Chapter one(9.5)
朗文英语六上chapter1复习
朗文6A Chapter One 学习提要亲爱的同学们，学习了这个章节后，请按照要求检测你的学习结果吧～～Part A and BNew words and phrases（要求：知道中文意思，听懂，会读，会拼写。
）grow up 长大dream job 梦想职业(a) dentist 牙医(an) engineer 工程师(a) vet 兽医(a) fashion designer 时装设计师《(an) astronaut 宇航员(an) inventor 发明家(a) pilot 飞行员(a) film director 电影导演explore space 探索太空look after animals 照顾动物fly planes 开飞机make films 拍电影build and repair things 建造、修理东西think up new things 想出新事情(事物)design new styles of clothes 设计新款服装take care of people’s teeth 爱护(呵护)人们的牙齿#the winner of a drawing competition 绘画比赛获胜者（以下词汇要求：知道意思，会读，听得懂）theme 主题Sentences （要求：会读，知道其中文意思，会拼，会写，会运用。
）1.What do you want to be when you grow up 你长大后想要做什么2.I want to be an engineer. Engineer s build and repair things.我想做一名工程师。
工程师建造和修理东西。
3.I want to be a dentist. Dentist s take care of people’s teeth.》我想成为一名牙医。
牙医爱护人们的牙齿。
4.I want to be an astronaut. Astronaut s explore space.我想做一名宇航员。
4B-Chapter-1-Join-our-club-课件(新思维小学英语)精选全文
One day the teacher wanted the children
to join a club!
Did Sally and Peter Whwicahnctlutobjdoidn Betty thewMaunst itcoCjoluinb??
Do you think Peter woDtShuWiedpldwohSSrawiptcansaholtlnyCrtcttoslwluutojCabbonjiltonudtoibintodno?ottBohjwooeei??tnty
I _w_a_n_t_t_o_j_o_in__th_e__S_p_or_t_s_C_l_ub__b_e_ca_u_s_e__ I want to keep fit.
__W__h_y__ do you like Maths?
_I__lik_e__M_a_t_h_s_b_e_ca_u_s_e_ I like doing sums and I like Mr Wong.
I like drama and English, but I like English best too. Let’s join the English club.
Thank you
•We can use because to link up two sentences.
For example: I was late. I woke up late this morning. I was late because I woke up late this morning.
* We usually do this in writing.
Practice
__W__h_y__ do you want to join the Music Club? _B_e_c_au_s_e_ I like singing. __W__h_y__ do you want to keep fit? _B_e_c_au_s_e_ I am overweight. __W__h_y__ do you want to join the Cooking Club? _B_e_c_au_s_e_ I like cooking very much.
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One IntroductionWith the development of the global cross-cultural communication, the introduction of film and television works which serve as a type of culture carrier promotes the exchange and collision between two different cultures. In recent years, increasing number of foreign films and television works were introduced into China and people can get access to them through many different ways like theaters, television or just internet which is more convenient. However, because of the language barrier and cultural differences, only with the help of Chinese captions can a great majority of the audience could understand the meaning，even the spirit in it better, and experience an audio-visual feast while getting their inner heart deeply touched. Subtitle is not only recreation of the original language, but also it is a kind of aesthetic activity. With the growing call for the return of aesthetics in the realm of translation recently, there is increasing need to study subtitle translation from the perspective of aesthetics.In China, aesthetics is of special significance to Chinese translation, in which the combination of aesthetics and translation is one of its greatest characteristics. Some scholars believe that aesthetics is the base of Chinese traditional translation. Although western translation theory builds on philosophy, it also has a long history in terms of aesthetics. So it is reasonable to integrate aesthetics and translation together. Beauty is everywhere even in the language itself and it is one of the basic properties of language as well. Preference for beauty is a common nature of human, which is a universal phenomenon. Take the following as examples, in China when people refer to the old, they use probably “双鬓斑白” instead of “满脸皱纹”. Again, “oval” is adopted to describe a girl’s face rather than using the image of the duck egg. Also because of the beautiful rhythm of language, “mathematics, physics, chemistry” is preferred than any other group of combination o f the three subjects. This potential principle applies to English as well. In English, it is not the“work at another job at night” but the “moonlight” suggests that someone takes a second job during night. In addition, there is no exception for translation. Collecting the most classical part of novel, drama, music, arts, dance and photography in it, movie is a kind of comprehensive art. Therefore, how to reappear the beauty of subtitle to audience becomes the focus of filmtranslation.Chapter Two Translation Aesthetics2. 1 Definition of Translation AestheticsAccording to the “A Dictionary of Translation Studies” edited by Fang Mengzhi, translation Aesthetics reveals the aesthetical origin of translation, studies the special significance of aesthetics on translation, discovers the scientific and artistic feature of translation from the aesthetic perspective and put forwards aesthetic standards towards different type of translation texts, in order to analysis, interpret and solve the aesthetic problems in intercultural conversion by using basic aesthetic principles.With full understanding of the basic properties of translation aesthetic subject (the original work) and the aesthetic object (translator), we can analysis the made up of aesthetic object and the dynamic effect of the aesthetic subject, clarify the relationship between aesthetic subject and aesthetic object and provide the reproduction of aesthetic with means and different forms; therefore, it all can be used to instruct translation practice.2.2 The Development of Translation AestheticsIn China, translation has a rather long history dating back to about 1800 years ago in terms of the translation of Buddhist texts. Taking a look at this, it is not difficult to find that almost all the translation theories is inseparable with aesthetics, and this is also the general trend of history and cultural pattern in future. From the theory “Exquisite Diction” by Zhi Qian, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” by Yan Fu, “Spiritual Conformity” by Fu Lei, the “Theory Sublimation” promoted by Qian Zhongshu to the “Three Beauties” by Xu Yuanchong and so on, each provides strong support to the natural birth of translation aesthetics in history. Having absorbed the essence of beauty, all of these theories suggest obvious aesthetic features —emphasis on faithfulness, parataxis and beauty of connotation, which glitters just like gold.In modern period, translation theories mainly focus on the translation standards, translation processes and translation methods before 1970s. While after that, increasing researchers use descriptive methods to study translation theory and therefore has developed a deep understanding towards it. Translation aesthetics enter the systematical researching period in this background. “Practical Translation Aesthetics” by Fu Zhong in 1993 is the first translation aesthetic monograph in our country. It talks about the main categories of translation aesthetic, namely aesthetic subject, aesthetic object, aesthetic activity, standards of translation aesthetics and the method of reappearance of beauty. “Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation”published in 2000 by Xi Yongji is one of representative works studying comparative literary translation. While “Aesthetics Process during Liter ary Translation: the Reconstruction of Gestalt Image”authorized by Jiang Qiuxia in 2002 primarily focuses on the aesthetic process. In 2005 Mao Ronggui published “Translation Aesthetics”which is made up of four parts and expands the research scope of translation theory and practice. However, the most important work in the field may be “An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics” by Liu Miqing. It has fully reflected the author’s thought about Chinese translation aesthetics and posed a rather important position in the connection between western aesthetics and basic Chinese translation theory.Globally, the developing trend of translating field and the “Cultural Turn” have created suitable environment for the birth of translation aesthetics. It is widely acknowledged that aesthetics belong to culture and translation is a kind of communication, so translation is a way to transfer beauty in essence. Therefore, we got to know that the outcome of translation aesthetics can not be resisted.2.3 Achievements of Translation AestheticsThe book Aesthetic Progression inLiterary Translation: Image- G Actualization, written by Jiang Qiuxia in herdoctorial paper in 2002, holds that there is no way to unveil the “black box” existing in human psychology. So it uses descriptive method to explore the psychological mechanism of the reconstruction of gestalt image in literary translation. Besides, it emphasizes how the reader (the translator) can make use of gestalt psychology to recreate the whole image of the original works and present the target readers with the equivalence between original works and target works. This is, from the Angle of aesthetics, development of Nida's functional equivalence theory (2000). Since there is no complete equivalence translation, “functional equivalence” may be the best choice, generally speaking. In general it is best to speak of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different translations can in fact represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “equivalence” cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity, but only in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity. (Nida , 2000 :117)This type of aesthetic has taken advantage of Gestalt psychology. (Lakoff, 1982:20)defined Gestalt in such a way —take the thing as an independent gestalt from the perspective of wholeness on that level. While at a lower level in order to give confirmation, specific details needs to be picked out. Gestalt recreation is the basic principle of translation aesthetics —interdisciplinary subject, which benefits from translation studies, literary studies, aesthetic and cognitive psychology. Gestalt image is a new conception out of the old idea of “image” as literary metaphor or symbol mainly concerned in poetry. When explored in this context as a holistic whole, it is taken as a relatively independent contextual entity rather than a single word or words constitution.) ( 姜秋霞,2002 : 241) Broadly speaking, translation studies，a discipline in the development period, is in constant growth and expansion. “An Introduction of Translation Aesthetics (revision, Peter, 2005)”reprinted by China Translation and Publishing Corporation greatly enriched and developed the theory of translation aesthetics.2.4 Prospect of Translation AestheticsFrom the perspective of prose translation, Wang Hongtao (2006:2006-4) categorizes Western and Chinese Comparative Aesthetic into three levels: Western and Chinese Comparative Translation Aesthetics; prose translation under the Chinese and western Comparative Aesthetics; the meaning of application of Chinese and Western Comparative Aesthetics in prose translation. As can be seen, translation aesthetic has marched no matter in terms of aesthetic subject, aesthetic reception or gestalt aesthetics. This is of great benefit to future translation aesthetic development. However, we should not only strongly opposite the overuse of aesthetics in translating field but also fight against the pseudo translation aesthetics. What we pursuit are the unity of formal beauty, implicational beauty and receiving beauty, and the unity of universal law and special performance of translation aesthetics. Meanwhile, we can not promise translation is filled with aesthetics, but translation can also not be totally separated from aesthetics. There are not only inheritance, experience from others but also merit and recreation in itself. So it is necessary to find out whether “Tr anslation Aesthetics”, created by Chinese scholars, has fully absorbed the widely acknowledged theories — Aesthetics of Reception and Gestalt. This is a blessing as well as a new issue for China’s translation studies.Chapter Three Subtitle Translation3.1 Definition of Subtitle TranslationUp to now, there is not an authorized definition about translating subtitles. Following are some definitions:(1)Subtitling can be defined as the process of providing synchronizedcaptions for film and television dialogue (and more recently for live opera)(2)Subtitling, sometimes referred to as captions, are transcriptions of film orTV dialogue, presented simultaneously on the screen.(3) A subtitle is a printed statement or fragment of dialogue appearing on thescreen between the scenes of a silent motion picture or appearing as a translation at the bottom of the screen during the scenes of a motion picture or television show in a foreign language.(4)··· the words printed or super imposed on a film in a foreign language totranslate what is being said on the sound track ···Although all these definitions explained subtitle in some degree, it is far from enough. The first definition points out that subtitle translation is used as a process to provide synchronization instruction for film and television dialogue. The second definition is similar to the first one, but the category where the subtitle suits is too narrow in those two definitions for the following two reasons: first of all, it is limited to film and television. In fact, if possible, subtitle is applied to any kind of multimedia. Secondly, apart from film and television, subtitle can also be used to give illustration to even the non-dialogue texts. The third definition refers to the caption that is displayed in the silent film or at the bottom of television screen. It serves as interpretation to another language or just illustrative fragments and this definition has fully explained the concept of subtitles. Definition four indicates translating the language being played in the sound track into another and printing it on the film. However, translating subtitle does not refer to the language that is being said at themoment.From the above, we also get to know that subtitle is a kind of text but with a different presenting mode like the common one. And it is this special presenting form that makes subtitle limited in many aspects.3.2 Characteristics of Subtitle TranslationSubtitle provides the audience with a large mount of information about the multimedia works. Following are four of its characteristics:3.2.1 ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness refers that subtitles must appear together with other factors of the film and television programs like sound and picture image at the same time instead of showing alone. The audience are willing to hear the actors as well as the music, background sounds and seeing the picture changes. The audience enjoy the film and television by watching the motion picture, listening to the dialogue and reading the subtitles and so on. So without pictures and sounds, the film and television can not convey the information fully; without captions, the effect of sounds and pictures can not achieve the best level. Generally speaking, in all of the factors mentioned above, pictures and sounds are the most important, while subtitles serve only as an auxiliary factor. Therefore, comprehensiveness offer subtitle some convenience namely subtitles can be omitted where the information can fully express through sounds and pictures. Thus translator should take full advantage of this characteristic and omit as much subtitles as possible.3.2.2 InstantaneityInstantaneity indicates that the subtitle, which is unrepeatable, appear and disappear simultaneously with the corresponding pictures and sounds. Although subtitle exists in the form of language, it is still different from the desk literature, such as poetry, prose and fiction for desk literature all appear in independent text form. Readers can appreciate desk literature over and over again at any time and any place as long as he wants. By contrast, subtitle can not be appreciated repeatedly withoutlimitation because of its instantaneous characteristic. While watching the plots the audience has to give up if he did not catch up with the subtitles because there is only one chance. Instantaneity decides that the audience cannot spend more time to understand the content of the captions; otherwise, it will affect the understanding of follow-up plots.3.2.3 PopularityPopularity means that the film and television subtitle translation must use a popular language or has the characteristic of popular language. Following are three main reasons: In the first place, film and television works aiming at the masses belong to the public. Majority of the audience are common people despite that some are well-educated and have higher artistic accomplishment. Therefore, we should use the most popular language to translate the original language to convey information, considering about the acceptance ability and appreciative level of majority part of the audience. The reason lies in that most audiences will be impeded while understanding too much elegant and abstract language. Secondly, with the characteristic of instantaneity, translation subtitle appears only once at the bottom of the screen. So only by using the popular and colloquial translation texts can the audience grasp the general meaning. Thirdly, the principle of “acceptance first” aims at helping the audience to understand the plot better. If too much euphemistic and expressive language is adopted as subtitle, the audience can not follow the plots closely while spending a long time trying to understanding the language.3.2.4 ConcisenessConciseness means that the language of film and television subtitle is concise and refined. There are two causes contributing to this characteristic.Firstly, the translation of film and television subtitle is limited by time and space, so the translator has to finish tasks in the limitation while keeping the picture and subtitle appear simultaneously. This determines subtitles can not use over-complicated language. The second reason is about the instantaneous acceptance of the audience, which indicates the simpler and easier the language the better while providing themore rich contents to the audience.Chapter Four Application of Translation Aesthetics in SubtitleTranslation4.1 Aesthetic Principles and Aesthetic strategy4.1.1 Aesthetic PrinciplesFirstly, the translation version shall accord the characters’ emotion and personality. So it is rather important for the translator to devote his own aesthetic emotion to the four stages of the whole work —“watching, understanding, analyzing and translating”. Only by understanding and appreciating the original work, integrating the emotions and characteristics of different roles into the translation, thinking from the perspective of different roles, speaking for them can the translator produce vivid, individualized characters, corresponding translational texts with the original dialogues as well as creating an immersive feeling for the audience.Secondly, the translation shall measure up the original work’s style. Film and television work is mainly made up of four different types, namely national style (a stable artistic character which reflects the national life in a particular area), period style (reflecting the life style of different time period), directing style (owing subjective or objective factors, different director prefer different theme, language and acting ways) and aesthetic style (such as drama, documentary, romantic style). So in the translating process (more accurately, that is adding, omitting and changing the original dialogue), the translator should abandon their preferring style, overcoming as many limiting factors as possible to get close to the original style.The third one is alienation, an important method to get to know about an exotic culture. How to help the audience to understand more about foreign history and costumes is a vital task. In order to incarnate the cultural diversity, translators can adopt alienation. For example, in American TV play, Rose said proudly: “I got 1450 on my SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test, which is a kind of academic test in America when students graduating from high school)”. When SATs is translated into “毕业会考”, it will be much easier for people to understand. Also some words, like NBA and FBI have already been popular between Chinese, so there is no need to translate.Next is about domestication. In the practice of translation, the existence of cultural differences between the two languages led to the production of translation variation and sometimes the semantic meaning changed or even lost. Adoption of domestication decreased the exoticism. More importantly, it can avoid ambiguity in order to present the audience with a more natural and easier way to understand the translation version. Liberal translation, substitution and even rewriting all these methods can help to translators to comprehend the original language better. For instance, in the movie “A Beautiful Mind”, the sentence “Shall we say swords, gentlemen? Pistols at dawn?” can be translated into “我们该谈谈剑了，绅士们。
英语写作基础教程(第三版)Chapter 1
一、Manuscript Form
1. Arrangement 2. Word division 3. Capitalization 4. Handwriting
一、Manuscript Form
Answers to task 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Where I Lived, and What I Lived For Are Transgenic Crops Safe? Well-Known Dramatists of the Ming Dynasty A Day to Remember Approaches to Teaching English as a Foreign Language Criticisms on the Ending of Mark Twain‟s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
二、 Punctuation
1. The Comma (,)
(1). A comma is used to join clauses. It is put before the conjunction (and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet ) (2). A comma is used after an adverbial clause or phrase. (3). Commas are used to separate a series of words or phrases with the same function in the sentence.
一、Manuscriptnt (title)
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER ONETHE FRONT PAGEI INTRODUCTIONAn English language newspaper usually has many pages, and of all the pages, the front page, that is, the first page, is the most important. The front page carries the big news. The most important news event of all on this page is given the biggest headline and the story with the biggest headline is called the top story or the main story.English language newspapers, like other newspapers, try to give all the important news on the front page. Since there is not enough room on the page for every story, the editors usually break long stories into two parts. At the end of the first part, there will be a line saying, for example, "continued on page 2". The reader then turns to page 2 to read the rest of the story.In almost all cases, English language newspapers put special featureson the front page. Such features are usually found at the bottom of the page. An index or table of contents, the weather, or other information of public interest, can also be found on this page.Many English language newspapers have six or seven or eight columns. These columns are usually divided by a thin black line or kept apart by margins known as white space.In reading an English language newspaper; the reader should start with the first page for the following reasons:• The front page often summarizes the main stories to be found on the inside pages.• It has an index or table of contents which serves as a guide to the whole paper.• It carries big headlines, main stories and pictures which constitute the most dramatic and interesting news section of the whole paper.• It also provides a lot of cultura l information about the interests and value of the reading public.II. KEY PARTS OF THE FRONT PAGEThere are many parts on the front page; the most important ones are as follows:Nameplate The nameplate, also called the "flag", is the name of the newspaper, which always appears on the top of the front page in large, capital letters, such as CHINA DAILY, THE WASHINGTON POST,and THE SUNDAY TIMES.Ears The ears refer to the boxes on each side of the paper's name. Some newspapers have only one ear on the left or right side of the nameplate. In the ears you- can usually find information about the weather, or the sections of the paper,or short advertisements.Cut The word "cut", used here is derived from "woodcut", a way to print pictures in the early period of newspaper printing. Now "cut" refers to anykind of illustration, such as a photo, drawing, graph, and weather map. Cutlines Cutlines refer to the explanatory lines with a picture or illustration, usually under the picture.Headline The headline refers to the heading printed in large letters above a story in a newspaper.By-line The by-line refers to the line directly beneath the headline giving the writer's name.Dateline The dateline refers to the line at the beginning of a story which includes both the date and place of origin of the story. The name of the place goes before the date and all its letters should be capitalized. Datelines need notalways contain the date, often only the place of origin.Wire Service Symbol The wire service symbol refers to the symbol of a news organization which supplies news stories. The largest and most often used wire service organizations of the United States and Britain are Associated Press, United Press International and Reuters. Wire service symbols are placed in pa-rentheses, for example, (AP) or (UPI). Wire service symbols always follow the dateline, for instance, UNITED NATIONS (AP)Lead The lead refers to the main or opening part of a piece of newspaper writing.Body The body refers to the rest of a news story which supports the lead with facts in a diminishing order of importance.Index The index refers to the table of contents to be found on the inside pages of a newspaper.III. HOW TO READ THE FRONT PAGESince the front page is very important, the reader should know how to read and use it.A. LOOKING FOR THE TOP STORYTraditionally, newspapers placed the top story or the main story in the top right corner. This was partly because most newspapers used an eight column banner (a page-wide headline in very large type) as their standard headline on the top story of the day and it was logical to place the story where the headline ended. However, in modern typography, the eight-column banner head is not used frequently and most newspapers are placing their top story in the upper left-hand corner of the page where it catches the reader's eye immediately. Then they display a story or photograph of almost equal importance in the upper right-hand corner of the page.The top story serves as a strong attention-getter, and therefore, it is giventhe biggest headline, accompanied usually with a large picture. Sometimes it is an unusual story placed in a box.B. READING THE HEADLINE TO FIND THE SUBJECT OF THESTORYApart from the top story there are still several other important news stories on the front page. The reader may not be interested in all of them, and may, for instance, only want to read those concerning politics. How then can he quickly find the subject of the story, that is, whether the story is political, economic, diplomatic, scientific, educational or military? The answer is to read the headline and judge from its key words what the story is about.As we know, newspaper headlines vary greatly in size. This is not only because the headlines are supposed to help grade the value of news stories, that is, bigger headlines for more important stories, but also because the contrast in size of headlines makes a more attractive and easier-to-read page.Accordingly, the reader should choose bigger headlines to read, grasp the key words in them, and decide what kind of story is being presented.Below are some headlines. Try to guess the main subject of each story before reading the explanations that follow.Sino-Thai meeting stresses close tiesThe key words in the headline are"Sino-Thai meeting" and "ties", from which we know the story is diplomatic.CPPCC chairman stresses democracyFrom "CPPCC" (the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference) and "democracy" we know the story is about politics.Close eye to be kept on state propertyThe key words "state property" show that the story is about economics. Feedback negative for Japanese electronics industryThis story is obviously about electronics industry.U. S. and Russia sign disarmament pactThe word "disarmament" tells us that the story is concerned with military affairs.Beijing Hosts the 21st UniversiadeIt is clear that the story is about sports.TMD threat to regional peaceThe acronym "TMD" (Theatre Missile Defense System) shows that the story is military.US to build NMDThe acronym "NMD" (National Missile Defense System) shows that the story is military.Leaders stress ABM TreatyThe acronym "ABM"(Anti-Ballistic Missile) shows that the story is military.What price a life? For two friends, a prison sentenceFrom "prison sentence" we know that the story is about crime.World Trade Center collapses in terrorist attackThe key words "terrorist attack" show that the story is about terrorism.C. SCANNING THE LEAD TO FIND WHAT THE STORY IS ABOUT After the reader has found a story he is interested in, he may want to find out quickly what the story is about. The way to achieve this end is to scan the lead.Scanning is an important reading skill used to find the answer to a specific question. When doing this,the reader runs his eyes over the article as fast as he can. As we know, a news story is usually divided into two parts — the lead, often the first paragraph of the story, and the body, the rest of the story. The lead tellswhat happened simply and effectively. The body supports the lead with facts in a diminishing order of importance. So the topic of a news story is usually included in the first paragraph,e. g. :Doctors in Zhongshan County brought back to life a heart patient whose breathing had stopped for more than three hours and whose heart had stopped beating for an hour and five minutes.This is the first paragraph of a news story. What is the story about? It is about a heart patient. If a reader is suffering from a heart disease, he may have a strong interest in the information and decide to read the whole story.D. CONSULTING THE INDEX TO FIND WHAT IS ON THE INSIDE PAGESWhen the reader has finished reading the important news stories on the front page, he may want to go on reading the inside pages. Before turning to the inside pages, he should consult the index. As mentioned above, there is an index or table of contents on the front page which serves as a guide to the whole pa-per.The index has different names in different newspapers. In China Daily, it is called "INSIDE CHINA DAILY"; in International Herald Tribune, it is called "Kiosk" and in The Washington Post, simply "Inside". The index in a newspaper is not like the contents of a book which list all the items; instead, it usually gives only the important news stories on the inside pages.In some newspapers, such as The Washington Post, and The Sunday Times, only the most important news stories on the inside pages are mentioned in theindex on the front page, and a detailed index is presented on the second page.By consulting the index, you can get a general view of the day's inside pages. You may have found something interesting to read on the inside pages. Therefore, a knowledge of the inside pages is essential.The inside pages are usually divided according to the categories of the news. China Daily,for example, usually carries national news on Page 2 and Page 3, opinion on Page 4, business news on Page 5 and Page 6, market news on Page 7, sports on Page 8, arts and culture on Page 9 and Page 10 and world news on Page 11 and Page 12. The Washington Post usually divides its inside pages into several sections: A/Nation and World; B/Business; C/Style; D/Metro; E/Food and F/Sports, but the contents of each section change regularly.EXERCISESI Below is a set of five headlines from newspapers. Following these are the articles which appeared with the headlines. Match the headlines and the articles as quickly as possible.Head l ines:1) Putin, Schroeder finish talks2) Scotland battles foot-and-mouth plaque3) Nepalis await truth as mourning ends4) Philippines gov't claims hostages will be freed soon5) 2001 APEC MRT to raise curtain todayArticles:a) DUMFRIES, Scotland: It takes a week to burn a herd of cows. "Our fire is still burning, still smouldering, one week on," said Robin Spence, a burly farmerfrom Lockerbie, a small market town in southwest Scotland, at the heart of the northern country's fight against the foot-and-mouth plague devastating Britain. b) ST. PETERSBURG: Russian President Vladimir Putin and GermanChancellor Gerhard Schroeder wrapped up wide-ranging talks yesterday during a visit which was strong on symbolism but yielded few concrete results.c) The 2001 APEC Meeting of MinistersResponsible for Trade (MRT) is expected toraise its curtain today under the spotlight ofmedia from home and abroad.d) KATHMANDU: Nepal ends its official statemourning for the slain royal family yesterday asit waits for answers from a commission chargedwith investigating the massacre.e) ZAMBOANGA, Philippines: The Philippine military said yesterday it hadpinned down Muslim guerrillas holding Fhilipino and US. hostages on southern Basilan island and it should not take long for the kidnapped victims to be recovered.II. Scan the following leads. Try to find two or three key words in each one that tell what the story is about. Then select the best choice from the options that follow.1) UNITED NATIONS—Warning that the world's population could triple in 100 years and wipe out any advances of the past century, a former World Bank president yesterday proposed a multibillion-dollar global birth control program. This story is abouta) the world's population.b) advances of the past century.c) a former World Bank president.d) a birth control program.2) ANAHEIM, California — Artificial eyeballs that move like real ones have been implanted in 4000 people and may help many people embarrassed by odd movements of the traditional "glass eye", experts say.This story is abouta) eyeballs.b) artificial eyeballs.,c) 4000 people.d) the traditional "glass eye".3) China's hard currency B shares and domestic A shares moved in different directions yesterday. B shares ended lower for the third straight day while A shares gained further ground.This story is abouta) the stock market.b) the monetary policy.c) the currency revaluation.d) the money supply.4) FORT PIERCE, Florida — Kimberly Bergalis, the first person known to have contracted AIDS from a health care worker, died on Sunday after a poignant battle for her life and for laws to protect patients.This story is abouta) Aids.b) a health-care worker.c) a poignant battle.d) an Aids victim.5) In an unprecedented "day of terror", two planes smashed into New York's World Trade Center twin towers on September 11, reducing them to debris, while explosions rocked the Pentagon in Washington, and the White House andState Department were evacuated U. S. President Bush pledged the U. S, Government will "hunt down" those responsible for the apparent terrorist attack.This story is abouta)New York's World Trade Center twin towers.b) a terrorist attack.c) the Pentagon in Washington.d) the White House and State Department.6) SHIMLA, India — A mountain train popular with Hindu pilgrims and tourists came off the tracks on Saturday, sending three carriages plunging into a ravine (gorge) and killing at least 26 people.This story is abouta) Hindu pilgrims and terrorists.b) a mountain train.c) a ravine.d) a train accident.7) WASHINGTON - U. S. federal officials have seized 23641 pounds of cocaine (or about 12 tons) hidden inside concrete fencing posts at a warehouse and storage lot at Miami, Florida, according to reports reaching here yesterday. This story is abouta) U. S. federal officials.b) a warehouse.c) a report.d) a seizure of cocaine.8) PARIS — The United States refused to go along with nearly two dozen of the world's richest nations which agreed on Tuesday to provide more money to poorer countries struggling to halt environmental destruction. This story isabouta) a refusal.b) The world's richest nations.c) an agreement.d) environmental destruction.9) MOSCOW — Hungry and exhausted passengers stormed an aircraft of the State Airline Aeroflot and ordered its crew to operate a flight which had been delayed more than 24 hours, Tass news agency reported on Tuesday. This story is abouta) an aircraft.b) a flight.c) a long flight delay.d) Tass news agency.10) WELLINGTON — more than 500 policemen from 33 countries have met here at a three-day triennial International Police Association world congress in a bid to promote ties between police forces throughout the world. This story is abouta) 500 policemen.b) the International Police Association.c) world police forces.d) a world police congress.。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
《英语(基础模块)1》Chapter_1_教案
教案首页Step1：GreetingsStep2：Introductions and Requirements1.The teacher introduces self to the Ss firstly.2.Choose some Ss to do self-introduction to the whole class3.Give some requirements to Ss when they study English in this termStep3：Words and Expressions1.Ask Ss to turn to Page 162 and look at the words that are related to lesson 12.Ask Ss to read the new words after the teacher3.The whole class read together4.Choose two Ss to read the new words5.Correct their pronunciationStep4：Explain each partPart 1：Pair practice1.Be sure that each student understands the task of this part firstly2.The teacher explains the conversation to Ss first and then makes up theconversation with one student3.Ask Ss to work in pair and practice the conversation4.Call on a few pairs to perform their conversations for the class5.Correct their pronunciationPart 2.3：Group Practice1.Ask Ss to form groups of four and do self-introduction to three different membersin their groups2.Do the conversation with a student by asking two questions：What’s your name?Where are you from?3.Ask Ss to form groups of four and greet each other by telling their names andwhere they are form4.Choose some groups to act out their conversations5.Give some comments on their performance6.Explain grammar points about statements with be to SsPart 4.5：Say it and wire1.Have Ss look at the information about Alex and Katherine in the cards2.Role play the first conversation with a student , shoring the class how to take turnplaying A and B roles3.Ask Ss to work in pair and practice the conversation by using Frank’s ID card andWang guo’s ID card4.Choose some to act out5.check their mistakes6.Finish part 5 with the whole classPart 6.7: Listen and Group practice1. The whole class read the letters of the alphabet together first2.Ask Ss to work in pairs and finish the following exercises①What’s your n ame ? ②Is your name David ?③Yes, it is ④How do you do ?⑤What’s his name ? ⑥Is her name Marry?⑦No , it isn’tPart 8:Listen and say it1. 1. Have Ss look at the card and be sure that each student understand it2.the whole class read the dialogue together.3.Give five minutes to Ss and let them fill in the passport with their own informationP0art 10.11:Write and Teamwork Task1.Be sure that Ss understand the task of Part 102.ASK a volunteer to read the names in alphabetical order3.Ask Ss to work in teams of four and alphabetize their names4.Call on some teams to read their lists out loudStep 5: Conclusion1.Review how to greet people.2.Review to introduce yourself and others.Step 6:Homework1.Copy new words of lesson 1 in the exercise book2.Preview lesson 2板书设计：Names and Greetingsbe : am, is ,are教案首页Step1：GreetingsStep2：Revision1.The whole class read the words that are related to lesson 12.Review the important language points of lesson 1Step3：Words and Expressions1.Ask Ss to look at the words that are related to lesson 2 and read them after theteacher2.The whole class read it together3.Choose some to read the new words4.Correct their mistakesStep4: Explain each partPart 2: Pair Practice1.Have Ss read the names on the family tree after the teacher2.Give five minutes to Ss and let then practice the questions and answers with apartner3.Check the answers by asking one pairPart3: Listen and say it1.Ask Ss to read the conversation together2.Work in pair and practice the conversation by using the pictures given3.Choose some pairs to act out4.Correct their mistakesCulture TipExplain the culture about introductions to Ss1. For informal introductions, use only the fist namee.g this is my friend Dimitri2.For more formal introductions or business introductions use first and last names or titlese.g This is my teacher ,Eric RyanPart 4:Gronp Practice1.Ask Ss to work in group of four and introduce one of your classmates to anotherclassmate2.Go around the class when Ss are talking3.Choose three groups to act out4.Give some comments on their performancePart 6: Listen and say it1.Teach the culture about wedding ringsIn the U.S married people usually wear a wedding ring on the fourth finger of their left hand2.Ask Ss to read two conversations together3.Work in pairs and practice the conversation by using the three pictures given4.Choose three pairs to act out5.Correct their mistakesGrammar Check .Part 81.Explain the grammar point to Ss:Be : ContractionsFull Form Contraction Example SentencesI am I’m I’m a studentYou are You’re You’re form BrazilHe/she is He’s/She’s He’s/She’s my teacherIt is It’s It’s my phone numberWe/They are We’re/ They’re We’re/ They’re friends2.Finish each sentence using contractions in Part 83.Ask five Ss to read their completed sentences out loud4.Check the answersPart 9:Teamwork Task1.Work in teams of four choose one student volunteer. On a piece of paper draw afamily tree for the student volunteer .Ask the volunteer questions to fill in the family tree. Ask about wife/husband, parents , children ,brothers, and sister , write their names in the family tree .then write sentences about the people in the volunteer’s family2.When Ss are doing the task , go around and offer help when it’s necessary3.Ask two teams to act out in front of the class4.Correct their mistakesStep 5: ConclusionReview how to use the words to family members.Step6.Homework1.Review what they have learnt today and copy new words in the exercise book2.Preview Lesson 3板书设计：Introducing My FamilyBe: I’m You’re He’s She’s It’s We’re They’re教案首页Step1：GreetingsStep2：RevisionThe whole class read the words of lesson 3.Step3:Words and Expressions1.The whole class read the new works of lesson 3 after the teacher2.Ask Ss to read them it3.Choose three Ss to read it4.Correct their mistakesStep4:Explain Each PartPart 1.2:Listen and Pair Practice1.Have Ss read the numbers in Part 1 together2.Work in pairs and finish the exercise below.12:twelve 25 twenty-five102 one hundred and two 159 one hundred and fifty-nine3.Ask Ss to write down their answers on the blackboard4.check the answersPart 3:Listen and say it1.Explain the information in job application card to Ss first2.Teach how to read the zip code in English3.Ask Ss to read the conversation after the teacher4.Work in pairs and practice the conversation using the applications given5.Go around the class and offer help when necessary6.Choose some pairs to act out7.Check their mistakesPart 5.6:Listen and say it , Group Practice1.The whole class read the conversation of Part 5 together2.\Work in pair and practice the conversation again by using the applications given inPart 53.Choose two pairs to act out their dialogues4.Ask Ss to work in groups o three in Part 6 and ask the other students in your grouptheir phone numbers, then write each person’s name and telephone number down 5.Choose two groups to read their dialogues outGrammar Check. & Part :1 .Explain grammar about Possessive Adjectives Pronoun Possessive Adjective Example SentencesI My My name is EricYou your Your area code is 0754He/she his/her His/Her teacher is AmericanIt its its tail is blackWe/they our/their Our/their house is in China2Finish the exercises in part3.Check the answers by asking:Part 8:Listen and say it1.Have Ss look at the job Application Form first and be sure that ss understand it2.Ask Ss to read the conversation after the teacher fist3.Choose two Ss to read it out4.Give five minutes to Ss and let them fill in the application with their owninformation5.Ask some Ss to practice the conversation again by using their own information6.Check their mistakesCulture 7&Part 91.Explain some knowledge about titles to Ss first In formal situations , use one ofthese titles before a per son’s name:Mr=A man (Mr is pronounced mister)Ms=A woman (Ms is pronounced Miz)Miss=A single (Miss is pronounced miss)Mrs=A single woman (Mrs is pronounced missuz)2.Have Ss look at the employee directory and explain it to Ss3.Finish Part 9 by asking some SsPart 12 :Pair Practice1.Explain how to address an envelop to Ss2.Give fifty minutes to Ss and let then finish the envelop according to theinformation given below :Return address: 广州市花都区五华直街15号李华Mailing address广东省广州市花都区宝华路10号林小明（收）3.Ask two Ss to write down their answers on the blackboard4.Check the answersStep 5: ConclusionReview how to write the address an envelope.Step6: Homework1.Review what they have learnt2.Copy new words of lesson 33.Finish all the exercises of Review板书设计：What’s Your Number?Possessive Adjectives: my your his her its our their教案首页2010年9月14日3周Step1:GreetingsStep2 :Revision1.The whole class read the words of chapter 1 together2.Review how to address an envelopeStep3: Explain each partPart 1.2.3.41.Ask Ss do read the story after the teacher first2.Explain the main idea of the story3.Ask Ss to finish part 24.Check the answers with the whole class5.Work in pairs and finish part 36.Call on some pair and ask them read out their writing7.Check the mistakes8.Finish park 4 with SsPart 5 6 7:1.Ask Ss to write the words for the numbered items in the picture in part 52.Choose one student to read the answers out3.Check the answers with Ss4.Give ten minutes to Ss and let then read the information of part 6 , then address theenvelope5.Ask two Ss to write down their answers on the board6.Check the answers with Ss7.Give a model example of part 7 and ask Ss to finish the application form with theirpersonal informationPart 8:Teamwork Task1.Ask Ss to work in groups of four and create a directory of names, addresses ,andtelephone numbers of all the students on their teams2.Be sure that Ss understand all the steps of this task3.Go around the class and offer help when necessary4.Explain the goals listed in the box and ask Ss to evaluate they master them or notPart 9.10: Write and Group Practice1.Ask Ss to fill in the missing words in the cartoon story with the words given2.Choose some Ss to read out their answers3.Check the answers with the whole class4.The whole class read the story together5.Work in groups of three , one to be as Alberto another to be as Rosa and the lastone to be as Cindy , then practice the conversation6.Ask sore groups to read it out7.Correct their pronunciationsStep 4: ConclusionReview the important parts of this chapter.Step 5:Homework1.Review the words of chapter 1and be ready for dictation2.Preview Lesson 1 Chapter 2。
Chapter One 文章开头句型
Chapter One 文章开头句型1-1 对立法: 先引出其他人的不同看法,然后提出自己的看法或者偏向于某一看法,适用于有争议性的主题.例如(e.g)[1]. When asked about....., the vast/overwhelming majority of people say that ....... But I think/view a bit differently.[2]. When it comes to .... , some people bielive that ....... Others argue/ claim that the opposite/reverse is true . There is probably some truth in both arguements/statements , but (I tend to the profer/latter ...)[3]. Now, it is commonly/generally/widely believed/held/acknowledged that .... They claim/ believe/argue that ... But I wonder/doubt whether.....1-2 现象法引出要剖析的现象或者问题, 然后评论 .[1]. Recently the rise in problem of/(phenomenon of) ... has cause/arou sed public/popular/wide/ worldwide concern.[2]. Recently the issue of the problem of/the phenomenon of ...has been brought into focus. ( has been brouth to public attention)[3].Inflation/Corruption/Social inequality ... is yet another of the new and bitter truth we have to learn to face now/constantly.----- To be continued !!1-3 观点法----开门见山,直接了当地提出自己对要讨论的问题的看法.[1]. Never history has the change of .. been as evident as ... Nowhere in the world/China has the issue/idea of .. benn more visible/popular tha n...[2]. Now people in growing/significant numbers are beginnig/coming to re alize/accept/(be aware) that...[3]. Now there is a growing awareness/recognation ot the necessity to...... Now people become increasingly aware/conscious of the importance of ......[4]. Perhaps it is time to have a fresh look at the attitude/idea that.......1-4 引用法----- 先引出名人名言或者有代表性的看法, 来引出文章要展开论述的观点![1]. "Knowledge is power." such is the remark made by Bacon.This rem ark has been shared by more and more people ."Education is not complete with gradulation." Such is the opnion of a gre at American philosopher. Now more and more people share his opnion.[2]."........." How often we hear such statements/words like thoses /this . In our own days we are used to hearing such traditional complains as th is "......".1-5 比较法------ 通过对过去,现在两种不同的倾向,观点的比较, 引出文章要讨论的观点.[1]. For years, ...had been viewed as ... But people are taking a fresh l ook now. With the growing ... , people ....... .[2]. People used to think that ... (In the past, ....) But people now share this new.1-6 故事法---- 先讲一个较短的故事来引发读者的兴趣, 引出文章的主题. [1]. Once in (a newspaper) , I read of/learnt .... The phenemenon of ... has aroused public concern.[2]. I have a friend who ... Should he .... ? Such a dilemma we are ofte n confront with in our daily life.[3]. Once upon a time , there lived a man who ... This story may be (u nbelievable) , but it still has a realistic significance now.1-8 问题法----- 先用讨论或解答的设问, 引出自己观点, 适用于有争议性的话题.Should/What ...... ? Options of ... vary greatly , some ..., others ...But in my opinion , ...... .Chapter 2 文章中间主体内容句型原因结果分析3-1-1. 基本原因--- 分析某事物时, 用此句型说明其基本的或者多方面的原因.[1]. Why...? For one thing.. For another...[2]. The answer to this problem invovles many factors. For one thing... F or another...... Still another ...[3]. A number of factors , both physical and psychological affect .... /both individual and social contribute to ....3-1-2 另一原因--------> 在分析了基本原因之后, 再补充一个次要的或者更重要时用![1]. Another important factor is ....[2]. ... is also responsible for the change/problem.[3]. Certainly , the ... is not the sole reason for .....3-1-3 后果影响--------- 分析某事物可能造成的后果或者带来的影响 .[1]. It will produce a profound/far-reaching effect/impact on....[2]. In involves some serious consequence for ........比较对照句型3-2-1. 两者比较---> 比较两事物, 要说出其一超过另一个, 或肯定一事物的优点, 也肯定其缺点的时候用![1]. The advantages gained from A are much greater than the advantag es we gain from B.[2]. Indeed, A carries much weight when compared with B.[3]. There is no doubt that it has its negative effects as well as positive effects.3-2-2 . 两者相同/相似------> 比较两事物共同都有或者共同都没有的特点时用! [1]. A and B have several thing in common. They are similar in tha t.....[2]. A bears some sriking resemblance(s) to B.Chapter Three 文章结尾形式2-1 结论性--------- 通过对文章前面的讨论,引出或重申文章的中心思想及观点 . [1]. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the c onclusion that .....[2]. In summary/In a word , it is more valuable .......2-2 后果性------ 揭示所讨论的问题若不解决, 将产生的严重后果.[1]. We must call for an immediate method , because the current phen omenon of ... , if allowed to proceed, will surely lead to the heavy cost of .......[2]. Obviously , if we ignore/are blind to the problem , there is every ch ance that .. will be put in danger.2-3 号召性-------- 呼吁读者行动起来, 采取行动或提请注意.[1]. It is time that we urged an immediate end to the undesirable tendc y of ......[2]. It is essential thar effective measures should be taken to correct the tendency.2-4 建议性-------- 对所讨论的问题提出建议性的意见, 包括建议和具体的解决问题的方法.[1]. While it cannot be solved immediately, still there are ways. The mo st popular is .... Another method is ... Still another one is .....[2]. Awareness/Recognition of the problem is the first step toward the sit uation.2-5 方向性的结尾方式---- 其与建议性的唯一差别就是对问题解决提出总的, 大体的方向或者指明前景. [1]. Many solutions are being offered here , all of them make some sense, but none is adequate enough. The problem should be recognized in a wide way .[2]. There is no quick method to the issue of .., but .. might be helpful/ benefical.[3]. The great challenge today is ...... There is much difficulty , but ........ 2--6 意义性的结尾方式--------> 文章结尾的时候,从更高的更新的角度指出所讨论的问题的重要性以及其深远的意义!e.g:[1]. Following these suggestions may not guarantee the success, but the pay off might be worth the effort . It will not only benefit but also bene fit .....[2]. In any case, whether it is posotive or negative, one thing is certain that it will undoubtedly ..特点：喜欢考难的单词,homogeneously 同一的,基因(前缀,词根adj adv) make a reservation 订房间: (出现两次) commitment 商业方面的约定engagement 一般的约定(也指订婚)gorgeous 秀色可餐，太美了lease 签租约 mortgage 抵押,贷款installment 分期付款collide with 与......相冲突 deprive of 剥夺budget 预算compensation 弥补，补偿eternal永恒的intuition 直觉penalty 惩罚,点球 potential 潜在的in terms of在......方面sheer完全的 trivial 琐碎的 regardless of 除了 demonstrate 演示demonstrated beauty 倾国倾城mingled情感、气息、气味的混合： claim有100多条解释Constrain 陪考：e mpirical 凭经验的，主观的出现giant panda/species 就选死光光，绝种extinct记忆方法：词根法＋联想法spir=breath(呼吸) inspire吸入空气-->产生灵感 conspiracy共同呼吸-->同谋者expire断气-->过期，满期 perspire出汗，流汗 aspire不断地呼吸-->渴望ers＝turn (旋转)Universe 围绕地旋转-->宇宙,单一的，同样的 converse 扭转,共同地 reverse 颠倒，反转，倒带,反 diverse 不同的 vertigo 头晕,分开 cess=go (走路) access 一再地走-->接近,一再excess 超过-->过渡,超出 recess 走回来-->休息 process 前进，加工scend=climb (爬) ascend v.攀登，轻薄物体的上升，声音从远处传来 descendant n.后代（在你后面爬）transcend v.超越，胜过 cest 跑 ancestor 在前面跑-->祖先 sophomore 大二生cur跑 precursor 在前面跑-->祖先 form 形式 reform 一再地改变形式--> 改革conform 共同->符合 perform 演出 deform 不好的形式-->畸形不好sophy智慧sophisticated 复杂的，老于世故的聪明的，睿智的 philosophy 哲学,爱智慧rupt＝break(断裂) bankrupt 破产 interrupt 打断 exclusive interview 人物专访corrupt r双写＋co=共同共同在断-->腐败-->破坏excursion 跑出去-->旅游clude=close exclusive a.排他的，独占的，专属的 exclude v.排除在外inclusive a. 包围住的，包括的 preclude v.预防，妨碍 ped 脚 expedition 脚出去-->探险biped 双足的 pedal 脚蹬的地方 define 加强限定-->下定义stat 站在那stationary 静止的 statue 全身雕塑 scribe=write (写) ascribe 归因于subscribe 订阅，提交,在下面写 conscribe 征兵 circumscribe 限制,圆圈press压 impression 压在你心里面-->印象 express 压出来-->表达suppress 往下压-->平息，镇压 oppress 压迫，压制 bat=hit打斗 debate 争论combat 搏斗 acrobat 杂技flicient deficient 缺乏的，不够的 subfficient 足够的 proficient a.精通的；n.专家efficient 效率的 flict打 conflict 一起打-->冲突，战争 afflict 一再地打击-->折磨inflict 自虐，自我折磨front 面对 confront 使面临，对抗 affront 脸一直凑过去-->冒犯，侮辱 effrontery 厚颜无耻 gest管道digest分开管道-->文摘congest共同走到管道->交通拥挤 ingest 进入管道-->吃入，摄入miss送mission 送出去的-->任务 commission 共同送出去的任务 ->委托，委任，佣金，回扣dismiss 疏散，解散，解雇，免职 omission 省略，忽略 pel推 repel 推回来-->相斥compel共同往前推-->强迫，迫使 propel 往前推-->推进 compliments 赞美之词sist 站立resist 抵制 consist of 由......组成 persist （一直总）坚持 assist 帮助 decline 下降incline 倾向be inclined to do 喜欢做 recline 斜躺（安娜卡列尼娜卧轨自杀ple 满，完成 implement 实施，执行 complement 相补充、相弥补superior 优良的，卓越的 superable 可取的，可胜任的 supreme 最高的，至高无上的superb 庄重的，极好的fin 终点，范围 confine 限制 finish 完成 definite 明确的infinite 无限，极大 cede 走 concede妥协 recede 后退rip(撕裂) grip v. 抓gripping 扣人心弦的 ceed 走 proceed with=contine with exceed 超过exceeding 巨大的defect n.过失，错误 affect n.影响,侵袭 effect n.效果，作用infect v.传染，感染 pat 父亲，祖国 patrol 巡逻 expatriate 驱逐出境compatriot 同胞（有共同的祖国） repatriate v.遣返patriot n.爱国者tent扩展，延展 intentionally 故意地 content 内容patent 怕传出去-->申请专利保护 acro高 acronym(名字的词根)缩写acrobat 高级的杂耍-->杂技 anonymous没名-->匿名的tract 拖，拉extract 拉出来-->萃取，提取 attract 一再地拉-->吸引（美好的）distract 拉走了-->分散，转移，分神 cise 切 precise 事先切好-->精确concise 共同切-->简洁的，简明的 compact 结实的，简洁的，紧凑的（常考）lump 肿块，疙瘩hump 驼峰 plump 丰满<-->bony骨感美人 goose lump外国人的鹅皮疙瘩perspective n.透视，全景 inspect v.检查，视察 expect v.期待 prospect n.前景spectacles 眼镜undertake 承担，许诺 undergo 经历，遭受 underscore 强调underlying a.基本的 four underlying principles underline 强调 bar 棍子barbarian 野蛮人 barren(ren=人)剩棍和人-->贫瘠 revive 复活survive 存活embarrass 用棍子打屁股-->尴尬vivid 鲜艳的 vivisect(切)活体解剖prime 黄金时期，青春；主要的，最初的 primitive 原始的 preliminary 预备的hypo 低hypotension 低血压 hypothsis 假说 hyper 高 hypersensitive 高度敏感 turb 搅动turbine 搅动机 turbulent 混乱的，动荡的＝chaos relent 反复地借-->v.使......宽厚，仁慈<-->relentless 无情，冷酷 shear v.剪羊毛;n.大剪刀(羊有耳朵ear)sheer adv. 完全地kernel r像花-->核 kennel 有n像门-->狗窝 sprout 有r-->v.发芽spout 爆发fragrant r一朵花-->香喷喷的 flagrant l像粪勺-->臭烘烘的，罪恶昭著的，声名狼藉的haven 有个门-->避难所 heaven ea表示在......上面-->避难所在上面-->天堂loom l高高的个子，oo大大的眼睛的MM在网上是很少的-->若隐若现gloom 因此GG感到很郁闷-->郁闷，阴沉 rose代表爱情-没有爱情-->郁闷，阴沉morose mo白话"冇"的音-没有，dismay(美mei)-->郁闷，沮丧amorous 爱摸玫瑰（rose音同rous） ->好色的，色情的ponderous 胖得要死-->笨重的pest 拍死它-->害虫 gangster 干死他-->匪徒 naive 奶糊的-->天真的，无邪的，-->幼稚chaos 吵死-->吵闹的；正确发音：[ ke,a:s] quaint 把q看成g,汉语拼音：guai怪-->古怪的，新奇的 acquaint ac表示一再--> 一再古怪，就见怪不怪-->熟悉juvenile 久闻奶-->青少年shatter 沙特被人连灌8球--梦想破碎-->破碎acme AC米兰（能发展到AC米兰-->顶点 obstinate 我不听你的-->固执的（考过）aftermath 在马死后，要调查，就是引起余波-->余波elegant 把leg想象成模特在T字台上走的大腿-->优雅obscene 我不see/信--我不看-->下流的，淫荡的appal 我怕-->恐惧Lobuster 老不死-->龙虾 blunder 不太烂的-->小错误commit a blunder 犯小错（常考）original 最初的，原创的--orginals n.原著slippery 滑，老*巨猾 decline 具体数字、数据下降，如汇率；婉言拒绝slip one's mind 忘了...... plunge into 跳进lung 肺，p（扑）进水里，水进入肺中，然后出来e（out） plight把火扑灭-->困境eg:No one can be a hero in plight.ambiguous安必规（治疗精神病药）-->模棱两可，似是而非（考过）absurd 爱不死-->荒谬（考过）wallflower 壁花，局外人（特指在舞会中无人邀请的女孩）spicy 辣味的spic 看conspicuous 看得到的--明显的（一般考交通标志很明显）apprehension 一再地事先不知道-->理解，明白，忧虑，恐惧tremendous 可怕的，巨大的，高速的（不要激怒老熊）tremble 因恐惧而颤抖，trem恐惧；end结果--害怕结果-->可怕的magnify 放大-->magnificent 精美的＝gorgeous cumulus积雨云-->accumulate一再地积累-->积聚，堆积luxi住在银河仙女的皮肤（力士香皂）-->luxury拥有那种皮肤是件奢侈的事->奢侈fabrica te （fabre纤维）-->编造，捏造decent （低头看钱）找工作要看薪水-->合适的despise (spit 吐口水)低头向他吐口水-->蔑视 innocent (被人抓住的小偷兜里没钱)-->无辜scorn 长得像死玉米-->贬低abuse (离开)-->滥用abide (I=爱)离开爱-->忍受痛苦subject to 1.=undergo 经历；2.=bring 带来compatible with 与......相容（常考）illumine 一路明-->照亮，点亮illumination n. revenge myself on sb .亲自报复alternate a.轮流的，轮换的-->alternative a.其他的；n.另一选择revenues pl.收入，税收venues 维纳斯想拥有她那样的身材就得付钱In collaboration(共同劳动) with 与......相合作(文化艺术)，与......相一致tantalus n.致命的诱惑也指宙斯和人间女子所生之子，鄙视神仙，曾把亲生儿子煮了让神仙吃tantalize v.逗弄deviation from 与......相背离真题：科学家的计算跟人们目测之间是存在偏差。
汉英翻译(chapter one) 第一章 翻译的过程
2013年2月25日
一、翻译的过程
（一）理解阶段 1．语义分析 语义分析是语言分析的一个分支，说明处在 一定语境中，按照一定次序排列的词项之间 的语义关系，探索词项的意义。把握好原语 的全部意义，是翻译成效的关键。
琼州学院外国语学院
2
1）注意词的概念意义和关联意义。
琼州学院外国语学院 8
3．语用分析
语用分析，是通过语用学的思考，对语言的 交际意义进行综合分析的方法之一，旨在了 解和确定讲话人与所讲话语之间的关系，或 者说旨在把握语言符号与使用该语言符号的 人的关系。 这种关系常常表现为讲话人的感情、态度、 情绪、意念等。了解这一点对于翻译来说是 至关重要的。
琼州学院外国语学院
12
（二）表达阶段
1、直译（Literal Translation） 习语极富哲理、形象鲜明，深深植根于社会 习俗和文化传统之中，遇有原文用意独特而 汉语又无对应说法的谚语，可采用直译法。 但要注意的是，直译并非逐字对译，而是取 其题旨用意和比喻形象，兼顾原文修辞效果。 直译法如运用得当，可扩大读者的知识，丰 富汉语的表达能力。
11
琼州学院外国语学院
2）弄清讲话人的意图，进而决定表达方式。
① Harry is a professor, but can’t spell. 哈利是教授，奇怪的是不会拼写。 ② And you talked to him this way after all he had done for you. 人家帮了你那么多忙，你怎么竟这样跟人家 讲话呢？
① seat oneself in a wooden chair 坐在木椅里 ② accept a university chair 同意在大学里执教 ③ chair the board meeting 主持董事会 ④ condemned to the chair 被处电刑
大学英语跨文化交际 chapter one
4. Culture is the grammar of our behavior
in order to behave appropriately in any society, people need to know the culture. culture includes all the rules that make actions meaningful to the people around them. people learn their cultural grammar unconsciously and apply its rules automatically.
2. Culture is our software focuses on the function of culture physical selves are viewed as hardware, and we are programmed by home culture to be human. we are only vaguely aware of it as we use it. sometimes, the computer doesn’t work because it is incompatible with someone else’s software. 3. Culture is like the water a fish swims in in water, fish finds food, reproduces and protects itself from danger. our culture is so much a part of who we are and what the world is like for us that we do not notice it and we take it for granted
《月亮与六便士》chapter one
Chapter 1I confess that when first I made acquaintance with Charles Strickland I never for a moment discerned that there was in him anything out of the ordinary. Yet now few will be found to deny his greatness. I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstances reduces it to very discreet proportions. The Prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests. The time has passed when he was an object of ridicule, and it is no longer a mark of eccentricity to defend or of perversity to extol him. His faults are accepted as the necessary complement to his merits. It is still possible to discuss his place in art, and the adulation of his admirers is perhaps no less capricious than the disparagement of his detractors; but one thing can never be doubtful, and that is that he had genius. To my mind the most interesting thing in art is the personality of the artist; and if that is singular, I am willing to excuse a thousand faults. I suppose Velasquez was a better painter than El Greco, but custom stales one's admiration for him: the Cretan, sensual and tragic, proffers the mystery of his soul like a standing sacrifice. The artist, painter, poet, or musician, by his decoration, sublime or beautiful, satisfies the aesthetic sense; but that is akin to the sexual instinct, and shares its barbarity: he lays before you also the greater gift of himself. To pursue his secret has something of the fascination of a detective story. It is a riddle which shares with the universe the merit of having no answer. The most insignificant of Strickland's works suggests a personality which is strange, tormented, and complex; and it is this surely which prevents even those who do not like his pictures from being indifferent to them; it is this which has excited so curious an interest in his life and character.It was not till four years after Strickland's death that Maurice Huret wrote that article in the Mercure de France which rescued the unknown painter from oblivion and blazed the trail which succeeding writers, with more or less docility, have followed. For a long time no critic has enjoyed in France a more incontestable authority, and it was impossible not to be impressed by the claims he made; they seemed extravagant; but later judgments have confirmed his estimate, and the reputation of Charles Strickland is now firmly established on the lines which he laid down. The rise of this reputation is one of the most romantic incidents in the history of art. But I do not propose to deal with Charles Strickland's work except in so far as it touches upon his character. I cannot agree with the painters who claim superciliously that the layman can understand nothing of painting, and that he can best show his appreciation of their works by silence and a cheque-book. It is a grotesque misapprehension which sees in art no more than a craft comprehensible perfectly only to the craftsman: art is a manifestation of emotion, and emotion speaks a language that all may understand. But I will allow that the critic who has not a practical knowledge of technique is seldom able to say anything on the subject of real value, and my ignorance of painting is extreme. Fortunately, there is no need for me to risk the adventure, since my friend, Mr. Edward Leggatt, an able writer as well as an admirable painter, has exhaustively discussed Charles Strickland's work in a little book(1) which is a charming example of a style, for the most part, less happily cultivated in England than in France.(1) "A Modern Artist: Notes on the Work of Charles Strickland, " by Edward Leggatt, A. R. H. A. Martin Secker, 1917.Maurice Huret in his famous article gave an outline of Charles Strickland's life which was well calculated to whet the appetites of the inquiring. With his disinterested passion for art, he had a real desire to call the attention of the wise to a talent which was in the highest degree original; but he was too good a journalist to be unaware that the "human interest" would enable him more easily to effect his purpose. And when such as had come in contact with Strickland in the past, writers who had known him in London, painters who had met him in the cafes of Montmartre, discovered to their amazement that where they had seen but an unsuccessful artist, like another, authentic genius had rubbed shoulders with them there began to appear in the magazines of France and America a succession of articles, the reminiscences of one, the appreciation of another, which added to Strickland's notoriety, and fed without satisfying the curiosity of the public. The subject was grateful, and the industrious Weitbrecht-Rotholz in his imposing monograph(2) has been able to give a remarkable list of authorities.(2) "Karl Strickland: sein Leben und seine Kunst, " by Hugo Weitbrecht-Rotholz, Ph. D. Schwingel und Hanisch. Leipzig, 1914.The faculty for myth is innate in the human race. It seizes with avidity upon any incidents, surprising or mysterious, in the career of those who have at all distinguished themselves from their fellows, and invents a legend to which it then attaches a fanatical belief. It is the protest of romance against the commonplace of life. The incidents of the legend become the hero's surest passport to immortality. The ironic philosopher reflects with a smile that Sir Walter Raleigh is more safely inshrined in the memory of mankind because he set his cloak for the Virgin Queen to walk on than because he carried the English name to undiscovered countries. Charles Strickland lived obscurely. He made enemies rather than friends. It is not strange, then, that those who wrote of him should have eked out their scanty recollections with a lively fancy, and it is evident that there was enough in the little that was known of him to give opportunity to the romantic scribe; there was much in his life which was strange and terrible, in his character something outrageous, and in his fate not a little that was pathetic. In due course a legend arose of such circumstantiality that the wise historian would hesitate to attack it.But a wise historian is precisely what the Rev. Robert Strickland is not. He wrote his biography(3) avowedly to "remove certain misconceptions which had gained currency" in regard to the later part of his father's life, and which had "caused considerable pain to persons still living. " It is obvious that there was much in the commonly received account of Strickland's life to embarrass a respectable family. I have read this work with a good deal of amusement, and upon this I congratulate myself, since it is colourless and dull. Mr. Strickland has drawn the portrait of an excellent husband and father, a man of kindly temper, industrious habits, and moral disposition. The modern clergyman has acquired in his study of the science which I believe is called exegesis an astonishing facility for explaining things away, but the subtlety with which the Rev. Robert Strickland has "interpreted" all the facts in his father's life which a dutiful son might find it inconvenient to remember must surely lead him in the fullness of time to the highest dignities of the Church. I see already his muscular calves encased in the gaiters episcopal. It was a hazardous, though maybe a gallant thing to do, since it is probable that the legend commonly received has had no small share in the growth of Strickland's reputation; for there are many who have been attracted to his art by the detestation in which they held his character or the compassion withwhich they regarded his death; and the son's well-meaning efforts threw a singular chill upon the father's admirers. It is due to no accident that when one of his most important works, The Woman of Samaria, (4) was sold at Christie's shortly after the discussion which followed the publication of Mr. Strickland's biography, it fetched POUNDS 235 less than it had done nine months before when it was bought by the distinguished collector whose sudden death had brought it once more under the hammer. Perhaps Charles Strickland's power and originality would scarcely have sufficed to turn the scale if the remarkable mythopoeic faculty of mankind had not brushed aside with impatience a story which disappointed all its craving for the extraordinary. And presently Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz produced the work which finally set at rest the misgivings of all lovers of art.(3) "Strickland: The Man and His Work, " by his son, Robert Strickland. Wm. Heinemann, 1913.(4) This was described in Christie's catalogue as follows: "A nude woman, a native of the Society Islands, is lying on the ground beside a brook. Behind is a tropical Landscape with palm-trees, bananas, etc. 60 in. x 48 in. "Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz belongs to that school of historians which believes that human nature is not only about as bad as it can be, but a great deal worse; and certainly the reader is safer of entertainment in their hands than in those of the writers who take a malicious pleasure in representing the great figures of romance as patterns of the domestic virtues. For my part, I should be sorry to think that there was nothing between Anthony and Cleopatra but an economic situation; and it will require a great deal more evidence than is ever likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz has dealt in such terms with the Rev. Robert Strickland's innocent biography that it is difficult to avoid feeling a certain sympathy for the unlucky parson. His decent reticence is branded as hypocrisy, his circumlocutions are roundly called lies, and his silence is vilified as treachery. And on the strength of peccadillos, reprehensible in an author, but excusable in a son, the Anglo-Saxon race is accused of prudishness, humbug, pretentiousness, deceit, cunning, and bad cooking. Personally I think it was rash of Mr. Strickland, in refuting the account which had gained belief of a certain "unpleasantness" between his father and mother, to state that Charles Strickland in a letter written from Paris had described her as "an excellent woman, " since Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz was able to print the letter in facsimile, and it appears that the passage referred to ran in fact as follows: God damn my wife. She is an excellent woman. I wish she was in hell. It is not thus that the Church in its great days dealt with evidence that was unwelcome. Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz was an enthusiastic admirer of Charles Strickland, and there was no danger that he would whitewash him. He had an unerring eye for the despicable motive in actions that had all the appearance of innocence. He was a psycho-pathologist, as well as a student of art, and the subconscious had few secrets from him. No mystic ever saw deeper meaning in common things. The mystic sees the ineffable, and the psycho-pathologist the unspeakable. There is a singular fascination in watching the eagerness with which the learned author ferrets out every circumstance which may throw discredit on his hero. His heart warms to him when he can bring forward some example of cruelty or meanness, and he exults like an inquisitor at the auto da fe of an heretic when with some forgotten story he can confound the filial piety of the Rev. Robert Strickland. His industry has been amazing. Nothing has been too small to escape him, and you may be sure that if Charles Strickland left a laundry bill unpaid it will be given you in extenso, and if he forebore to return a borrowed half-crown no detail of thetransaction will be omitted.老实说，我刚刚认识查理斯·思特里克兰德的时候，从来没注意到这个人有什么与众不同的地方，但是今天却很少有人不承认他的伟大了。
新思维4B Chapter One词汇练习(原朗文教材)
中文
英文
订正
1.园艺俱乐部
2.保持健康
3.提高我的演技
4.在青少年中心
5.加入运动俱乐部
6.让我健康
7.喜欢体育胜过园艺
8.了解植物
9.想要变得健康
10.最喜欢运动
11.更好地照顾我的宠物
12.最好的宠物主人
13.演戏
14.喜欢学习动物相关知识（enjoy）
15.做运动
like sport best
11.更好地照顾我的宠物
take better care of my pets
12.最好的宠物主人
the best pet owner
13.演戏
act in a play
14.喜欢学习动物相关知识（enjoy）
enjoy learning about animals
15.做运动
16.装扮
17.选择一个俱乐部加入
18.看海报
19.不同的俱乐部
20.种植漂亮的植物
4BChapterOne词汇练习参考答案
中文
英文
订正
1.园艺俱乐部
the Gardening Club
2.保持健康
keep fit/healthy
3.提高我的演技
improve my acting
4.在青少年中心
at a youth centre
do sport
16.装扮
dress up
17.选择一个俱乐部加入
choose a club to join
18.看海报
look at the sters
19.不同的俱乐部
different clubs
《骆驼祥子》每章节批注（CommentsoneachchapterofcamelXiangzi）
《骆驼祥子》每章节批注（Comments on each chapter of camelXiangzi）Chapter one:This chapter through Xiangzi save money to buy a car twists and turns of experience, to show us is undoubtedly a honest, simple, love life image of workers. "He is the one...... seems to be a good ghost." Xiangzi is a better portrayal of the soul. Of course, this chapter depicts the protagonist in a specific social background, connecting the fate of the characters with the changes in the social situation, laying a foreshadowing for the plot development. At the same time, this is the first Xiangzi in life.Second chapters:Xiangzi writes about the appearance of this part, characterization of Xiangzi pulled the car, are very good, it has become Xiangzi's youth, health and labor praise. But in the back, Xiangzi with his sweat for the symbol of his newborn car, in the army \ "valve melee" was taken away. This is a blow to Xiangzi, so Xiangzi tears. He hated those soldiers, and hate everything in the world." This is the first drop in Xiangzi's life.Third chapters:Although Xiangzi lost his first car, he was still awake, and his dream was not shattered. He also wanted to rebuild his life with camel and his hard work. "He had a drink of cold water,and then took the thirty five bright silver dollar, a cornmeal pancake, wearing a nurse to the chest when the pieces of broken white xiaogua, step by step to go to town!" In this sentence as the end of the third chapter, in order to reflect Xiangzi's confidence in remodeling life, but also for the next Xiangzi in order to buy a car and desperately pull the car to pave the way.Fourth chapters:"His relationship with the three camels from his nonsense was somebody to go. A sober, he is Xiangzi 'camel'." The title and the beginning of the novel. Here not only explains the "camel Xiangzi" nickname of the bitter origin, but also make the novel content interlocking, seamless. "I see people there... His only friend is... The city." Resorting to sight, hearing, smell and touch, describing scenes in various angles, and methodically introducing Peking's "hectic" environment. At the same time, Xiangzi regarded the ancient city as his "friend", which showed the recovery of his life confidence and the loneliness and helplessness in his heart.Fifth chapters:Xiangzi in order to buy a car again, he began to like a ravening beast ", but many households in the home run, swallow. But Xiangzi still did not expect, in the old society surrounded by the dark forces, the fate of the lower little people is difficult to change. At the same time, Xiangzi's psychological world is changing quietly, showing the signs of "sinking" and "depravity". In this chapter, there are two still gratifying:one is Xiangzi's confidence in life is not death; two had on Xiangzi's caring. This also makes the plot of the novel is a very good opportunity for development.Sixth chapters:This chapter reflects her and Xiangzi relationship is one-way, i.e. active passive Tigress, Xiangzi. The author also wrote Tigress, clever arrangement, the emotion "Tibet" out of sight. Her "rough" character show. Xiangzi is no love at all to her. But because of his prior experience, factors of confusion, Tigress germinating nature, the effect of alcohol and other complex, coupled with Xiangzi's personality, life experience decision. In short, the author wrote this emotional experience, wrote the complexity of human nature, appears to be true and not single, make the character's image more plump, vivid and credible.Seventh chapters:"After much deliberation, he found that: about to the end, he had to face up to tiger girl; she is not, not to the car?" From the simple "containing Xiangzi want to face to the car, but it was not for her. This is Xiangzi "fallen", start a snob. This is Xiangzi's sadness, this is also a social tragedy. "Mother's words like a gramophone record... And no traces of transitions." The mother's words like a gramophone record, both image is appropriate,At the same time also show Xiangzi's stiff, honest and straightforward, honest, this makes Xiangzi ineloquent imagemore prominent.Eighth chapters:"The first ice appeared on the ground, even on the sidewalk soil solidified...... he continued running, go into, nothing could stop the giant" bad external environment did not stop Xiangzi, from the side of the life of a person's beliefs influence great. "They wear a light right through, a gust of wind blew broken, broken clothes" through the exaggeration of the art, extremely shabby, and the clothes thin, but also reflects the society at that time the people at the bottom of the hardships of life.Ninth chapters:With the two chapter, Xiangzi happily came to the old customer Mr. Cao home lira monthly, Mr. Cao Cao and Mrs. Xiangzi here feel kind, everything is so nice and warm, all have to make endless effort. When she suddenly appeared in front of Xiangzi, pointing to his belly and said: "I have!" Are told to make imaginative fourth Master Liu find him as his son-in-law, Xiangzi pain to come out, he felt like falling into the trap, hands and feet were all clamps, can't run.Tenth chapters:Xiangzi sent Mr. Cao to the movies once. In the teahouse met hungry faint in the horse and his grandson pony. The old horse is a rickshaw driver with his own car, and his tragic experience casts a shadow over Xiangzi's greatest hope. He vaguely felt even if you buy the car is still not a good day. This chapterby Xiangzi agonising over whether to marry Tigress, has decided to marry her end, tail echo, demonstrates the process of Xiangzi. The main body is written horse and pony, Xiangzi from them to see their past and future, which is the root cause of Xiangzi's heart change, reflects the sorrow of life.Eleventh chapters:This chapter is written by Xiangzi following the loss of his car. The "first strike" by "second hit", the author first wrote Xiangzi's heart activities - that is kept in a pot of money, he is to get rid of, Tigress continue to buy a car all the basic survival and rely on, and these "ideal" and "pleasure" because of the destruction of detective sun. "Tragedy, is good things for people to see the tear." The contents of the preceding are all ready for Xiangzi's later experience, all in a powerful foil, highlighting the sadness behind.Twelfth chapters:The article will be Mr. Cao why was detective tracking, why Xiangzi was extortion content made the necessary supplement, which not only eliminates the readers mind mysteries, and the sequence of events makes it clear, complete and reasonable.Thirteenth chapters:This chapter seems simple, but in fact according to the wishes Tigress in a step by step development: Xiangzi is back, fourth Master Liu praises Xiangzi, Xiangzi obedient, his ideal is to fourth Master Liu pointed out, Xiangzi also bought a gift. Theseare foreshadowing for the following plot buried. But the fourth Master Liu tricky, envy other driver, but also for the development of the plot in Mongolia a shadow, to attract readers to continue to pay attention to.Fourteenth chapters:This chapter takes the reception process of fourth Master Liu as the main clue, from different aspects: conflicts between Xiangzi and the other driver, fourth Master Liu and Xiangzi, and Tigress, and fourth Master Liu psychological self contradiction, and so on, these contradictions urge the plot towards unexpected direction, until the people contrary to expectation -- produced a tigress and fourth Master Liu fierce quarrel. She also under the circumstances of her to be caught off guard, Xiangzi. ".". The woman fell out, Xiangzi.Fifteenth chapters:This chapter is mainly written in the tigress and father after falling out with Xiangzi, another Tigress marriage, but Xiangzi is unwilling, but not attack. She is thinking about how to with my father, in order to have a good life. The development of the plot seems calm, but dark wave surging, P. Xiangzi had wronged, want to leave and leave; but Xiangzi worried that Tigress, tough Xiangzi;Xiangzi wants to pull the car, Tigress but want to live leisurely day...... contradiction after another, character is completed.Sixteenth chapters:After the wedding of Xiangzi live in slums like Warren, although life Tigress do a very thoughtful, but Xiangzi did not want to idle at home, thus avoiding Tigress, secretly pulled the car rent. In the face of extremely boring Tigress, stubborn Xiangzi, agreed to buy a car, this makes Xiangzi very happy. In this chapter the tigress image was gradually plump. The author on the basis of the above, and highlight its love, happiness and self-respect, and as the boss's father would break, and to keep Xiangzi Xiangzi to compromise, which allows us to see the old black woman's beauty.Seventeenth chapters:When Xiangzi and his wife, sold the car to go out to enjoy the fourth Master Liu, in her desperation, Xiangzi had to buy a second-hand car. The second-hand car is joy's father used to sell money to buy the joy. Tigress was later bought her officers abandoned home and she became friends, but in order to support the family, she became a prostitute. This part is still in Xiangzi's life as the main line, but the author and supplemented with interleaved technique, describes in detail the miserable life of a tigress, another main character leads to the following - joy.Eighteenth chapters:This chapter first briefly introduces her pregnancy, a detailed account of Xiangzi's illness antecedents and consequences. The contents are arranged in detail to highlight the "unjust world",the strong criticism of society, and the boundless sympathy for the lower class workers. Highlights of this chapter, as the description of the scene, the detailed image text, from the different perspective, the process description of summer weather changes, immersive people. It also plays a role in promoting the plot.Nineteenth chapters:His illness, reduced income, but not pregnant Tigress, and pay attention to eat, which makes her dystocia. Coupled with the thought of superstition and others of cheating, more important is the poor without money and the doctor's indifference, Tigress finally died. This is a blow to people just lit the hope of life to Xiangzi. The author use simple language reveals the underlying social causes of the tragedy in the paper.Twentieth chapters:In order to give her funeral, Xiangzi sold the car, out of home, leave love and hope to rely on his joy, to the car rental car to make a living. Life brought about tremendous changes to Xiangzi's inner world. He changed slowly, learned to smoke, drink, and not feel bad about money. Xiangzi's biggest change was reflected by his change in the car: he pulled the car and was just mixing it with light. Later, Mr. Xiangzi took Mr. Xia's monthly salary. A stingy, dissolute, hypocritical images of officials. Compared to Xiangzi's life and Mr. Xia, the image reveals the social causes of the tragedy of Xiangzi.Twenty-first chapters:Xiangzi was Mrs. Xia temptation, infected with the disease, and spent a lot of money for medical treatment. He became more and more self abandoned. Apart from narration and description, the author reveals the change of Xiangzi's depravity by incisive language, which is caused by social indifference and hits the nail on the head. After the fall of Xiangzi encountered a fourth Master Liu, this has aroused Xiangzi's confidence in life. After part of the novel, written in the most moving, great sorrow is heard about the death of her fourth Master Liu, the figure of flesh and blood.Twenty-second chapters:Determined anew Xiangzi, decided to find Mr. Cao and joy. Mr. Cao told Xiangzi politely as before, and promised to help Xiangzi and joy through. Xiangzi was so happy and urgent that he came out of Cao house to find Xiao Fu. The scenery along the way was also very beautiful, but he could not find the sign of Xiao Fu in the courtyard. He asked everywhere and had no fruit. Once again into depression. This chapter is a chapter full of sunshine, and also part of Xiangzi's hope of rekindle life, even though it is the last one".Twenty-third chapters:Xiangzi in the horse reminder, to the "White House" to find joy,But learned that she had hanged herself. This makes Xiangzi hardly wished to live. hopes finally. The old horse, Xiao Fu and his own experience made him sink down completely, get intoall kinds of bad habits, become a real rogue, and even a kind good man cheat. The author described the process of Xiangzi's depravity and degradation, and described the very simple and profound language. He pointed out sharply that "people are now expelling their own kind into the wild beasts."". Although Xiangzi's depravity has revenge on society, it is irrational and even inhuman moral decay.Twenty-fourth chapters:In the bustling luoguxuantian, Peiping, numbness of the people was to see Ruan Ming shot. And Ruan Mingzheng was betrayed by Xiangzi. Ruan Ming and Xiangzi, are all fallen, but not the same form and reason. But at the end they have become slaves of money are "individualism end ghost". Xiangzi is on the people to do odd jobs to survive the funeral. In this chapter, the author put Xiangzi in a wider social background to write, reflecting the inevitability of the birth of Xiangzi's social disease fetus.。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter one Introduction1.1 Basic knowledge of translationTranslation is a cultural activity in which the implication in one language is accurately represented in another language (Fan Cunzhonbg, 1985, P80).It is information transmission between languages and cultural communication etween lingual groups. Western translation can be traced back to the 3rd century B.C. and in China translation has a long history more than 1800 years long since the earliest sutra translation critics have long been working hard to research into and understand the essence and principles of translation so that the target language work (TLW) can mean the same as the source language work (SLW). An ideal translation turns the SLW into the TLW with exactly the same meaning and presentation, However, it is very difficult, if not achieve because absolute equivalence means that the two languages should be equal in grammar and in vocabulary while there are even great differences between two accents of a same language. Since one has to consider both the presentation form and the meaning when translating, one question arises: should a translator put more emphasis on getting the form or the meaning? If one thinks that the form is more important, he tends to apply literal translation; on the other hand, he may apply free translation. Nevertheless, both these two translation preferences can easily go to extremes. The extreme literal translation may focus to much on the form and the TLM may not at all appear native. The extreme free translation may not be loyal to the SLM and messages may be left out of or added to the SLW. Obviously, the purpose of translation is not to duplicate the form of the SL, but to transfer the meaning and information contained in the SLW to the TLW. Therefore, meaning transfer should be put to the first place. Moreover, two languages can never be completely equivalent both in grammar and in form, the equivalence can only be semantic.The core task of translation research is about how to gain the same meaning. According to Liu Miqing, Contemporary Translation Theory: 41), a word, a phrase, a sentence or a paragraph has meaning at 6 different levels: 1,conceptive meaning 2, contextual meaning 3, formal meaning 4, stylistic meaning 5, figurative meaning 6, cultural meaning. Al these concerned will contribute to gracefulness, sublimity. Word meaning depends upon context, so in different context, the choice of word is a comprehensive task. When a word has many synonyms, we need to tell them apart and choose the proper word to fit the context. Such as “ku”, there are “sob”(哽咽), “weep”（饮泣）, “cry”（哭喊）, and “wail”（嚎啕大哭）and “xiao” , it contains synonym words as “laugh”“smile”, “chuckle”, and so on . In this essay, I will analyze the translation of …xiao” since it worth our study on the choice of its words.The translation principals can be generally classified into 5 kinds:1) the source language-oriented named literal translation which applies word-for word, line-for –line translation 2) the target- language-oriented principle advocated by Eugene Nida is called free translation or adaptation. 3) the author-and reader-oriented principle . According to Alexander Fraster Tytler 1747-1814, a translation should give a complete of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. 4)the aesthetics-oriented principle which steps to sublimation. 5) the sociosemiotics-oriented principle. Each of these principles should be applied in certain situation.When analyzing the translation of “xiao” mainly in HongLoumeng(《红楼梦》)，we may conduct the above- mentioned principles.。
牛津英语词汇拓展(Chapter One)
3. …point the tips of your skis together. Used as vi.指着 指着 1)He is pointing at me.他正指着我。 他正指着我。 他正指着我 2)The clock hand points to 12.时钟的指针指向 。 时钟的指针指向12。 时钟的指针指向 Used as vt. 用手指(枪 指向 指向…… 用手指 枪)指向 point the finger/gun at… Used as n.要点 作用 点 要点,作用 要点 作用,点 I am absent-minded and missed some important language points in the class. on the point of 表示“立即，要……” 表示“立即， ” 花瓶要掉下来了。 花瓶要掉下来了。 The vase is on the point of falling.
牛津英语词汇拓展（ 牛津英语词汇拓展（Chapter One） ） 1.congratulate vt.祝贺 祝贺 Congratulate sb. On sth.
We came to congratulate her on her good luck. 祝贺，常以复数形式出现。 Congratulatme out as the first one in the exam. 我考试得了第一。 我考试得了第一。 —Congratulations ! I received their sincere congratulations. 我接受了他们衷心的祝福。 我接受了他们衷心的祝福。
adv.一定地， 一定地， 一定地 2. …the next day I definitely improved.确定地 他一定得了可怕的病。 他一定得了可怕的病。
英语语法 Chapter One 时态 (1) ( Tense)
当我到戏院时电影已经开始10分钟了。
16
一般过去时和过去完成时的区别： 一般过去时和过去完成时的区别：
一般过去时是过去的一个特定的时间。而过去完成时表示这一时间之前的 行动。 He knew President was in the next room. He knew President had been in the next room. He bought a computer when he entered the college. He had bought a computer when he entered the college.
9
在大学英语四、六级语法中，时态是一个必测题， 测试的重点主要有： 1.完成时态—— 现在完成时，过去完成时，将来 完成时。 2.进行时态—— 现在进行时，过去进行时，现在 完成进行时。 3一般将来时
10
完成时态
1. 现在完成时（Present Perfect） 构成： Have ( has ) + 过去分词
17
3. 将来完成时 （Future Perfect） 构成： will ( shall ) + have done
18
用法： 表示在将来一个特定时间之前已经完成的动作或行为。 常和by the end, by the time …. 等时间状语连用。
I hope we will have pulled through the crisis by the end of this year. 我希望今年年底前我们可以度过这个难关。 By the end of July we will have studied 8 units. 7月底我们将学习第8单元。 By the time of next year, I have got my bachelor degree. 明年的这个时候，我将拿到我的学士学位。
语言学内容讲义 Chapter One
Chapter One Invitation to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about linguistics as the science of languageFocal points: design features; functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features; important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedure：Outline of this chapter:1 Why study language?2 What is language?3 Design features of language3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 concept3.1.2 two levels3.1.3 Arbitrariness and convention 3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept3.2.2 two levels3.2.3 advantages3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 concept3.3 .2 two senses3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 concept3.4.2 three senses4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments4.1.2 evidence4.1.3 problem4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments4.2.2 evidence4.2.3 problem4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments4.3.2 evidence4.3.3 problem5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schools5.1.1 the Prague School5.1.2 the London School5.2 Functions of language6 What is linguistics? p147 Main branches of linguistics8 Macrolinguistics9 Some important distinctions in linguistics1 Why study language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be a worthy subject for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject in and of itself. However, if you pause and think of the following myths about language, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really understand the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.The following are some fundamental views about LANGUAGE, which you may instinctively agree without having thought about the reasons,or you may not agree at the moment. Follow this course and you will find they are discussed in more detail in the ensuing chapters.1）．Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.2）．Language operates by rules.3). All languages have three major components; a sound system, a systemof lexico-grammar and a system of semantics.4)．Everyone speaks a dialect.5)．Language slowly changes.6)．Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.7)．Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals that use them.8)．Writing is derivative of speech.Some people find the subject of language intriguing and useful for many different reasons. Language can be used as a way of finding out more about how the brain works, or how damage to the brain results in certain kind of language disorders, how children learn language, how people learn and teach different languages, what the relationship between meaning and perception is, what the role of language is different cultures, why people use different varieties of language, why there are linguistic differences between different groups, and how scientists make the computer work in a more human-like manner. This course book will serve as a starting point from which you may go on researching in one of the above and other language-related fields.2 What is language?Webster‘s New World Dict ionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word ―language‖, namely,Language is human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of such a system. (Webster's New World Dictionary)Most widely accepted definition of language is that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of speech community communicate , interact and transmit their culture.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called DFESIGN FEATURES. The following are the frequently discussed ones.3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 conceptThe widely accepted meaning of this feature, which was discussed by Saussure, first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. However there seems to be different levels of ARBITRARINESS.3.1.2 two levels1) Word level: Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.（1）we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. （2）And we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / in English ,书in Chinese .You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe.e.g. In Chinese, these linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwangwang in Chinese.2) Sentence level: Less arbitrariness at the syntactic level According to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.（1）By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructedaccording to the grammar of arrangement. We know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules.(2)And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.In other words, syntax(sentence) is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as this kind of order is concerned.Compare the sentence at P5:When we say (a) we refer to the sequence of actions; if we say (b) the readers will take it as meaning the opposite sequence of real happenings—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In (c) with the help of the word ―after‖ we can reverse the order of the clauses. Therefore the functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish.3.1.3 Arbitrariness and conventionWhat then is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of CONVENTION. Here we have to look at the other side of the coin of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality.(1)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.(2)And conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is the conventionality of a language that is more worth noticing that its arbitrariness.3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept―By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization‖ (Lyons, 1982:20)3.2.2 two levels1）primary level （words）We call sounds here secondary elements as opposed to such primary units as words which convey meaning in them and have distinct and identifiable meaning, which are made up of the secondary level.2)secondary level (sounds)Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds, which do not convey meaning in them. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.3.2.3advantagesNow we can perceive the advantage of duality, which lies in the great productive power our language, is endowed with. 1)Countless words can be formed out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And 2)the huge number of words can be combined together to form endless number of sentences, 3)which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 conceptBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.3.3 .2 two senses1)dualityThe creativity of language partly originates from its duality which we just discussed in the above section, namely, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.2) recursive natureLanguage is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for this possibility. For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:Eg:He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 conceptDISPLACEMENT means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.4.2 three senses1) Our language enables us to describe things in the past, now and in the future.2) Our language also enables us to communicate about things that don‘t exist or don‘t yet exist.3) Our language also makes it possible for us to talk and think inabstract terms.4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments1) In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and2) Speech developed from that.4.1.2 evidenceOnomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory.4.1.3 problemBut in our discussion we can find they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. This theory lacks supportive evidence.4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments1) In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.2) And speech developed from that.4.2.2 evidenceAs for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.4.2.3 problemWhat makes the theory problematic is that there is only limited number of interjections in almost all languages. Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyo bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments1) As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts .2) They gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.3.2 evidenceWe do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages.4.3.3 problemRhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schoolsLinguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc, they summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language like the following:5.1.1 the Prague School1)representative: Jacobson.2)Arguments: 6 functions, based on the key elements of communication,namely: referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), cognitive (to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings).5.1.2 the London School1) representative: Halliday2) arguments: 3 functions. He proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL, INTERPRESONAL and TEXTUAL functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday, 1994)5.2 Functions of language5.2.1 Informative信息功能For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.1) Language is the instrument of thought .2) Language is used to record the facts, which is a perquisite of social development.It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar:1)Halliday notes that ―Language serves for the expression of ‗content‘: that is, o f the speaker‘s experience of the real world, including the innerworld of his own consciousness.2)In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.‖ (in Lyons, 1970, p.142-3)5.2.2 Interpersonal function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function,1）by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.2) Language serves to establish and maintain social rules.3) Language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.4）Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.( Language also serves in the expression of identity)5.2.3 Performative施为功能This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backboneof pragmatics. (see section 8.1 below)1) The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.2)The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.5.2.4 Emotive function感情功能According to some investigations, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998:17).1) It is a means of changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.2) It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy According to David Crystal (1992: 17).When we are under stress, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery can relax us; conventional words / phrases, e.g. God, My, Dam it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow…can do so ,tooIt is also discussed under the term expressive function:1)The expressive function can often by entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.2)Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another‘s expressive use of language to show their solidarity.(Nida, 1998:21)The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way.5.2.5 Phatic communion交感性谈话The term PHATIC COM MUNION originates from Malinowsky‘s study of the functions of language performed by Trobiand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language,1) We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintaina comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.2) Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects ifthey are to interact comfortably with different people.5.2.6 Recreational function娱乐性功能1) It is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language.If you observe children‘s play, you will fin d the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it.2) Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. We are getting very close here to Jacobson‘s poetic function.5.2.7 Metal lingual function元语言功能1) Our language can be used to talk about itself. P 132) This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive.6 What is linguistics?什么是语言p147 Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics the production of speech,Phonology studies the rules governing the structure ,the sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology the internal organization of words, the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation process.Syntax principles of forming and understanding correct English sentencesSemantics How meaning is encoded in a languagePragmatics the study of meaning in context.8 MacrolinguisticsPsycholinguistics the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisitionSociolinguistics the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users.Anthropological linguistics the history and structure of unwritten languagesComputational linguistics the use of computer to process or produce human language9 Some important distinctions in linguistics 9.1 Prescriptive & descriptive 规定性研究和描述性研究：前者总结语言中的标准，后者着重分析语言中的事实。