork for future legal principles and civil liberties.In the 17th century, England experienced a turbulent period known as the English Civil War. This conflict was primarily a power struggle between the monarchy, represented by King Charles I, and Parliament. The Parliament emerged victorious and executed the king, establishing the Commonwealth under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. However, this experiment in republican government was short-lived, and the monarchy was eventually restored in 1660 with the ascension of Charles II.It was during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that the British system of constitutional monarchy began to take shape. The Catholic King James II was overthrown by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. The Bill of Rights was subsequently enacted, guaranteeing a number of civil liberties andlimiting the powers of the monarchy. This event marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to Parliament.The 19th century witnessed further advancements in British governance. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884 expanded suffrage and reduced the influence of the aristocracy. The act of 1832 extended voting rights to middle-class men, while subsequent acts increased enfranchisement for working-class men and women. These reforms paved the way for a more representative democracy.The early 20th century brought about the rise of the Labour Party and the emergence of the welfare state. The government began to take a more active role in providing social benefits and addressing inequality. The establishment of the National Health Service in 1948 was a landmark achievement that provided universal healthcare to all citizens, regardless of their economic status.In recent years, there have been debates around issues such as devolution and the role of the European Union. The devolution acts of the late 20th century granted Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland varying degrees of self-governance. However, the decision to leave the European Union in 2016 has arguably been the most significant development in recent British constitutional history. The Brexit process has raised questions about the relationship between the UK and the European Union, as well as the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches.In conclusion, the development of the British system of government has been a gradual and complex process. From the Magna Carta to the present day, the British constitutionalframework has continuously evolved to incorporate new ideas and respond to changing societal needs. While it may face challenges and uncertainties in the future, the British system of governance remains a key pillar of the country's identity and democracy.。

美国文学史浪漫主义时期文学

美国文学史浪漫主义时期文学摘要：浪漫主义时期是美国文学史上最重要的时期之一。

当美国人在大刀阔斧地建设自己的国家时，也开始逐渐意识到逐渐与欧洲的不同。

随着不断增强的民族主义意识及民族自豪感，美国人开始希望见到自己的不同与欧洲模式，能表达他们字的美国风情的文学。

这个时代伟大的作家充满热情地记录下这个伟大时代的乐观主义精神。

随后美国文学进入了超验主义时代。

超验主义十分强调个人主义、自立、拒绝传统权威思想。

它实际上是对浪漫主义的发展。

然后，美国的国家自信心受到了内战的动摇。

内战过后，美国处在迷茫中。

在1900年前后这段时期的文学由于美国国内环境的变化而由浪漫主义和超验主义乐观精神转向对社会和人类本质更直接的探讨。

从某种角度，现实主义反对浪漫主义的理想主义和怀旧情绪。

它主要关注中下层人民的日常生活，而在这种情况下人物性格是社会因素作用的结果，环境是整个事件发展不可分割的部分。

关键词：美国文学史；浪漫主义；文学特点The Romantic Period Literature in the history of AmericanLiteratureAbstract: Romantic Period is one of the most important periods in the history of American literature. When Americans were constructing their country, they also began to realize their differences from their European counterparts. They began to hope to see an entirely different literature model which expressed American cultures. Great writers of that period captured on their pages the enthusiasm and the optimism of that dream. Later，American literature came to Transcendentalism Period which emphasized individualism, self-reliance, and rejection of tradition authority. It was actually greatly influenced by romanticism. However, the country’s confidence was waved by the Civil War. After the war, Americans got lost. At about 1900s, American literature came to another entirely different age—the age of Realism. Realists searched for the social and human nature more directly. In part, Realism was a reaction against the Romantic emphasis on the strange, idealistic, and long-ago and far-away. It has been chiefly concerned with the commonplaces of everyday life among the middle and lower classes where character is a product of social factors and environment is the integral element in the dramatic complications.Keywords: American Literature History; Romanticism; Literary characteristics1、American RomanticismRomanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual’s experience of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period of American literature stretches from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War. It was an age of westward expansion, of the increasing gravity of the slavery question, of an intensification of the spirit of embattled sectionalism in the South, and of a powerful impulse to reform in the North. In literature it was America’s first great creative period, a full flowering of the romantic impulse on American soil.1.1The unique characteristics of American RomanticismAlthough greatly influenced by their English counterparts, the American romantic writers revealed unique characteristics of their own in their works and they grew on the native lands. For examp1e，(1) the American national experience of "pioneering into the west" proved to be a rich source of material for American writers to draw upon. They celebrated America's landscape with its virgin forests, meadows, groves, endless prairies, streams.and vast oceans. The wilderness came to function almost as a dramatic character that symbolized moral 1aw. (2) The desire for an escape from society and a return to nature became a permanent convention of American literature. Such a desire is particularly evident in Cooper’s Leather Stocking Tales, in Thoreau's Walden and，later, in Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. (3) With the growth of American national consciousness, American character types speaking local dialects appeared in poetry and fiction with increasing frequency. (4)Then the American Puritanism as a cultural heritage exerted great influences over American moral values and American Romanticism. One of the manifestations is the fact that American romantic writers tended more to moralize than their English and European counterparts. (5) Besides, a preoccupation with the Calvinistic view of origina1 sin and the mystery of evil marked the works of Hawthorne, Melville and a host of lesserwriters.historical reasonsWith the independence of the United States of America, political autonomy, the rise of the economy, and cultural independence, the largest land expansion in American history began during the Romantic period of the United States. As of 1860, the Civil War began, the territory of the United States extended to the western coast of the Pacific Ocean. No one could have predicted the middle of 19th century. The United States expanded from just 13 states in her early days to 21, with a nearly eightfold increase in the number of citizens from 4 million in 1790 to 1860. The total population of the country reached 30 million. At that time, the European bourgeois revolution and technological revolutionThe influence of life, this young country has experienced the rapid industrialization of baptism, the affected area in addition to the United States at each city area, including the vast rural areas. Whether industrial or agricultural development are the extensive use of the steam engine, in the vast continent of the United States, many factories such as a large number of factories set up like bamboo shoots after a spring rain, the establishment of the inevitable with the demand for labor force increase, at the same time, when the United States appeared a lot of new inventions, these results quickly applied to the life, the production efficiency is greatly improved. In the romantic period, along with the rapid development of American politics, economy, culture, more and more around the worldImmigrants come to the United States, provide good human resources the arrival of immigrants to the industrial and agricultural development.epilogueThe peak period of Romanticism in American literature was the transcendentalism which appeared later.The concept of transcendentalism was first put forward by the New England Transcendentalism Club in 1830s.For the people of the New World,the idea was gradually accepted by American culture,the two most important writers were Emerson and Thoreau.They are regarded as the archetypal figures of American transcendentalism.Their works play an important role in thespiritual independence of American literature.Transcendentalism emphasizes the help of heaven to help the self-help.Strive to achieve the goal of self-improvement.Two other important writers,Hawthorne and Melvil,insisted on the original sin in the period of the moralism.They believed that only through moral constraints could human nature be promoted.reference documentation[1]Leslie A Fiedler. Love and Death in the merican Novel [M]. Harmondswort: Penguin Books, 1984.[2]Zhang Deming . Huckleberry. Adventures > and adult ceremony [J]. Journal of Zhejiang University, 1999. (4):91-97.[3]Jung .C.G.Conception of Collective unconsciousness [A] .trans by Wang Ai, selected by Ye Shuxian. Myth-archetypal criticism [C] .Xi 'an: Shaanxi normal University Press, 1987.101.[4]Bakhtin. Theory of novels [M] .translated by Bai Chunren, Xiao he .Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 1998.。

The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The Civil Rights Movement in the United StatesThe Civil Rights Movement in the United States has been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. The movement has had a lasting impact on United States society, in its tactics, the increased social and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of racism.The American Civil Rights movement has been made up of many movements. The term usually refers to the political struggles and reform movements between 1945 and 1970 to end discrimination against African Americans and to end legal racial segregation, especially in the U.S. South.This article focuses on an earlier phase of the struggle. Two United States Supreme Court decisions—Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), which upheld "separate but equal" racial segregation as constitutional doctrine, and Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) which overturned Plessy—serve as milestones. This was an era of stops and starts, in which some movements, such as Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association, achieved great success butleft little lasting legacy, while others, such as the NAACP's painstaking legal assault on state-sponsored segregation, achieved modest results in its early years but made steady progress on voter rights and gradually built to a key victory in Brown v. Board of Education.After the Civil War, the U. S. expanded the legal rights of African Americans. Congress passed, and enough states ratified, an amendment ending slavery in 1865—the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment only outlawed slavery; it did not provide equal rights, nor citizenship. In 1868, the 14th Amendment was ratified by the states, granting African Americans citizenship. Black persons born in the U. S. were extended equal protection under the laws of the Constitution. The 15th Amendment was ratified in (1870), which stated that race could not be used as a condition to deprive men of the ability to vote. During Reconstruction (1865-1877), Northern troops occupied the South. Together with the Freedmen's Bureau, they tried to administer and enforce the new constitutional amendments. Many black leaders were elected to local and state offices, and others organized community groups.Reconstruction ended following the Compromise of 1877 between Northern and Southern white elites. In exchange for deciding the contentious Presidential election in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, supported by Northern states, over his opponent, Samuel J. Tilden, the compromise called for the withdrawal of Northern troops from the South. This followed violence and fraud in southern elections in 1876, which had reduced black voter turnout and enabled Southern white Democrats to regain power in state legislatures across the South. The compromise and withdrawal of Federal troops meant that white Democrats had more freedom to impose and enforce discriminatory practices. Many African Americans responded to the withdrawal of federal troops by leaving the South in what is known as the Kansas Exodus of 1879.The Radical Republicans, who spearheaded Reconstruction, had attempted to eliminate both governmental and private discrimination by legislation. That effort was largely ended by the Supreme Court's decision in the Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883), in which the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give Congress power to outlaw racialdiscrimination by private individuals or businesses.SegregationThe Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld state-mandated discrimination in public transportation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. While in the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn state statutes that disfranchised African Americans, as in Guinn v. United States (1915), with Plessy, it upheld segregation that Southern states enforced in nearly every other sphere of public and private life.As Justice Harlan, the only member of the Court to dissent from the decision, predicted:If a state can prescribe, as a rule of civil conduct, that whites and blacks shall not travel as passengers in the same railroad coach, why may it not so regulate the use of the streets of its cities and towns as to compel white citizens to keep on one side of a street, and black citizens to keep on the other? Why may it not, upon like grounds, punish whites and blacks whoride together in street cars or in open vehicles on a public road or street? . . . .The Court soon extended Plessy to uphold segregated schools. In Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908), the Court upheld a Kentucky statute that barred Berea College, a private institution, from teaching both black and white students in an integrated setting. Many states, particularly in the South, took Plessy and Berea as blanket approval for restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, that created second-class status for African-Americans.In many cities and towns, African-Americans were not allowed to share a taxi with whites or enter a building through the same entrance. They had to drink from separate water fountains, use separate restrooms, attend separate schools, be buried in separate cemeteries and even swear on separate Bibles. They were excluded from restaurants and public libraries. Many parks barred them with signs that read "Negroes and dogs not allowed." One municipal zoo went so far as to list separate visiting hours.The etiquette of racial segregation was even harsher, particularly in the South. African Americans were expected to step aside to let a white person pass, and black men dared not look any white woman in the eye. Black men and women were addressed as "Tom" or "Jane", but rarely as "Mr." or "Miss" or "Mrs." Whites referred to black men of any age as "boy" and a black woman as "girl"; both often were called by labels such as "nigger" or "colored."Less formal social segregation in the North began to yield to change.Jackie Robinson’s Major League Baseball debut, 1947Jackie Robinson was a sports pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement. Jackie Robinson is most well known for becoming the first African American to play professional sports in the major leagues. He is not often recognized as one of earliest public figures in the Civil Rights Movement. He debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers of Major League Baseball on April 15, 1947. Jackie Robinson's first major league game came one year before the U.S. Army was integrated, sevenyears before Brown v. Board of Education, eight years before Rosa Parks, and before Martin Luther King Jr. was leading the Civil Rights Movement. Jackie Robinson stepped into the spotlight before many of the most notable people in the Civil Rights Movement history. Every day he played, he was an example and role model for countless children and youths.DisfranchisementMain article: Disfranchisement after the Civil WarBy the turn of the century, white-dominated Southern legislatures disfranchised nearly all age-eligible African American voters through a combination of statute and constitutional provisions. While requirements applied to all citizens, in practice, they were targeted at blacks and poor whites, and subjectively administered. In addition, opponents of black civil rights used economic reprisals and sometimes violence in the 1880s to discourage blacks from registering to vote.Mississippi was the first state to have such constitutionalprovisions, such as poll taxes, literacy tests (which depended on subjective by white registrars), and complicated record keeping to establish residency, litigated before the Supreme Court. In 1898 the Court upheld the state, in Williams v. Mississippi. Other Southern states quickly adopted the "Mississippi plan", and from 1890-1908, ten states adopted new constitutions with provisions to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites. States continued to disfranchise these groups for decades. Blacks were most adversely affected, as in many states black voter turnout dropped to zero. Poor whites were also disfranchised. In Alabama, for instance, by 1941, 600,000 poor whites had been disfranchised, and 520,000 blacks.[1]It was not until the 20th century that litigation by African Americans on such provisions began to meet some success before the Supreme Court. In 1915 in Guinn v. United States, the Court declared Oklahoma's "grandfather law", to be unconstitutional. Although the decision affected all states that used the grandfather clause, state legislatures quickly devised new devices to continue disfranchisement. Each provision or statute had to be litigated separately. One device theDemocratic Party began to use more widely in Southern states was the white primary, which served for decades to disfranchise the few blacks who managed to get past barriers of voter registration. Barring blacks from voting in the Democratic Party primaries meant they had no chance to vote in the only competitive contests. White primaries were not struck down by the Supreme Court until Smith v. Allwright in 1944.Criminal law and lynchingIn 1880, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303 (1880) that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. The late 19th century disfranchisement of blacks in the South, however, meant that blacks were routinely barred from jury service, as it was reserved for voters only. This left them at the mercy of a white justice system arrayed against them. In some states, particularly Alabama, the state used the criminal justice system to reestablish a form of peonage in the form of the convict-lease system. The state sentenced black males to years of imprisonment, which they spent working without pay. Thestate leased prisoners to private employers, such as Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company, a subsidiary of United States Steel Corporation, which paid the state for their labor. Because the state made money, the system created incentives for the jailing of more men, who were disproportionately black. It also created a system in which treatment of prisoners received little oversight.Extra-judicial punishment was even more brutal. During the last decade of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century, white vigilantes lynched thousands of black males, sometimes with the overt assistance of state officials, mostly within the South. No whites were charged with crimes in any of those massacres. Whites were, in fact, so confident of their immunity from prosecution for lynching that they not only photographed the victims, but made postcards out of the pictures.The Ku Klux Klan, which had largely disappeared after a brief violent career in the early years of Reconstruction, reappeared in 1915. It grew mostly in industrializing cities of the South and Midwest that underwent the most rapid growth from1910-1930. Social instability contributed to racial tensions from severe competition for jobs and housing. People joined KKK groups who were anxious about their place in American society, as cities were rapidly changed by a combination of industrialization, migration of blacks and whites from the rural South, and waves of increased immigration from mostly rural southern and eastern Europe.[2]Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie Birth of a Nation, which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.[3]Segregated economic life and educationIn addition to excluding blacks from equal participation in many areas of public life, white society also kept blacks in a position of economic subservience or marginality. After widespread losses from disease and financial failures in the late 19th c., black farmers in the South worked in virtual economic bondage as sharecroppers or tenant farmers. Employers and labor unions generally restricted African Americans to the worst paid and least desirable jobs. Because of the lack of steady, well-paid jobs, relatively undistinguished positions, such as those with the Pullman Porter or as hotel doorman, became prestigious positions in black communities.The Jim Crow system that excluded African-Americans from many areas of economic life led to creation of a vigorous, but stunted economic life within the segregated sphere. Black newspapers sprang up throughout the North, while black owners of insurance and funeral establishments acquired disproportionate influence as both economic and political leaders.Continuing to see education as the primary route ofadvancement and critical for the race, many talented blacks went into teaching, which had high respect as a profession. Segregated schools for blacks were underfunded in the South and ran on shortened schedules in rural areas. Despite segregation in Washington, DC, by contrast, as Federal employees, black and white teachers were paid on the same scale. Outstanding black teachers in the North received advanced degrees and taught in highly regarded schools, which trained the next generation of leaders in cities such as Chicago, Washington, and New York.Education, in fact, was one of the major achievements of the black community in the 19th century. Blacks in Reconstruction governments had supported the establishment of public education in every Southern state. Despite the difficulties, with the enormous eagerness of freedmen for education, by 1900 the African-American community had trained and put to work 30,000 African-American teachers in the South. In addition, a majority of the black population had achieved literacy.[4] Not all the teachers had a full 4-year college degree in those years, but the shorter terms of normal schools were part of the system of teacher training in both theNorth and the South to serve the many new communities across the frontier. African American teachers got many children and adults started on education.Northern alliances had helped fund normal schools and colleges to teach African American teachers, as well as create other professional classes. African Americans reached out for education at these historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). After the turn of the century, black men and women began to found their own fraternities and sororities to create networks for lifelong service and collaboration. These were part of the new organizations that strengthened community life.The Black churchAs the center of community life, Black churches held a leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement. Their history as a focal point for the Black community and as a link between the Black and White worlds made them natural for this purpose. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. was but one of many notable Black ministers involved in the movement. RalphDavid Abernathy, Bernard Lee, Fred Shuttlesworth, and C.T. Vivian are among the many notable minister-activists.[5] They were especially important during the later years of the movement in the 1950s and 1960s.The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACPAt the turn of the century, Booker T. Washington was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African-Americans in the U. S. Washington, who led the Tuskegee Institute, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they "deserved" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of Jim Crow and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund court cases challenging the laws.W.E.B. Du Bois and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, Monroe Trotter, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in Boston in1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of the river at Niagara Falls. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the vocational education that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis.Du Bois joined with other black leaders and Jewish activists, such as Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. W.E.B. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's "grandfather clause" that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disenfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).The NAACP lobbied against President Wilson's introduction of racial segregation into Federal government employment and offices in 1913. They lobbied for commissioning of African Americans as officers in World War I. In 1915 the NAACP organized public education and protests in cities across the nation against D.W. Griffith's silent film Birth of a Nation, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. Some cities refused to allow the film to open.。

美国种族歧视英文课件

Housing inequality
Housing inequality is another manifestation of racial discrimination.
In the United States, residents of different races have significant differences in housing choices, rent, and housing prices. Black and Latinx Americans often live in less ideal communities, facing higher housing costs and fewer opportunities.
目录
• The impact and sequences of racial discrimination
• Strategies and actions to address racial discrimination
• Conclusion
01 Introduction
Theme Introduction
The movement received significant successes, including the passing of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act, which outlines racial discrimination and provided access to voting rights for all citizens
English courseware on racial discrimination in the

Grant_and_Lee_a study in contrasts

人物介绍：
Robert Edward Lee
Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a career United States Army officer, an engineer, and among the most celebrated generals in American history. Lee was the son of Major General Henry Lee III "Light Horse Harry" (1756–1818), Governor of Virginia, and his second wife, Anne Hill Carter (1773– 1829). He was also related to Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809). A top graduate of West Point, Lee distinguished himself as an exceptional soldier in the U.S. Army for thirty-two years. He is best known for commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War.
大学英语综合教程五
第五单元文章
Grant and Lee
化工2班张风光
人物介绍：
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant
Grant, the son of a tanner on the Western frontier, was everything Lee was not. He had come up the hard way, and embodied nothing in particular except the eternal toughness and sinewy fiber of the men who grew up beyond the mountains. He was one of a body of men who owed reverence and obeisance to no one, who were selfreliant to a fault, who cared hardly anything for the past but who had a sharp eye for the future.

美国历届总统

罗纳德· 里根 Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) The oldest US president Star war project (1982)
The only US president who
was once an actor 1980s ----Reagon Times hit by the bullet but survived
Barack Obama 贝拉克.奥巴马（2009-）
• The first African American president • Won Nobel Peace prize in 2009
The third US president who was assassinated
西奥多· 罗斯福 Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) graduated from Harvard Unverisity Won Nobel Peace prize in 1906 Grand Canyon National Park
Veto president 22nd and 24th president in the US(1897-1901)
prosperity president Spanish American War
Joined eight-power allied force
乔治· 布什
George Herbert Walker Bush(1989-1993)
Disintegration of the former SU(1991) Gulf War I (1991)
比尔· 克林顿 Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
Impeachment bill Three pillars of Clinton administration Whitewatergate Zippergate

英国政体总介绍(中英文)

英国指南.英国的内政.英国的政体（1）君主政制女王拥有什么权力？王国政府代表英王（即宪法赋予其统治王国权力的人）及政府，也是最高行政机构的象征。

英女王拥有王国政府的统治权，但行使有关权力的，一般都是向国会负责的部长级官员，因此英国实际上是由英国政府代替女王管治的。

然而，大部分重要的政府议案仍须得到女王同意方可获得通过。

国会女王有权召开、解散或下令国会休会。

新一年度国会在召开第一次会议前，女王均会发表一篇由政府官员撰写的演辞，内容主要简述政府新一年的工作大纲。

每项议案均须得到女王在国会两院宣布正式批准方能成为法律。

女王在部长的建议下有权特赦囚犯或宣布减刑。

根据法律规定，女王个人是不会犯法的——因为她获民事及刑事起诉的豁免权，法庭也不能起诉她。

然而，其他王室成员却不能享有该项豁免权。

勋衔及委任女王有权册封贵族、颁授爵位及其他勋衔。

受勋人士名单通常由首相提名，但某些勋衔则由女王自己决定。

许多重要的国家职位均由女王委任，人选则由首相或有关内阁大臣提名。

外交政策各国派驻伦敦的外交人员均须得到女王的同意，她有权缔结条约、发动战争或议和、确认海外国家及政府、吞并及割让领土。

枢密院女王负责主持枢密院的会议。

按君主特权所订立的枢密令，以及其他法令均是由枢密院通过的。

君主特权包括组织行政机关，而政府的权力则受制于宪法习惯（这些规则本身并非法律，但对政府的运作却异常重要）。

所有涉及君主特权的行为，均须由有关部长负责执行，他们须向国会负责，并就各项政策接受国会议员的质询。

国会有权撤消或限制有关特权的行使。

除了听取各项报告外，女王也可随时就国民生活情况向其官员发表意见。

为什么英女王有两个生日呢？女王的出生日期是在4月21日。

但传统以来，英国人都习惯于夏天庆祝君王的寿辰。

由1805年起，英国人开始以举行军旗礼来庆祝君王的官方寿辰，日期通常是定于6月的第二个周末。

这个仪式的本来目的是让士兵熟识其所属兵团的旗帜式样，以便日后行军打仗时易于识别。

英语国家概况复习整理

英语国家概况复习整理英语国家概况复习整理一、单选题知识点：1.英国部分英国的主要岛屿：Great Britain and IrelandEdinburgh(爱丁堡)是苏格兰的首都英国有超过60 million的人口Northern Ireland是4个英国组成部分中最小的一个1/4 人口住在southeastern England英语属于Indo-European 语系中的Germanic(日耳曼语)基督教额引入为英国添加了第一笔 Latin and Greek色彩中世界英语被Norman influence强化塞缪尔.约翰逊的词典的意义是建立了Spelling的标准目前，将近a quarter的世界人口讲英文The Gremanic对罗马的进攻结束了罗马人占领英国在7世纪晚期，Roman Christianity(天主教会)处于英格兰的主导地位Westminster Abbey(威斯敏斯特教堂)建立在Edward the confessor(忏悔者爱德华)时期The Norman conquest 标志着Feudalism(封建制度)在英国的建立玫瑰花战争带来the House of Tudor的统治宗教改革(Religious Reformation)的直接原因是亨利三世国王divorce his wife英国革命在1642年爆发于Royalists and Parliamentarians(保皇党人和国会议员)之间Bill of Right(人权法案)在Glorious Revolution (光荣革命)后被通过19世纪中期英国的Industrial Revolution完成英国在20世纪初期面临着强烈的全球帝国统治挑战英国政府的三权分立：judiciary(司法),legislature(立法)及executive(行政)，而不包括momarchy(君主) 英国君主的重要性体现在他在public attitude方面的影响British Cabinet(内阁)在Collective responsibility(集体负责制)的原则下工作英国Priry Council(枢密院)的主要责任是Give advice英国议会大选每5年举行一次Scotland拥有建立在罗马法律基础上的独特的法律系统英国议会的经营是two-party(两党的)模式保守党的政策是典型的Pragmatism(实用主义)和a belief in individualism(个人主义的信仰)工会党(The Labor Prty)的影响是建立了全国健康服务体制(National Health Service)英国经济到1800s实现了全球统治在1946年，英国议会通过了两个重要法案，建立了福利规定1970s早期的The oil crisis(石油危机)恶化了本来已经不景气的英国经济布莱尔政府没有在reducing inequality方面获得成功英国开垦了74%的土地用于发展农业英国的渔业地区不包括The sea area between Britain and Ireland在英国，煤矿产业提供了1/4的能源英国汽车产业几乎全部是Foreign-owned(外企)英国文艺复兴时期最光辉的成就是drama(戏剧)"Preface to Lyrical Ballads"是浪漫诗的开篇之作Thomas Hardy 是19世纪批判现实主义的代表Waiting for Godot是Samuel Bekett 写的2.美国部分美国大陆上有48个statesAlaska是最大的州美国在 central North America ,加拿大在它的北面，墨西哥在南面，大西洋在它的东面，太平洋在它的西面美国最大的河流是Mississippi River哈佛、耶鲁和MIT等著名大学位于New EnglandNiagara Falls(尼亚加拉瀑布)位于美国-加拿大边境上阿拉斯加人口中没有the Blacks美国最大的少数民族是the Blacks1924年的移民法案限制美国的进一步移民，尤其是来自欧洲的美国文化主流的特点是：English-speaking,Western European,Protestant and Middle-class第一个北美殖民地建立在Jamestorn,VirginiaPilrim Fathers 是一群Paritans(清教徒)，他们为了逃避在英国的迫害而来到美国7年战争发生在French and British之间"No taxation without represtation"是The people of 13 colonies的口号美国独立战争的第一枪在Lexingto (列克星顿)打响1775年5月，The second continenta congrsee 在Philadelphia举行林肯签发了Declaration of Independence承诺给予所以奴隶自由第二次世界大战开始时，美国是neutrality(中立的)政策Roosevelt(罗斯福)新政处理了大萧条的问题越南战争继续受Eisenhower,kennedy and johnson的影响美国的ore(矿石)只占世界很小部分现代美国经济经历了faming economy,handcraft economy,最终形成industrial economy第一家国家银行是在Alexander Hamilton时期建立的美国1/3粮食用于出口目前，美国出口占世界10%美国常规教育包括elementary,secondary and higher education美国高等教育开始于Harvard University 的建立MIT没有出过总统美国国庆节在July 4thWashington Irving 是美国文学之父Tony Morrison是第一个获得诺贝尔奖文学奖的非裔美国人二、名词解释：1. American Civil War(美国内战)American Civil War is a war that was fought in the US between 1861 and 1865 when 11 southern states rebelled against the federal government. The southern states were beaten, and as a result of the war, slaves became free.2.Melting pot and salad(大熔炉)The melting pot is an analogy for the way in which homogeneous societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures, races and religions) are combined so as to develop a multi-ethnic society. The term, which originates from the United States, is often used to describe societies experiencing large scale immigration from many different countries.3.American Constitution(美国宪法)American Constitution，which was drawn up in 1787 and came into effect in 1789,is the basic law of the land.For over two centuries,it has guided the development of government institution and has the basis for the nation，s political stability,economic growth and social progress.4.Cold War(冷战)In the spring of 1947 ,for the purpose of establishing theU.S.hegenmiony(霸权) in postwar world,President Truman declared the "Tueman Doctrine",aiming at expanding American sphere of influence.This marked the beginning of the Cold War period.the Cold War exerted great influence in Europe,and two Germanys were founded.Then,in April 1949,the U.S.allied with other Western countries,forming the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.While seeking to prevent Communist ideology from gaining further adherents(追随者) in Europe, the U.S.also responded to the challenges elsewhere.5.Thanksgiving(感恩节)Thanksgiving is a associated with the time when Europeans first came to the New World.In1620,the Mayflower arrived and brought about 150 Pilgrims.Life at the beginning was very hard and there was not enough food,so many of them died.During the following summer the Native Americans helped them and then they had a bountiful harvest.So they held a big celebration to thank God and the Native Americans.6.British Labor Party(英国工会党)British Labor Party known as a party of high taxation,was created by the growing trade union movement at the end of the 19th century.It quickly replaced the Liberal Party as one of the two largest political parties.The Labor government that come to power in 1945 had a major effort on British society. It set up the National Health Service.The party activities are largely funded by the trade unions.7.British Conservative Party(英国保守党)By and large, the Conservative Party is supported by those who have something to "conserve".Economically,the Conservative Party supports free enterprise and privatization of state-owned enterprise.It is against too much governmentintervention,especially nationalization.The Conservative Party favors reducing the influence of trade unions and minimizing expenditures on social welfare.Its policies are charactized by pragmatism and a belied in individualism./doc/604515591.html,monwealth of Nations（联邦国家）The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign statse,all of which acknowledge the British monarch as the head.The Commonwealth is not a political union of any sort,and its member states have full autonomy to manage their internal and external affairs.It is primarily an organization in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction after gaining independence.The major activities of the Commonwealth are designed to advocate democracy,human rights,and to promote economic cooperation and growth within its members.9.Critical Realism(批判现实主义)The Critical Realism of the 19th centry flourished in the 1840s and the early 1850s.The Critical Realism described the chief traits of the society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint.The greatest English realist was Charles Dickens.10.Standard English (标准英语)Standard English is based on the speech of the upper class of southeastern England.It is widely used in media and taught at school .It is preferred by the educated,middle-class people .It has developed and has been promoted as a model for correct British English .It is also the norm carried overseas.Today Standard English is codified to the extent that the grammar and vocabularyare much the same everywhere in the world where English is thought and used.三、简答题：1.what is the full name of the UK?The full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland2.why do tourists from all over the world like to go to Scotland?They like to enjoy the beautiful Scottish scenery ,to drink Scotch whisky and to see Scotsmen wearing kilts and playing bagpipes.3.How many periods can the development of the English language be divided into and what are they ?The development of the English language can be divided into three periods : Old English ,Middle English and Modern English.4.Why did English become more important after the Black Death?The laboring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance after the Black Death,so English also grew in importance compare to French.。

Explore the Teaching Reform Path of Civil Engineer

Explore the T eaching Reform Path of Civil Engineering Major Based on the Curriculum Ideological and Political HorizonWenqian ZhangT aiShan UniversityAbstract: Under the background of ideological and political courses, we need to integrate professional learning and ideological and political background. Most universities in China combine the learning of civil engineering major and ideological and political education, but in the process of combination, there are some problems that cannot not connect smoothly, such as innovation in content form and so on.Colleges and universities breed fresh blood, and both their ideological foundation and learning quality all influence the talent reserve of the society. Only based on certain educational innovation can the reform of civil engineering professional teaching under the ideological and political vision of the curriculum be promoted. Keywords: Course thinking and politics; Civil engineering; Professional teachingDOI:10.47297/ wsprolaadWSP2634-786511.202102041. ForewordG eneral Secretary Xi Jinping, in the ideological and political work of colleges anduniversities, should put moral education in the whole education, pay attention to the penetration of ideological and political education in professional education, grasp the limited time of the classroom, and fully mobilize students’ enthusiasm and interest of students to participate in the classroom.All kinds of courses and ideological and political education are not two independent courses, but an integrated and interactive community. According to General Secretary Xi Jinping’s speech, all universities must mobilize personnel in the school to fully implement General Secretary Xi Jinping’s requirements for college education. Accumulate certain educational experience in continuous practice and implementation, and make the integration of ideological and political education and professional education more natural under the exchange of experience more natural.2. The Course of Ideological and Political Requirements(1) Fully regulate the role of recessive and explicit educationAs a course starting from thought, ideological and politics needs to be integrated withAbout the author: Wenqian Zhang (1986-02), female, Han nationality. Taian City, Shandong Province, master’s degree, TaiShan University, lecturer, civil engineering structure.Research on Literary and Art Development Vol.2 No.4 2021 courses with high theoretical knowledge and practical requirements, that is, the integration of explicit courses and implicit courses.In promoting ideological and political education, colleges and universities all rely on the ideological and political courses. The ideological and political needs of the curriculum should fully combine Marxist theory and excellent traditional Chinese culture, and let students form a correct three views under strengthening the cultivation of students’ core literacy, which is the goal and requirement of college teaching and education.In addition, as other courses of integrated majors, they need to be consistent with the goals of ideological and political education when changing the teaching mode and teaching goals, and permeate the concept of ideological and political education in the process, so as to achieve imperceptible influence.The ideological and political affairs of the course have played a guiding role, so that students can still maintain a positive, healthy and upward attitude in their daily professional learning[1].(2) Pay attention to the unity of theoretical knowledge and spiritual disseminationAfter the ideological and political courses are put forward, the professional curriculum cultivation system of the major universities has had further development and new requirements.When learning all kinds of subjects, students need to combine part of the course, and cannot escape the requirements and regulations of the ideological and politics of the course.College students often learn theoretical knowledge carried out based on the knowledge of the whole major, on the other hand, they also lay a foundation for future employment, but the learning of knowledge often has certain defects, which involves the cultivation of character.Therefore, the requirements for strengthening the relationship between the humanities and science disciplines are increasing. Therefore, in the process of promoting the combination of curriculum ideological and political practice and various disciplines, teachers should be sensitive to capture the points that can be integrated with the curriculum ideological and political practice of the discipline, so as to achieve not only the learning of professional knowledge, but also the absorption of humanistic knowledge. It is worth noting that colleges and universities should actively explore the new elements behind the ideological and politics of the courses, and combine them with the potential ideological content in the professional courses, so as to open an innovative road of professional knowledge learning.3. Ideological and Political Education Objectives of Civil Engineering MajorThe study of civil engineering major includes fluid mechanics, structural mechanics, theoretical mechanics and other theories, which jointly support the basic framework of civil engineering major.Through the study of these theoretical knowledge, it is found that civil engineering is a comprehensive professional course that includes aspects far beyond imagination.Therefore, the students who study in this major have many fields of expertise after graduation, and their practical ability is better than the other majors.Civil engineering major requires the students to cultivate to have strict engineering thinking, in the process of promoting the project to pay attention to every detail, to ensure that the project is safe. As a teacher of civil engineering major, it is necessary to constantly explore their own knowledge reserve and ability, and to revise the curriculum outline and teaching objectivesResearch on Literary and Art Development Vol.2 No.4 2021in time according to the national requirements of the cultivation of civil engineering major. Combined with the characteristics of the civil engineering specialty, The requirements of course ideological politics should be set out from the following perspectives: First, From the perspective of the all-round development of Germany, intelligence, body and beauty, Treat students’ professional quality cultivation with a comprehensive vision, Form team awareness and cooperation ability in the atmosphere; next, Students learn professional knowledge in order to avoid the use of relevant knowledge to cause adverse effects on the society, Teachers should integrate ideas and theories into them, Establish the correct professional ethics and professional quality among the students; last, Theoretical knowledge of safety awareness should be added among students, Every operation involved in civil engineering may cause a safety accident due to improper operation, thus, Safety awareness is even more important[2].4. Teaching Problems of Civil Engineering Major under the Ideological and Political Horizon(1) The degree of course ideological and political integration with professional teaching is not enoughIn today’s era, curriculum ideological and politics has become a new trend of education in the 21st century. Many universities are scrambling to participate in the curriculum reform, but they ignore the characteristics of the school’s major in the process of curriculum reform, and just blindly follow suit.When combining the course ideological and politics with civil engineering major, they only considered the time of the course and ignored the quality of the course. Therefore, after the reform, the degree of civil engineering and course ideological and politics is not high.At present, there are few universities that effectively integrate ideological and political courses and professional learning, so fewer universities that can provide experience decline.In addition, for the new ideological and political policies of the curriculum, many teachers have not yet understood the secret meaning behind it, and finally the effect of the combination of ideological and political courses and civil engineering is unsatisfactory, unable to attract students’ interest in learning, thus reducing the quality and efficiency of the whole civil engineering professional knowledge professors.(2) The integration of ideological and political courses and professional teaching is not in placeThe students majoring in civil engineering believe that the integration of ideological and political courses and professional teaching mainly lies in the teachers, and the correlation with the students is not high, and this cognition is wrong.In the process of teaching, some teachers focus most of the key on the teaching of professional knowledge, and the content involved in ideological and moral cultivation does not meet the basic requirements of curriculum ideological and politics, which belongs to a formal integration of curriculum ideological and politics and professional teaching.Some teachers have deviations in concept. They think that they only shoulder the responsibility of conveying knowledge, while moral cultivation is not within the scope of their responsibilities. The subject of moral cultivation should be counselors. This wrong understanding affects theResearch on Literary and Art Development Vol.2 No.4 2021 progress and quality of the integration of ideological and political and civil engineering[3].5. Effective Path of Course Integration of Ideological and Political and Civil Engineering(1) Reflecideological and political education in the teaching contentThe study of the professional course theory and the ideological and political content of the course should be harmoniously linked together, and the students can virtually feel the hidden values concepts.The content of the course focuses on cultivating what kind of talent, how to cultivate a good talent and other aspects, and the course professional theory learning focuses on how to let students to conduct a project operation, how to conduct social practice, in order to better integrate the two together, teachers can explain professional knowledge, through some stories make the whole professional knowledge learning more vivid.For example, when teaching the professional knowledge of civil engineering, teachers can interspersed with some processes and stages about the formation of theoretical knowledge. These processes and stages can take the exploration process of key figures as the main line and guide students to understand the learning of theoretical knowledge from the perspective of thought.For some experience involving professional knowledge, students should seriously accept the experience combined with the background of The Times, and transform some experience into their own precious wealth, do not copy the knowledge on the book, but to design an effective civil engineering according to the law of social development through real practice.(2) Strengthen the cultivation of moral thoughtCivil engineering is closely related to the safety of personal life and property, and the quality of engineering affects the safety of individuals.Therefore, students engaged in civil engineering major should actively follow the laws and regulations promulgated by the state, according to the national unified standards for engineering quality of engineering design, strictly regulate personal behavior with high standards, and fulfill their duties and obligations as a staff member after understanding the quality standards of the civil engineering.(3) Add the ideological and political content according to the civil engineering casesTeachers in civil engineering teaching should let students fully understand the history and law of the discipline development, such as the construction of the pearl river bridge, the three gorges dam in China gave students full inspiration experience, when introducing the successful cases to the students, can effectively stimulate students to explore civil engineering innovation, in the process of gradually building project form a certain sense of pride and national confidence.When passing on safety awareness to students, teachers can use some examples of safety accidents caused by poor quality, so that students can dig deeply into the experience existing in the examples, analyze the main causes of the safety accident and use it to regulate their future practical behavior as experience.Research on Literary and Art Development Vol.2 No.4 20216. Summary LanguageIn general, the integration of civil engineering and thinking and politics can effectively promote the unity of knowledge and morality, and fully realize the concept of teaching and education in colleges and universities.If it is necessary to further improve the teaching quality of civil engineering major, it is necessary to start from the course of ideological and political affairs, and enrich the teaching content of civil engineering major, so that the civil engineering major students can truly become excellent talents with the double guarantee of professional theoretical knowledge and moral quality.References[1] Li Li, Peng Miaojuan.—— “takes the course of “Road Planning and Design” as anexample” [J].Reading and Writing: Early ten days, 2019 (4): 2.[2] Cai Yanyan. “Education and teaching reform of civil engineering major under thecurriculum ideological and political horizon” [J].2021(2020-1):95-98.[3] Song seedlings.“Teaching Reform and Practice of Civil Engineering under Ideological andPolitical Vision” [J]. Modern V ocational Education, 2020, No.223(49):76-77.。

The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Civil_Service_Examination

When it came to scholarship and politics in the early stages of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Qian Mu 钱穆 (1895–1990) drew the following conclusions,
e present paper is a preliminary result of the major project e Study of the Four Books and Traditional Chinese oughts [四书学与中国思想传统研究] supported by the 2015 National Social Science Fund of China (Project No.
Contrary to Qian’s assertion, which re ected the general trend in terms of the development of keju 科举 (a civil-service examination system in imperial China) in the Ming dynasty, the truth about keju in the early Ming period (which for the purposes of this paper refers exclusively to the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 [r. 1368–1398], the founding emperor of Ming) was completely di erent. In the early days of the dynasty, the keju underwent a tortuous process in which it was reinstated, abrogated, and nally restored and its subjects of examination constantly changed as the process went on. It was through this process that we can observe the basic mode of governance and the general trend of Confucian classics studies at that time, as well as how Zhu Yuanzhang perceived the Confucian classics. In this sense, keju was a good lens through which we may grasp the interaction of scholarship and politics in the early Ming period.

司马光简介英语作文

司马光简介英语作文Sima Guang was a renowned Chinese historian, statesman, and scholar of the Northern Song Dynasty. Born in 1019, he is best known for his monumental work, the "Zizhi Tongjian," which translates to "Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance." This historical text is a detailed chronicle of Chinese history, spanning over 2,500 years from the legendary Yellow Emperor to the Song Dynasty.Raised in a scholarly family, Sima Guang received an excellent education and passed the imperial examinations at a young age. He quickly rose through the ranks of the civil service, becoming a prominent figure in the government. His political career was marked by his dedication to reform and his insistence on the importance of moral integrity in public service.Sima Guang's "Zizhi Tongjian" is a testament to his scholarly pursuits. It took him 19 years to complete, and the work consists of 294 volumes, covering a vast array of historical events and figures. His approach to history was meticulous and objective, striving to present a balanced view of the past. The "Zizhi Tongjian" is still considered one of the most important historical texts in Chinese literature.In addition to his historical work, Sima Guang was also a philosopher and a poet. His ideas on governance and his moral philosophy had a profound influence on the intellectualclimate of his time. He advocated for a government that was both benevolent and efficient, and he believed in the importance of education in maintaining social order.Sima Guang passed away in 1086, leaving behind a legacy that continues to be revered by scholars and students of history. His life and work are celebrated for their contributions to the understanding of Chinese history and for the enduring value of his insights into governance and ethics.。

小学上册Y卷英语第三单元期末试卷

小学上册英语第三单元期末试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The ________ was a famous philosopher who influenced Western thought.2.Fish live in ______.3.I am fascinated by science. Experiments show how things work in our world. One experiment I enjoyed was __________ because it taught me __________.4.I have a toy _______ that spins around.5.The Earth's magnetic field protects us from ______.6.The stars are ______ in the night sky. (visible)7.Vinegar is an example of an __________.8.The _____ (荆棘) can be sharp.9.I have a ______ (new) backpack for school.10.She has a ______ dog. (small)11.Planting native species can enhance the ecological ______ of an area. (种植本地物种可以增强一个地区的生态多样性。

)12.My brother likes to solve ____ (math problems).13.I love to explore ________ (博物馆) on weekends.14.The birds are _______ in the trees.15.Salt forms when an acid reacts with a ________.16.What do we call a person who studies the interactions between different communities?A. SociologistB. AnthropologistC. EcologistD. HistorianA17.My __________ (玩具名) is very __________ (形容词) and fun.18.I saw a ________ at the pet shop.19.The _______ (The Progressive Era) sought social and political reform.20. A ______ can glide through the air.21.What is the capital of Montserrat?A. PlymouthB. BradesC. Little BayD. SalemB22. A rabbit's strongest sense is ________________ (嗅觉).23.The capital of Mexico is _____.24.In a chemical equation, coefficients are used to balance the number of _____ on each side.25.The stars are ___ (twinkling/shining).26.My aunt loves __________ (旅游).27.When it snows, I enjoy making __________ with my friends. (雪人)28.The filmmaker explores diverse _____ (主题) in his work.29. A _____ is a low area of land.30. A ________ can be a great pet.31.The park is very ________.32.What do we call a story that is based on real events?A. FictionB. NonfictionC. BiographyD. Autobiography33.What do you call a shape with three sides?A. TriangleB. SquareC. CircleD. RectangleA34.What do you call a person who writes poetry?A. PoetB. NovelistC. PlaywrightD. StorytellerA35.What do you call the main character in a story?A. AntagonistB. ProtagonistC. HeroD. VillainB36.I enjoy watching movies about my favorite ____ characters. (玩具名称)37. A __________ (活性) indicates how readily a substance will react.38.I saw a ______ (小鸟) in the tree. It was singing a ______ (歌).39.How many legs does a crab have?A. SixB. EightC. TenD. TwelveC40.Certain plants can ______ (为动物提供) food and habitat.41.What do we call a period of 100 years?A. CenturyB. DecadeC. YearD. Millennium42.The ______ helps us understand the world.43.What is the primary color of the sun?A. YellowB. BlueC. GreenD. RedA44.What do we call the part of a tree that grows underground?A. TrunkB. BranchC. LeafD. RootD Root45.She _____ (plays/played) violin beautifully.46.The city of Nicosia is the capital of _______.47.Deserts receive very little ________.48.My cousin is a great __________ (运动员).49.My cousin is learning to play the ____ (saxophone).50.They are watching a _____ (movie/show) together.51.I enjoy collecting _____ from parks.52.The first female Prime Minister of the UK was _______ Thatcher.53.He loves to ___ (travel/study).54.What is the process of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly called?A. MetamorphosisB. EvolutionC. TransformationD. DevelopmentA55.She is ___ to music. (listening)56. A crab scuttles sideways on the _______ looking for food.57.I want to be a _______ (科学家) when I grow up.58.My brother loves __________ (看电影).59.Some _______ can be very hardy and resilient.60.The _____ (梅花鹿) is graceful and lives in forests. 梅花鹿优雅地生活在森林里。

论政府规制对中国民用航空业发展的作用

上海财经大学硕士学位论文论政府规制对中国民用航空业发展的作用姓名：***申请学位级别：硕士专业：公共经济政策学指导教师：***20080530摘要摘要政府规制对一个国家的经济和生活有相当重大的作用。

民航业的政府规制在政府规制中具有典型性和代表性，在政府规制问题的研究中居于重要的地位。

自从中国正式确立市场经济制度以来，中国民航业实行规制改革历经１０余年，在打破垄断、引入竞争方面取得了一定的成效。

但是，我国民航业的规制体制并未完全确立，即并不存在以矫正和改善市场机制内在问题为目的政府规制，有关“由谁规制、规制什么、规制谁、谁来规制规制者＂的问题也并未得到真正解决。

改革２０多年来，市场经济已经居主导地位，民航却是极少数仍由国家发改委和主管部门计划定价和实行最严厉的价规制的行业之一，既是迄今为止极少数保留“政企合一”计划经济体制特征的行业之一，又是极少数行政性垄断市场、地区分割市场、阻碍相关产业发展的特殊利益集团之一。

另外，在民航业越来越全球化的今天，中国航空公司的国内外竞争力不强，与国际一流航空公司的差距甚大。

本文认为，在对民航业以引入竞争、打破垄断为主要内容的放松规制的改革不断推进的今天，对民航业的规制改革不能再是仅仅为了放松规制而放松规制，其改革应转向为在市场经济制度的背景下制订规制，组建新的政府规制体制，而且政府的规制职能也应不断转变。

只有以强有力的规制体制作保障，才能巩固２０多年来民航业在政企分开、引入竞争、打破垄断等领域所取得的改革成果。

全文由六章构成，主要内容如下：第一章，“引言＂，主要内容分别为：文章的主旨和选题意义；国内外研究现状；论文的构成和力图创新之处。

第二章，“民航业的经济特征＂，首先对民航业的行业构成进行了分析，并且根据其经济特征进行了分类。

接下来对其主要的经济特征进行了简要的介绍。

第三章，“我国民航业规制发展的现状及分析’’，对规制改革的历史背景进行了叙述，描述现阶段规制的主要现状并对其进行了相关的分析。

温总理剑桥大学演讲英汉对译稿

老师们，同学们：Ladies and Gentlemen,我之所以强调用发展的眼光看中国，就是因为世界在变，中国也在变。

如今的中国，早已不是一百年前封闭落后的旧中国，也不是３０年前贫穷僵化的中国。

经过改革开放，中国的面貌已焕然一新。

北京奥运会向世界展示的，就是这样一个古老、多彩和现代的中国。

我希望朋友们，多到中国走一走、看一看，了解今天的中国人究竟在想什么、做什么、关心什么。

这样，有助于你们认识一个真实的、不断发展变化着的中国，也有助于你们了解中国是如何应对当前这场全球性金融危机的。

I stress the importance of seeing China in the light of her development, because the world is changing and China is changing. China is no longer the closed and backward society it was 100 years ago, or the poor and ossified society 30 years ago. Thanks to reform and opening-up, China has taken on a new look. What the Beijing Olympic Games showcased is a colorful China, both ancient and modern. I therefore encourage you to visit China more often and see more places there. This way, you will better understand what the Chinese people are thinking and doing, and what they are interested in. You will get to know the true China, a country constantly developing and changing. You will also better appreciate how China has been tackling the ongoing global financial crisis.在这场前所未有的世界金融危机中，中国和包括英国在内的欧洲都受到严重冲击。

公务员制度概论CivilServiceSystem

Significance of the Civil Service System Study
一
研究的内容
The content of study
二
研究的方法
The method of study
三
研究的意义
The significance of study
公务员制度研究的内容 The content of the civil service system study
3．建立公务员制度的意义何在？ What it means to establish the civil service system?
4．公务员制度的基本原则有哪些？ What are the basic principles of the civil service system?
5．西方国家公务员制度的基本特点有哪些？ What are the basic characteristics of the civil service system in western countries ?
生态研究法
Ecological study
比较研究法
Comparative Study
历史研究法
Historical research
以方法为主以内容为实
案例研究法
Case Study
公务员制度研究的意义
The significance of the civil service system study
有助于探索现代国家人事管理的基本规律和普遍趋势
Helpful to explore the basic law and general trend of personnel management in modern states

1999年考研英语答案与解析

【点睛】语义逻辑题。月项蚤灶与悦项燥灶均不能与则葬贼藻搭配，首先排除；粤项干扰性较强，但葬贼贼澡藻则葬贼藻 (燥枣 )意为“以……的速度”，不合题意。
源圆援【粤】葬造蚤增藻除了可以表达“活着的”的含义外，还可表示“发挥作用”，噪藻藻责泽贼澡援葬造蚤增藻意为“有效的，存在的”。
缘远援眼悦演【定位】考点在第三段。
1999- 4

【解析】技术的进步引发了在线营销策略的转变。过去，在线营销致力于吸引顾客，提高网站的访问量。如今，网络公司可以开发软件把产品信息直接送到目标客户的电脑屏幕上。故悦项为正确选项。
【点睛】淤本文的主题是在线商务，所以即使涉及到网络技术也是为在线商务服务的；至于技术本身，并不是作者或读者所应该着重关注的。粤项不正确。
源愿援【悦】文章倒数第二句谈到，伤害的索赔要求越少说明工人的安全率越高。换句话说，安全生产是能得到回报的，悦项责葬赠泽燥枣枣意为“得到报偿，有收获”。
【点睛】词义辨析题。粤项糟燥皂藻泽燥枣枣意为“举行，实现”；月项贼怎则灶泽怎责意为“找到，发现”；阅项澡燥造凿泽怎责意为“阻塞，延误”。
参考译文划线点评
外面是一个危险的世界。走出去，你可能会在门口的防滑垫上滑一下而把腿摔断。升炉子点火，你可能把房子烧掉。幸运的是，如果防滑垫和炉子没有警示字样告诉你有可能出现灾难的话，成功地打一场官司可以弥补你在灾难中遭受的损失。或者，更确切地说，穴缘员雪在愿园年代初期，陪审团开始裁定更多的公司应该对他们的消费者遭受的不幸负法律责任，自此以后，这种想法就深入人心。
公司感到了威胁，他们的对策是书写越来越长的警告标签，竭力预见到一切可能发生的事故。现在，折叠梯都附有几英寸长的标签，除了警告你可能发生的其他意外，它还警告你可能会摔下来—— —这种警告真是莫名其妙。而一个儿童用蝙蝠侠短斗篷上的标签则警告说此玩具“不能令使用者飞起来”。

1999年考研英语真题阅读详解【精品文档】

1999年阅读真题精解(2011-05-30 10:22:15)转载标签：黄涛考研真题答案教育分类：阅读篇1999 Text 1It's a rough world out there. Step outside and you could break a leg slipping on your doormat. Light up the stove and you could burn down the house. Luckily, if the doormat or stove failed to warn of coming disaster, a successful lawsuit might compensate you for your troubles. Or so the thinking has gone since the early 1980s, when juries began holding more companies liable for their customers' misfortunes.Feeling threatened, companies responded by writing ever-longer warning labels, trying to anticipate every possible accident. Today, stepladders carry labels several inches long that warn, among other things, that you might — surprise! — fall off. The label on a child's Batman cape cautions that the toy "does not enable user to fly."While warnings are often appropriate and necessary —the dangers of drug interactions, for example — and many are required by state or federal regulations, it isn't clear that they actually protect the manufacturers and sellers from liability if a customer is injured. About 50 percent of the companies lose when injured customers take them to court.Now the tide appears to be turning. As personal injury claims continue as before, some courts are beginning to side with defendants, especially in cases where a warning label probably wouldn't have changed anything. In May, Julie Nimmons, president of Schutt Sports in Illinois, successfully fought a lawsuit involving a football player who was paralyzed in a game while wearing a Schutt helmet. "We're really sorry he has become paralyzed, but helmets aren't designed to prevent those kinds of injuries," says Nimmons. The jury agreed that the nature of the game, not the helmet, was the reason for the athlete's injury. At the same time, the American Law Institute —a group of judges, lawyers, and academics whose recommendations carry substantial weight — issued new guidelines for tort law stating that companies need not warn customers of obvious dangers or bombard them with a lengthy list of possible ones. "Important information can get buried in a sea of trivialities," says a law professor at Cornell Law School who helped draft the new guidelines. If the moderate end of the legal community has its way, the information on products might actually be provided for the benefit of customers and not as protection against legal liability.51. What were things like in 1980s when accidents happened?[A] Customers might be relieved of their disasters through lawsuits.[B] Injured customers could expect protection from the legal system.[C] Companies would avoid being sued by providing new warnings.[D] Juries tended to find fault with the compensations companies promised.52. Manufacturers as mentioned in the passage tend to ________.[A] satisfy customers by writing long warnings on products[B] become honest in describing the inadequacies of their products[C] make the best use of labels to avoid legal liability[D] feel obliged to view customers' safety as their first concern53. The case of Schutt helmet demonstrated that ________.[A] some injury claims were no longer supported by law[B] helmets were not designed to prevent injuries[C] product labels would eventually be discarded[D] some sports games might lose popularity with athletes54. The author's attitude towards the issue seems to be ________.[A] biased [B] indifferent[C] puzzling [D] objective核心词汇1. rough 粗糙的，不平坦的；粗野的；tough 艰巨的；艰难的2. step 走3. slip 滑到4. light up 点燃5. burn down 烧毁6. fail to 没有7. lawsuit=suit 起诉；诉讼8. compensate for 为…作出补偿9. jury 陪审团10. hold sb. liable for 让…对…负责11. misfortune 不幸12. respond 做出反应13. warning labels 警告标识14. caution 警告15. while 尽管，而，当…时候16. appropriate 合适的17. interaction相互作用18. regulation 规则19. claim 索赔20. side with 支持21. defendant 被告；22. involving 涉及到23. paralyze 瘫痪24. nature 本质；by nature 天性25. carry substantial weight 具有相当的分量26. issue 发布了；发行了27. bombard with 大量提供28. a sea of 大量的29. trivialities 琐事30. end 目的31. have one’s way 得以实现32. legal liability 法律责任33. misfortune难句精解①While warnings are often appropriate and necessary —the dangers of drug interactions, for example —and many are required by state or federal regulations, it isn't clear that they actually protect the manufacturers and sellers from liability if a customer is injured.▲在这个主从复合句中，前一个分句是由while引导的让步从句，这个从句由两个并列句组成，中间用and连接。

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Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.Tony Bovaird is Professor of Public Management and Policy in the Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), School of Public Policy, the University of Birmingham. Ken Russell is Professor and Associate Dean at Aberdeen Business School, The Robert Gordon University.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005: REVOLUTIONARY FAILURE OR EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS?T ONY B OVAIRD AND K EN R USSELL I n December 1999, the UK Civil Service Management Board agreed an internal reformprogramme, complementing the more externally-oriented ‘ m odernizing govern-ment ’ programme, to bring about major changes in the functioning of the civil service – ‘ s tep change ’ rather than continuous improvement. This paper suggests that the aims of the reform programme were only partially achieved. While some step changes did indeed occur, even such central elements of reform as ‘ j oined-up ’ work-ing with other public organizations were still only at an initial stage some three years later and o thers – for example, business planning and performance manage-ment systems – have taken 20 years to achieve acceptance within the civil service. It appears that examples of meteoric change are rare in the civil service – the reality of the changes are better characterized as ‘ e volution ’ and ‘ c ontinuous improvement ’ than ‘r evolution ’and ‘s tep change ’.I NTRODUCTION I n December 1999, the UK Civil Service Management Board agreed a reform programme focusing on six themes, all connected with improved managerial processes internal to the civil service and intended to complement the more externally-oriented ‘ m odernizing government ’ agenda set out in a White Paper earlier that year. The purpose was to achieve major changes in the way in which the civil service was run – ‘ s tep change ’ rather than continuous improvement. This reform programme has subsequently received much less academic attention than the ‘ m odernization ’ programme which it was in-tended to complement. I n May 2002, the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce commissioned a research project to p rovide an evaluation of the Civil Service Reform (CSR) Programme through four case studies. This project was designed to encourage evidence-based l earning across Whitehall by selecting examples of what were believed to be ‘g ood p ractice ’ in implementing the reforms, subjecting them to detailed ‘ w arts and all ’ scrutiny, and distilling lessons which might have wider validity across departments. This paper draws upon the ﬁ ndings of that study to discuss the extent to which this ambitious reform programme achieved its objectives.302 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLIt then explores how well lessons were learnt from this reform programme when it was given a new direction in late 2002. Finally, it suggests implications of the research for current models of public sector reform.A IMS OF THE RESEARCHT he overall aim of the original research project was to support the successful implementation of the CSR Programme by examining the underlying processes that support or impede reform. The evaluation was therefore mainly ‘f ormative ’(serving to inﬂ uence the progress of the activities evaluated), but it also had a ‘s ummative ’element (giving a considered overall view of whether the a ctivities have been successful).T he speciﬁ c objectives set out in the original research brief from the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce were:•t o identify successful implementation strategies for the six CSR themes; •t o map and explain the links between these reform themes and improved delivery and performance;•t o identify any other factors that appeared to support or impede improved delivery and performance;•t o identify intermediate outcomes that could be used to monitor and evaluate the six reform themes and organisational performance.F igure 1 shows how these aims and objectives inter-relate. In our subsequent research, we have extended these aims in two extra directions:1. t o identify the forces which led to the redirection of the reform pro-gramme in late 2002, rebadged as ‘t ransforming public services ’;2. t o consider the extent to which the redirection of the reform programmerepresented an evolutionary change from the 1999 programme or whether it was an attempt to achieve ‘s tep change ’through a different route.M ETHODOLOGYI n consultation with the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce, case studies were chosen to cover a range of civil service organizational structures and contexts:•T wo civil service departments, without any of their agencies –National Assembly of Wales and the Welsh Assembly Government (NAW/WAG) (which operated as one department), and the Department for Interna-tional Development (DfID).•A civil service executive agency (with some consideration of its relation-ship with its sponsoring department) –the Court Service.•A non-departmental public body, staffed mainly by civil servants but relatively autonomous from its sponsoring department –the Health and Safety Commission, with the Health and Safety Executive which sup-ports and advises it (HSC/HSE).Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 303To contribute to improved results and delivery in the civil serviceF IGURE 1A ims of the research project on UK civil service reformI n t able 1, we provide a short description of the characteristics of these four organizations at the time when the case studies were undertaken.I n order to ensure that the mechanisms for change within the reform p rogramme could be examined in detail, the case studies were chosen as examples of organizations believed (by the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce) to have made signiﬁ cant progress with the reforms. At the same time, it was accepted that they were likely to lie on a spectrum from ‘e nthusiastic reformers ’to ‘w illing (but not necessarily very slick) reformers ’. Because the CSR Programme looked mainly at the need to change internal factors, rather than external Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.304 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLPublic Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.T A B L E 1C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f o u r c a s e s t u d i e s (y e a r 2002, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s p e c i ﬁ e d )N A W /W A G D f I D C o u r t S e r v i c e H S C /H S E T y p e o fo r g a n i z a t i o nD e v o l v e d g o v e r n m e n t (r e p l a c i n g W e l s h O f ﬁ c e i n 1997)G o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t(r e p l a c i n g o l d O v e r s e a s D e v e l o p m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n 1997)E x e c u t i v e A g e n c y o f D e p a r t m e n t o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A f f a i r s (p r e v i o u s l y L o r d C h a n c e l l o r ’s D e p a r t m e n t )s i n c e 1995N o n -d e p a r t m e n t a l p u b l i c b o d y(r e p o r t s t o D e p a r t m e n t o f W o r k a n d P e n s i o n s , p r e v i o u s l y t o O D P M ) A i mN A W d e v e l o p s a n d i m p l e m e n t s p o l i c i e s w h i c h r e ﬂ e c t t h e n e e d s o f W a l e s , a s a g r e e d b y t h e e l e c t e d a s s e m b l y . W A G s u p p o r t s b o t h t h e A s s e m b l y a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e A s s e m b l y T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o v e r t y i n p o o r e r c o u n t r i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r t h r o u g h a c h i e v e m e n t b y 2015 o f t h e M i l l e n n i u m D e v e l o p m e n t G o a l s T o d e l i v e r j u s t i c e e f f e c t i v e l y a n d e f ﬁ c i e n t l y t o t h e p u b l i c R e s p o n s i b l e f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i v i l , f a m i l y a n d c r i m i n a l c o u r t s (a n d , s i n c e 2004, m a g i s t r a t e s c o u r t s ) i n E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s T o p r o t e c t p e o p l e ’s h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y b y e n s u r i n g r i s k s i n t h e c h a n g i n g w o r k p l a c e a r e p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d P o l i t i c a l m a n a g e m e n tH e a d e d b y F i r s t M i n i s t e r f o r W a l e s (a l s o o n W e s t m i n s t e r J o i n t M i n i s t e r i a l C o m m i t t e e f o r d e v o l v e d g o v e r n m e n t s ) p l u s W e l s h A s s e m b l y G o v e r n m e n t m i n i s t e r s H e a d e d b y S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e (i n C a b i n e t ) p l u s 1 m i n i s t e r R e p o r t s t o P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y , D C A , w h o i n t u r n i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e C o m m i s s i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o P a r l i a m e n t a r y U n d e r S e c r e t a r y f o r W o r k a n d P e n s i o n s B u d g e t £10,500m £4,500m £588m £204m S t a f ﬁ n g4000 s t a f f (u p f r o m 2000 a t s t a r t -u p i n 1997)2800 s t a f f (a r o u n d 35% f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s ), a l m o s t h a l f w o r k i n g a b r o a d 9600 s t a f f (r i s i n g t o 22,000 a f t e r m a g i s t r a t e s c o u r t s m e r g e r )3900 s t a f f , i n c l u d i n g 2900 p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d s p e c i a l i s t s t a f f S t r u c t u r eU n i q u e i n E u r o p e , u n i t i n g e x e c u t i v e a n d l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h e s u n d e r o n e r o o f H Q (h e a d e d b y P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y ) a n d 3 E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e s M a t r i x o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y , t h r e e D i r e c t o r s G e n e r a l –o n e f o r (v e r t i c a l ) p r o g r a m m e s , o n e f o r (c r o s s -c u t t i n g ) p o l i c y a n d f o r c o r p o r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e T w o H Q s (i n L o n d o n a n d E a s t K i l b r i d e , S c o t l a n d ) a n d 67 o f ﬁ c e s o v e r s e a s .N o E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e sC h i e f E x e c u t i v e r e p o r t s t oD C A 42 a r e a s w i t h i n 7 r e g i o n s .C o m m i s s i o n h a s C o m m i s s i o n e r s f r o m i n d u s t r y , t h e t r a d e s u n i o n s a n d o t h e r i n t e r e s t s M a n y o f i t s t a s k s a r e d e l e g a t e d t o H SE , w h i c h s u p p o r t s a n d a d v i s e s H S C b u t i t a l s o h a s 25 a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e s 17 D i r e c t o r a t e s c o v e r a l l G BC IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 – 2005 305Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.R e l a t i o n s h i p t o p u b l i c M a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h p u b l i c i s t h r o u g h E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e sM a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e w i t h f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d m u l t i l a t e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n sD e a l s d i r e c t l y w i t h p u b l i c t h r o u g h l o c a l c o u r t s e r v i c e sD e a l s m a i n l y w i t h ﬁ r m s a n d o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h l o c a l a u t h o r i t y p a r t n e r s K e y e x t e r n a l p r o b l e m s f a c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g 1999–2002N e e d t o i m p r o v e s e r v i c e g i v e n t o p u b l i c , e s p e c i a l l y b y E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e s N e e d t o f o r g e n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a l l o t h e r p u b l i c a g e n c i e s i n W a l e s , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s V o l a t i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t – e .g . w a r s , f a m i n e , n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s R e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d N G O s R e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h F C O a n d T r e a s u r yN e e d t o i m p r o v e s e r v i c e g i v e n t o p u b l i c a n d o t h e r c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p a r t n e r s R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h ‘h o m e ’d e p a r t m e n t I m a g e w i t h s e r v i c e ‘ n o n -u s e r s ’ S i g n i ﬁ c a n t i n c r e a s e i n o u t c o m e t a r g e t s a f t e r 2000 W h i t e P a p e r E m p l o y m e n t g r o w t h i s n o w i n s m a l l ﬁ r m s , w h e r e H &S h a s l o w p r o ﬁ l e N e e d t o w o r k i n p a r t n e r s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s K e y i n t e r n a lp r o b l e m s f a c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g 1999–2002H u g e i n c r e a s e i n n u m b e r o f t a s k s N e e d f o r r a p i d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s W e l s h O f ﬁ c e a r r a n g e m e n t s B i g i n c r e a s e i n s t a f f f r o m v e r y d i v e r s e a g e n c i e s b u t w i t h 50% d u e t o r e t i r e w i t h i n 5 y e a r sD i f f e r e n t i a l t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s f o r ‘h o m e ’a n d ‘f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l ’s t a f f G e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s p e r s e d o f ﬁ c e s R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d m a n a g e r sF i x e d r e s o u r c e s a t t i m e o f r i s i n g v o l u m e o f w o r k T r a d i t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n n o v a t i o n N e e d t o i n c r e a s e d i v e r s i t y o f s t a f fI m p r o v i n g e v i d e n c e b a s e a n d I C T s y s t e m s C o -o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n o p e r a t i o n a l a n d p o l i c y d i r e c t o r a t e s T A B L E 1 (C o n t i n u e d )306 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLfactors, we sought case studies in which there had been neither internal nor external crises which might have swamped the effects of the CSR Programme. The case studies cover a wide range in terms of political saliency –both NAW/WAG and DfID are consistently politically newsworthy, but the Court Service (and even more HSC/HSE) only tend to get media attention when particular cases go wrong.A checklist of questions was formulated; this was intended to guide (but not to constrain) the interviews in each of the case studies. The case studies consisted of the following phases:•S coping of the case study with the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce and staff from the case studies.•B rieﬁ ng from senior staff in the department, agency or non-departmen-tal public body (NDPB).•I dentiﬁ cation and analysis of key documentation.•I nterviews (and in some cases focus groups) with a range of staff (be-tween 15 and 25 in number) and at least one external stakeholder. In each of the cases, we interviewed a range of top managers, key change agents, middle managers and frontline staff (including trades union rep-resentatives). Stakeholders included public sector partner organizations, non-governmental organizations and user representatives from the policy and delivery networks of the case study organizations.•P reparation of a draft case study report for circulation and comment. •F inal case study preparation, taking into account all comments received. T he ﬁ nal report brought together ﬁ ndings from the case studies, drew over-all conclusions in relation to each of the themes and highlighted some lessons from the case studies for the managers in the overall reform programme. The report ( B ovaird e t al.2002 ) was widely circulated throughout the civil service, discussed at a seminar of the Civil Service Change Agents Network, and mounted on the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce web site. The Cabinet Ofﬁ ce placed no restric-tions on the researchers, either in terms of access or dissemination of the ﬁndings and the study has subsequently been presented at a number of national seminars.D uring 2005, we interviewed between three and seven key top and senior managers (recontacting, where possible, those interviewed during 2002) in each of the case study organizations to explore the experiences of their o rganizations in the subsequent reforms which were launched in late 2002. In these interviews we focused on the extent to which this redirected programme, since 2002, a ppeared to have learnt the lessons of the original CSR Programme and whether it had raised the pace of change in the civil service.M ODELS OF PUBLIC SECTOR REFORM PROGRAMMEST he CSR Programme launched in 1999 was intended to be a key element in UK reform of the public sector. Reforms in the UK have not taken place in Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 307 a vacuum –there has been a wave of public sector reforms across the world since the ﬁ rst programmes in the early 1980s in the UK and USA ( P ollitt and Bouckaert 2004 ). By the early 1990s, the reform movement was widespread throughout OECD countries and it then spread even further, often encouraged by the World Bank and multilateral aid agencies. Naturally, these reform p rogrammes differed signiﬁcantly in their intentions, contents, methods, speed of implementation and degrees of success. Nevertheless, a number of strong similarities have been observed, leading to a series of academic efforts to provide a typology of public sector reform.O ne of the earliest attempts to ﬁnd a pattern in the reform movements, based primarily on the UK experience, was by Lewis G unn (1987) . He called the new approach ‘p ublic management ’and suggested that it was characterized by, ‘a merger of the normative orientation of traditional public administration and the instrumental orientation of general management ’.While the phrase ‘n ew public management ’(NPM) was quickly adopted to describe the under-lying reform approach in many countries ( H ood 1991; Dunleavy and Hood 1994 ), Christopher P ollitt (1993) suggested that reforms in the early 1980s were essentially a crude neo-Taylorist form of managerialism, concentrating on cost reduction, budget decentralization and performance target- s etting. He proposed that NPM could be more accurately conceived as that package of reforms which emerged in the late 1980s in the UK and which included the following elements ( P ollitt 1993 , p. 180):•m uch bolder and larger scale use of market-like mechanisms for parts of the public sector that could not be transferred directly into public ownership (quasi-markets);•i ntensiﬁ ed organizational and spatial decentralization of the manage-ment and production of services;•a rhetorical emphasis on the need to improve service ‘q uality ’;•i nsistence on greater attention to the wishes of the individual service user/ ‘c ustomer ’.A t this point, one of the key issues of disagreement arises in the literature. P ollitt (1993 , p. 189) suggests thatt he value structure of NPM is indeterminate: ‘q uality ’and ‘c onsumer r esponsiveness ’sit alongside a ﬁ erce and continuing concern with econ-omy and efﬁ ciency. It is not clear which group of values will take priority when (as at some point is inevitable) a trade-off has to be made.M ore recently, P ollitt and Bouckaert (2004) have argued that experience in the last 20 years in ten major countries has shown that there is no fundamental contradiction between improving quality and cutting costs –the relationship between them depends on the context (particularly whether cost cutting can be achieved by exploiting spare capacity or technological advances, for Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.308 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLe xample, in ICT). Other authors are more conﬁ dent that the choice is inherent within the model –H ood (1991) suggests that NPM still prioritized the values of frugality and cost-reduction over those of fairness, rectitude and mutuality, as had the preceding reforms in the early 1980s.I n the USA in 1992, NPM was reformulated by Osborne and Gaebler as ‘e ntrepreneurial government ’, with ten attributes which were to become f amous throughout the public sector in many countries: steering rather than rowing; empowering rather than serving; injecting competition into service delivery; transforming rule-driven organizations; funding outcomes rather than inputs; meeting customer not bureaucracy needs; earning rather than spending; prevention rather than cure; participation rather than hierarchy; getting change ‘v ia ’the market. It is perhaps not a coincidence that these attributes bore a strong resemblance to the eight maxims which P eters and Waterman (1982) had proposed to characterize the ‘c ultural revolution ’in the private sector ten years earlier, given that O sborne and Gaebler (1992) believed that modern approaches to private sector management were key to successful public sector management. While some authors have tended to conﬂate NPM with this ‘e ntrepreneurial government ’approach (see, for e xample, d u Gay, 2000 ), there are elements of this list which are clearly rather different from those which were highlighted in Pollitt ’s characterization of NPM above. In particular, the emphasis on ‘e mpowering rather than serving ’and on ‘p articipation rather than hierarchy ’go well beyond the tenets of the core NPM approach and begin to reach out towards a new concept of gover-nance in the public sector.D uring the 1990s, the rapid spread of public sector reform movements gave rise to a debate as to whether there was convergence towards a single model. This debate was often sloppy in its conceptualization of the issue, confusing the different types of convergence which were possible –for e xample, convergence of talk, decisions, actions or results ( B runsson 1989 ).H owever, all convergence theories were dealt a mortal blow –at least in relation to the period from 1980 to 2000 –by the deﬁ nitive comparison of trends in 12 major countries undertaken by P ollitt and Bouckaert (2004) . In their sample of ten countries, they distinguished four very different strategies for public sector reform: maintain, modernize, marketize or minimize. As they have shown: ‘d ifferent regimes at different times appear to have leaned towards one or other of these strategies ’( P ollitt and Bouckaert 2004 , p. 178). The trajectories traversed have not shown any clear patterns:F rom an incrementalist perspective, therefore, the nature of public manage-ment reform is bitty, a d hoc and speciﬁ c, not strategic, comprehensive and driven by generic models. ( P ollitt and Bouckaert, 2004 , p. 195)T his backs up the conclusions of Peters and Savoie (1998, pp. 6 –7): w hen taking stock of administrative reforms we are invariably confronted with a confusing and contradictory picture of change. On the one hand, we discover that a large number of changes have been adopted and implemented, Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 309and appear to have produced some beneﬁ ts for people inside and outside government. …On the other hand, we also discover that few, if any, of these reforms have been able to live up to the claims of their advocates.P arsons (2004) has provided a further important critique of NPM, arguing that governments have been reluctant to draw upon ideas associated with the issues of complexity and non-linearity. H e suggests that if the ‘p rofes-sional model ’of policy making did draw more on these ideas, it would have ‘g one some way to constrain and subvert the modernizing assumptions about being able to know, predict, join up, command and control ’( P arsons 2004 , p. 184).M ore recently, it has become clear that a public organization cannot be judged only on the excellence of its services –it also has to be excellent in the way it exercises its political, environmental and social responsibilities. Consequently, a new generation of government reforms has started around the world which may be labelled ‘p ublic governance ’reforms. B ovaird and Loefﬂ er (2003) suggest that there are two key components of good public governance: ﬁrst, improvements in public policy outcomes; and, second, implementation by all stakeholders of a set of principles and processes by means of which appropriate public policies will be designed and put into practice. While many of the principles of NPM are still regarded as important by governments embarking on public governance reforms, the emphasis has moved to rather different issues ( B ovaird and Loefﬂ er 2003 ), particularly:•C itizen engagement;•T ransparency;•A ccountability;•T he equalities agenda and social inclusion;•E thical and honest behaviour;•E quity (fair procedures and due process);•A bility to compete in a global environment;•A bility to work effectively in partnership;•S ustainability;•R espect for the rule of law.F rom the public governance perspective, the debate in the 1980s about the relative role of state v is-à-vis other service delivery agencies is now seen as having, at least partly, missed the real point. The most important question is not whether the state will remain more powerful than other players but rather which set of formal and informal rules, structures and processes will be needed so that the state, the private and voluntary sectors, citizens and other important stakeholders can each exercise some power over those d ecisions by other stakeholders which create improved outcomes for all p arties concerned ( B ovaird and Loefﬂ er 2003 ) or at least ensure acceptable minimum outcomes, especially for the most vulnerable groups in society. Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.310 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLPerri et al.(2002, p. 238) argue that ‘a n exit from the reinvention para-digm and a shift in varying ways and degrees towards holistic governance is being made in many countries ’. They suggest that the ‘h olistic gover-nance ’approach could be institutionalized, even if it has not already been, just as in the past the Northcote –T revelyan model of a civil service, the post-WW2 welfare state model and the later NPM and ‘r einvention ’mod-els of governance have been institutionalized. However, they also recog-nize that interest in this model may wane, as it has in the previous models. We may therefore have to accept that models of public sector reform are contingent and transient –just like the problems which they are meant to solve.M AIN THEMES IN THE UK CIVIL SERVICE REFORM PROGRAMME T he CSR Programme, as formulated by the Civil Service Management Board (Cabinet Ofﬁ ce 1999a) reﬂ ected some, but not all, of the issues identiﬁ ed in the discussion above as common to public sector reform programmes across the world. In particular, it was intended to achieve results in relation to six main themes:1. s tronger leadership with a clear sense of purpose;2. b etter business planning;3. s harper performance management;4. d ramatic improvement in diversity;5. m ore open service to bring in and bring on talent6. a better deal for staff.T hese themes, heavily inﬂ uenced by the priorities of Sir Richard Wilson, the then Cabinet Secretary ( W ilson 1999 ), were inward-looking, relating mainly to how the Civil Service goes about its business rather than its r elationships with the outside world (citizens and other stakeholders), or its ‘r esults ’(the effect of internal changes on the services provided). There was a strong focus on issues of resource management, including human, ﬁ nancial and other resources. These changes were intended in turn to lead to improved customer service through better management, motivation, development and leadership of people. As F oster (2001 , p. 742) has commented, ‘m ost of them would have been at home in a similar report on a large private ﬁrm’.In May 1999, the government had already published its M odernising Government White Paper (Cabinet Ofﬁ ce 1999b), setting out the key themes of: vision, policy-making, responsive public services, quality public services, informa-tion age government and public service. This document set the scene for much of the CSR Programme, for example, in its promotion of the value of Public Service ( M assey 2001 ). However, many of its key themes were about service improvement and working with external stakeholders. It was there-fore much more policy-oriented and customer-oriented than the CSR Programme.Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.。