现代语言学之翻译版

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当代中文课程 汉语言学习-中英双语

当代中文课程 汉语言学习-中英双语

III. 快 kuà i…了 le about to Function: 快下雨了。 电影要结束了。 爸爸快要到家了。
III. 快 kuà i…了 le about to Structures:
Questions:
你妈妈的生日快到了吗? 比赛要开始了吗? 哥哥的女朋友快要回法国了吗?
第十四课
天气这么冷!
It’s So Cold!
1
I. Time-Duration after verbal 了 le Function: 妈妈的朋友在台北玩了三天。 老师在美国住了一年。 李小姐在语言中心工作了一个月。
I. Time-Duration after verbal 了 le Structures: 1. If the verb is transitive and has an object after it, the verb must be repeated. (1)他租房子租了半年。 (2)他住台北住了三年。 2. No verb repetition is needed if the object is placed elsewhere. (1)房子他只租了半年。 (2)台北他只住了三年。
Questions:
妹妹有没有姊姊那么漂亮? 花莲的房租有没有台北的那么贵? 日本的工作有没有美国的那么难找? 夏天的天气有没有春天的舒服?
V. Inferior Comparison with 没有 mé i yǒu… Usage: 今天跟昨天一样热。 (equal degree) 今天没有昨天那么热。(inferior degree) 今天比昨天热。 (superior degree)
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
I. Time-Duration after verbal 了 le

现代语言学

现代语言学

绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. (语音学)The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音系学)The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. (形态学)The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. (句法学)The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (语义学)The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. (语用学)The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. (社会语言学)The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. (心理语言学)The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. (应用语言学)But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, (人类语言学)neurological linguistics, (神经语言学)mathematical linguistics, (数字语言学)and computational linguistics. (计算机语言学)3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern ling uistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whet her it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more import ant.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken fo rm of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than th e written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and pa role refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue fro m parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects o f study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‟s.He defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the a ctual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is todiscover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky‟s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal sy stem of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely ar bitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including s entences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real o r imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire lan guage, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and lear ned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinctChapter 3 Morphology 形态学Definition定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法的一个分支,研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

现代语言学教程》(ACOURSEINMODERNLINGUISTICS-西华大学

现代语言学教程》(ACOURSEINMODERNLINGUISTICS-西华大学

第三节 语言系统是人类特有的
一、语言能力 二、语言是其他动物和人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、人类语言和所谓动物“语言”的根本区别
语言学概论
第一节 语言符号的性质和特点
语言学概论
第一节 语言符号的性质和特点
一、符号概述
古烽火台
符号是代表某种事物或表达某种意义的标记或记号。 语言符号中的形式和意义的结合完全由社会“约定俗
语言学概论
第二节 语言符号的系统性
实例8:英语语素(词缀)的聚合
表程度和形状的前缀 : archarch-enemy,arch-bishop,arch-liar,arch-fascist supersuperman,super-market,super-natural,super-digestible outoutgrow,outlive,outrun,out-weigh,out-wit,out-do sursurchrge,surtax subsubhuman,subnormal,subconscious overoverdo,overdimplify,overdressed,overconfident,oversensitive underundercook,underwork.,underhanded,underprivileged 语言学概论
b d g
p t k
m n ng
双唇音的聚合
舌尖中音的聚合 舌根音的聚合
参 见 《 汉 语 拼 音 方 案 》 。
鼻音的聚合 送气塞音的聚合 不送气塞音的聚合
满 足 语 音 搭 配 的 规 则 , 具 体
语言学概论
第二节 语言符号的系统性来自实例3:语音(汉语辅音)的聚合
z c s zh ch sh j q x

胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表

胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表

胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表-(1)(DOC)胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表1.语言的普遍特征: 任意性 arbitrariness多产性 productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许 多不在场的东西 文化传播性 culturaltransmission2o 语言的功能:传达信息功能informative 人济功能:interpersonal 行事功能:Performative 表情功能:Emotive 寒暄功能:Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能 metalingual3.语言学linguistics :包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学 Morphology句法学syntax双层结构duality语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4.现代结构主义语言学创始人:Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一:语言与言语language and parole,语言之语言系统的整体,言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5.语法创始人:Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceand performance1.Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a.we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb.we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c.we can u se language to refer to something not presentd.we can produce sentencesthat have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a.i nterpersonalb.phaticc.in formatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn'tit ?"is __a informativeb.phaticc.directived.performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb.hallidayc.chomskyd.the prague school5.Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction 鼻音nasals破裂音plosives咅B分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives 破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置,舌高和嘴唇的形状6 双元音diphthongs有元音过渡vowel glides1.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb・the perception of soundsc.the combination of soundsd.the production of sounds2.The distinction between vowel s and consonantslies in __a.the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc.the position of the tongued.the shape of the lips3.What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.n asal4.What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a.voicingb.n asalc.approximationd.aspiration6.The phonologicalfeatures of the consonantk are __a.voiced stopb.voiceless stopc.voiced fricatived.voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a.the manner of articulationb.the shape of the lipsc.the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a.aspirationb.n asalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别:语音学着重于语音的自然属性,主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音;音位学则强调语音的社会功能,其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

(完整word版)浅谈语言学派翻译理论

(完整word版)浅谈语言学派翻译理论

翻译是人类文化交流最悠久的活动之一,有翻译实践就必然有对翻译活动的探索与研究。

这些探索逐渐形成系统、科学的翻译理论,对翻译实践起着重要的指导作用。

在古今中外的翻译历史中,不同学者从各自独特的角度对翻译有或深或浅的认识。

特别是二战以后,翻译理论工作者将语言学、语用学、认知语言学、对比文学、社会学、文化学等领域的研究成果运用于翻译研究,取得了令人瞩目的成就。

一、语言学派翻译理论的发展历史20世纪后期,特别是最后20年间,无论中国还是西方,翻译理论研究都取得了突出的成就,尤其是西方,各种新理论层出不穷,不断涌现,翻译理论家开始打破学科壁垒,纷纷以其他学科的各种理论为依托,建立了各种翻译理论模式,形成了各种翻译研究流派。

但是,由于翻译活动自身的复杂性,理论与理论之间的互相渗透性,而且各种模式之间常常互相借鉴,彼此参照,因此,翻译研究流派其实是一个十分复杂的存在。

国外的翻译研究,在西方有文献记载的历史可以远溯至古罗马时期的西塞罗、贺拉斯等人的相关著述。

然而在这漫长的两千余年的时间里,直至20世纪50年代以前,除个别学者如德国的洪堡、本雅明外,翻译研究者的关注焦点始终没有跳出“怎么译”这三个字。

也就是说,在这两千余年的时间里,西方的翻译研究者所关注的一直就是“直译”还是“意译”、“可译”还是“不可译”、“以散文译诗”还是“以诗译诗”这样一些与翻译行为直接有关的具体问题,他们的理论则多出自论者自身翻译实践的经验体会。

20世纪是翻译研究的语言学派得到巨大发展的时期。

20世纪中叶以来,西方翻译学者开始从科学的、现代语言学的视角来讨论翻译问题,他们运用结构理论、转换生成理论、功能理论、话语理论等现代语言学理论,对翻译问题进行科学、系统地研究,开拓出翻译研究的崭新领域。

翻译研究的这一语言学转向是西方翻译理论发展史上出现的第一次质的突破和飞跃,以至于在20世纪40年代到70年代初,翻译甚至被纳入语言学范畴,被当作比较语言学、应用语言学和语义学的一个分支。

语言学_课文翻译

语言学_课文翻译

第一章:绪论1.什么是语言学?1.1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质,语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设,这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验,最终形成一条语言理论。

1.2语言学的研究范畴:对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究,它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介,而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同,它主要研究特定语言的语音体系,即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构,及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的,传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义,独立于语境之外的意义,语用学也是研究语义,但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象,而是一种社会现象,各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理,如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上,应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学,在广义上,它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1.3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1.3.1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析,而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上,旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。

lp-ch11冯志伟现代语言学讲义

lp-ch11冯志伟现代语言学讲义

版权所有,请勿外传第十一章生成转换语法的产生如果说,索绪尔语言学说的提出是语言学史上哥白尼式的革命,那么,乔姆斯基(N.Chomsky,1928一)的转换生成语法的提出,则是语言学史上的又一次划时代的革命,即“乔姆斯基革命”。

1916年索绪尔《普通语言学教程》的出版,开辟了现代语言学的新纪元,而1957年乔姆斯基《句法结构》的出版,乔姆斯基对结构主义的一系列基本原理提出的挑战,则标志着语言学中的“乔姆斯基革命”的开始。

这场革命直到今天还没有完结。

转换生成语法从产生到现在,大致可以分为5个阶段:1957年-1965年为第一阶段,叫做第一语言模式(the first linguistics model)阶段,或者称为“经典理论”(classical theory)阶段,;1965年-1970年为第二阶段,叫做标准理论(standard theory)阶段;1970年-1979年为第三阶段,叫做扩充标准理论(extended standard theory)阶段;1979年-1993年为第四阶段,叫做管辖和约束理论(the theory of government and binding)阶段;1993年-现在是第五阶段,叫做最简方案(Minimalist Program)阶段。

本书将在本章以及第十二、第十三章、第十四章中分别加以介绍。

第一节乔姆斯基和他的主要著作乔姆斯基于1928年12月7日生于美国费城。

他的父亲威廉·乔姆斯基(William Chomsky)是一个希伯来语学者,曾写过《大卫·金西的希伯来语法》(Davis Kimhi's Hebrew grammar)一文。

幼年的乔姆斯基(他的名字叫诺阿姆,即Noam Chomsky)在其父的熏陶下,就爱上了语言研究工作。

1947年,他认识了美国描写语言学“后布龙菲尔德学派”的代表人物、著名语言学家海里斯(Z.Harris)。

试析翻译的语言学研究

试析翻译的语言学研究

语言学翻译理论的发展历程
传统翻译理论:强调翻译的忠实性和直译,注重语言结构和语法规则 现代翻译理论:关注翻译的动态性和意义转换,强调文化因素和语境理解 后现代翻译理论:关注翻译的多元性和跨文化交流,强调译者的主体性和创造性 语言学翻译理论:结合语言学理论,注重语言结构和语用功能的对等与转换
专业术语的翻译:针对特定领 域,使用准确的专业术语进行 翻译
语法的翻译
添加项标题
语法结构:翻译时需要保持原文的语法结构,确保信息的准确传 递。
添加项标题
词义选择:在翻译过程中,需要根据上下文选择合适的词义,确 保译文的自然流畅。
添加项标题
语序调整:在翻译过程中,需要根据目标语言的习惯对原文的语 序进行调整,使译文更加符合目标读者的阅读习惯。
语义翻译与交际翻译
语义翻译:侧重于保留原文的语言特色和表达方式,尽可能传达原文的语义内容
交际翻译:强调译文读者对译文的接受程度,力求使译文读者获得与原文读者相同的理 解和感受
语义翻译和交际翻译在翻译过程中各有侧重,但都是翻译的重要方法
在翻译实践中,应根据具体情况选择合适的翻译方法
异化与归化
异化:保留原文的语言和文化特色,让译文读者感受到不同文化和语言风格 归化:将原文的语言和文化特色转化为译文读者熟悉的表达方式,使译文更加流畅自然 异化与归化的选择应根据翻译目的、读者群体和文本类型等因素来决定 异化和归化是翻译中常用的两种方法,各有优缺点,应根据实际情况选择使用
动态对等与形式对等
动态对等:强 调译文的自然 流畅,传达原 文的情感和意

形式对等:注 重保留原文的 形式和修辞, 追求语言的对
应和一致性
翻译的语言学 方法:语义分 析、语境分析、

现代语言学

现代语言学

A Course of Modern LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and Linguistics1. langue and parole 语言和言语When we are looking at language, we may come across two very important terms—langue and parole which were introduced into linguistics by Saussure, a Swiss linguist. Langue is defined as the language system that speakers of the language conform to in their verbal communication. Parole refers to the concrete speech that individual speakers produce in their verbal communication.2. What is language?Language in ge neral is ―a system of symbols designed for the purpose of communicating thoughts or feelings, through the use of voice sounds or written symbols in organized combinations and patterns.‖3. Design features of language 语言的识别性特征In this course, we’re going to discuss seven design features: arbitrariness, non-arbitrariness, genetic-cultural transmission, duality, discreteness, productivity and systematicity.(1) Arbitrariness vs. non-arbitrariness 语言的任意性和非任意性Arbitrariness, the immense freedom offered by broad arbitrariness of language, is subject to the constraints imposed by non-arbitrariness, the necessary compliance with grammar, idiomatic usage and social norms.(2) Transmission of language 语言的传递性Genetic transmission (遗传传递性) was put forward by Chomsky. According to him, language ability was genetically determined.Cultural transmission (文化传递性) was put forward by Hockett. According to him, it is the cultural environment that plays a crucial role in language acquisition.(3) Duality of language 语言的二重性Language has two levels. The higher level is concerned with how meaningful units are combined into a larger construction to convey meaning. At the lower level, language consists of a sequence of segments without any meaning in themselves. Duality of language contributes to the flexibility and versatility of language by facilitating language transmission.(4) Discreteness of language 语言的离散性Discreteness of language refers to the property of language that the symbols at the lower level all have definable boundaries, allowing variations in form but no gradation or continuity in identity.(5) Productivity of language 语言的创造性Productivity of language refers to the property of language which allows or enables the speaker to construct or interpret a string of linguistic forms that has never been produced or encountered, provided that it complies with the rules of the language.(6) Systematicity of language 语言的系统性3. Linguistics 语言学Linguistics is the science of language.Chapter 2 PhoneticsPhonetics (语音学) is the science that studies sounds, especially speech sounds, providingmethods for the description, classification and transcription of the sounds used in speech.1.Three branches of phonetics 语音学的三个分支(1) articulatory phonetics 发音语音学(2) acoustic phonetics 声学语音学(3) auditory phonetics 听觉语音学2. V ocal organs (lungs, larynx, pharynx, mouth and nose) 发音器官the three elements necessary for speech sounds production: the vibration of a physical body or the turbulent airflow, the acoustic noise is resonated and magnified by the bodies of air in the vocal tract; the variations in the shapes of the air-containers in the vocal tract determine the differing qualities of the speech soundsfour functions of the larynx (vocal cords) in speech: generating vocal vibrations; producing a glottal stop; producing a glottal fricative; keeping vocal folds apart to let the air pass3. Consonants 辅音Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing somewhere (i.e. place of articulation 发音部位) in the vocal tract so that airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced (i.e. manner of articulation发音方式) and the sounds may or may not involve the vibration of the vocal folds (i.e. voicing声带是否振动).A distinctive feature区别性特征4. V owels 元音V owels are sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction and the air escapes evenly over the centre of the tongue.distinctive features: the position of the lips, the two-dimensional tongue position.Chapter 3 PhonologyPhonology 音系学: the science that studies how speech sounds are used in language to convey meanings1. Phoneme, allophone, and phone 音位,音位变体和音素Phoneme is a group of sounds that are phonetically similar and show certain characteristic patterns of distribution in the language under consideration.Allophone refers to a phonological variation of a phoneme.A phone is a sound that is actually produced in communication; it is of physical identity and is concrete in nature.The relation between phoneme, allophone and phone is a matter of realization. A phoneme is realized by its allophones; an allophone is realized in turn by a phone.2. Supra-segmental phonology 超切分音系学Supra-segmental phonology is concerned with the phonological features that extend more one segment.(1) pitch & tone 音高和声调(2) loudness & stress 响度和重音(3) tempo & rhythm 速度和节奏(4) pause & juncture 停顿和音渡Chapter 4 MorphologyMorphology 形态学: the study of the structure and the formation of words in language1. Inflectional & derivational morphology屈折形态学和派生形态学inflection: the formal changes of a word or part of a word in relation to its differing grammatical meaningsderivation: the formation of a new word by adding an element such as an affix2. Morpheme, morph & allomorph 语素、语素形态和语素变体Morpheme is a minimal unit which is formally composed of meaningless linguistic symbols at the lower level of the language and which is used in a variety of contexts with a constant meaning.Morph is a phonological form representing the relevant morpheme in speech or in writing. Morpheme is abstract in nature and is realized through its morph.Allomorph is a morphological variant of morpheme (i.e. one member of the group of morphs that realize the morpheme in speaking or writing).3. Free morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素Free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a word. Bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word.4. Inflectional morpheme & derivational morpheme 屈折语素和派生语素5. Lexical morpheme & grammatical morpheme 词汇语素和语法语素Chapter 5 SyntaxSyntax 句法学studies the ways words are combined to form sentences in a language.1. Traditional bottom-up approach 自下而上的传统方法是从词到句进行研究2. Constituency top-down approach 自上而下的成分分析法是从句到词,通常以tree diagram(树形图)的方式研究句子3. Constituent Structure Rules vs Lexical Insertion Rules 成分结构规则和语汇插入规则three constituent structures:;;lexical insertion rule: one that governs selecting from the lexicon a lexical item and inserting it into a terminal node of a constituent structure as its daughter node4. Selection restrictions 选择限制Syntactical selection restriction 句法选择限制;Semantic selection restriction 语义选择限制5. Transformational generative grammarproposed by Noam Chomsky consists of three components: the syntactic component, the phonological component and the semantic component.The syntactic component in Chomsky’s model comprises of a set phrase structure rules and a set of transformational rules. Our discussion is focused on three types of transformations: passive transformation被动转换[NP1–Aux–V–NP2 –Aux+Pass–V–by+NP1: (1) The boy ate the cake. (2)The cake was eaten by the boy.]interrogative transformation 疑问转换[NP–Aux1–X –NP–X: (1)The boy has eaten the cake. (2) Has the boy eaten thecake?]negative transformation 否定转换[X–Aux1––Aux1+Neg–Y: (1) The boy will eat the cake. (2) The boy will not eat the cake. / NP –Tense – MV –– NP – MV –X: (3) The boy eats the cake. (4) The boy does not eat the cake.]Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics语义学is the science of meaning.1. A very old view about meaning has been known as naming theory命名论.the conceptual view: the meaning of a word is the concept that is permanently associated with the word in our mindsA prototype is an original type, form or instance that serves as model on which later stages are based or judged.2. Sense & Reference 意义和所指sense: the meaning that relates linguistic forms with what is in the non-linguistic world;reference: the meaning that lies in the relation or contrasts among linguistic forms themselves Relation between sense and reference(1) Forms different in sense may have the same reference. (e.g. my new car; the car that I have just bought; This is the car.)(2) Forms identical in sense may have different references. (e.g. This is my car. This is my car.)(3) Forms that have a sense but have no reference. (e.g. The present King of France is bald.)3. Lexical meaning 词汇意义Lexical meaning refers to the sense in which a word is used.(1) Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness in meaning between two or more words.–用在不同地域方言中的同义词(fall–autumn)–语体不同的同义词(ain't–’m not)–应用范围不同的同义词(employer–boss)–用于不同搭配的同义词(strong coffee–powerful machine)(2) Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy refers to the linguistic phenomenon that a word may be used in a number of different senses or is said to have a range of different meanings. (e.g. base)(3) Homonymy 同音/同形异义关系Homonymy refers to the sense relation that two or more words have the same form, both orthographic and phonologic, but differ in meaning (e.g. bear). (4) Antonymy反义关系Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning.- gradable可分等级的反义词(more/ less)- complementary互补性反义词(man/ woman)- relationally opposite关系反义词(husband/wife)(5) Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. (e.g. flower-rose)Chapter 7 Pragmatics, discourse analysis and text linguisticsPragmatics 语用学is the study of the meaning which is not included in semantics andwhose interpretation is dependent on its social contexts.Discourse analysis话语分析is the study of speech, focusing specially on the relation between discourse and its contexts.Text linguistics篇章语言学is part of discourse analysis, concerning mostly the grammatical or textual features of written language.1. Cohesion in texts of discourse衔接Cohesion refers to the linguistic property of units larger than the morpheme to bind together in construction, or the relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text. (1) Grammatical cohesionReference指代means indicating or referring something for interpretation. It may be analyzed into two categories: exophoric and endophoric.Substitution替代refers to the replacement of one item by another in the text and is concerned with the way substitutions realize the grammatical cohesion in the text.Ellipsis refers to the omission of an item in an utterance or in a text.Conjunction refers to the linguistic expressions that combine two elements in construction. (2) Lexical cohesion 语义衔接reiteration and collocation2. Cohesion vs. coherence 衔接和连贯Coherence refers to the natural, reasonable or logical connection in meaning among the componential parts of a text.The presence of the formal markers of cohesive relation does not necessarily mean the presence of coherence, nor does the absence of the formal marker entail the absence of coherence in the text.3. Implicatures 蕴涵Implicature refers to what a speaker implies, suggests, or means, as distinct from what is literally said. Implicatures may be divided into two types: conventional (what the speaker implies is conventionally associated with the expressions used by the speaker) and conversational (what the speaker implies has to be inferred from the particular context of the conversation).Conversational implicatures presume that the participants of the conversation follow a cooperative principle defined by Grice. The cooperative principle is embodied in four maxims. An implicature occurs when the speaker purposely flouts some of the maxims in conversation.the maxim of quality质量准则[the speaker is required to speak sincerely (e.g. A: What will you do if you fail the exam? B: I’ll eat my hat.)]the maxim of quantity数量准则[the speaker is required to provide as much information, not too much and not too little (e.g. A: I suffered a lot in the war. I heard that you suffered a heavy loss in the war, too. Tell me what you lost. B: War is war, you know.)]the maxim of relevance相关准则[the speaker is required to speak to the point (e.g. A: Will John come to our party? B: He is busy painting his house, you know.)]the maxim of manner方式准则[the speaker is required to speak clearly, briefly and to present events in a correct order (e.g. A: You’re eating the apple! Did you wash it? B: I eat it and then wash it, you know.)]4. Speech acts theory 语言行为论the locutionary act: the act of saying something meaningful in a particular language (e.g. Will you open the door for me)the illocutionary act: a conventionally associated act that the speaker simultaneous undertakes when performing the locutionary act (i.e. saying something meaningful) the perlocutionary act: an act performed as the consequence of the related locutionary and illocutionary actsChapter 8 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of the various aspects of the relation between language on the one hand and speakers and society on the other.1. Dialect 方言regional dialects (or geographical dialects) & social dialects 地域方言和社会方言Regional dialect refers to a variety of language that is commonly found in a certain geographic region, and that may inform on the speaker’s geographic background. Social dialect refers to a variety of language that is commonly found among a certain group of people who have in common some social, cultural or economic features, and that may inform on the speaker’s social positions accordingly.2. Diglossia双语体Diglossia refers to a situation where two very different varieties of a language co-occur throughout a speech community, each with a distinct range of social function.3. Language planning(1) Lingua franca 族际通用语Lingua franca is now used to refer to a variety of language that is nobody’s native language and that is used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages.(2) Pidgins and Creoles 洋泾滨和克里奥尔语Pidgin refers to a kind of lingua franca which is also known as ―marginal language‖. It has a reduced grammatical structure, lexicon and stylistic range and has no native speakers. The formation of a pidgin usually involves two or more speech communities and requires considerable motivation on the part of the speaker.Creole refers to the pidgin which has developed from a mixture of languages and expanded in its vocabulary, grammar and stylistic range, which has acquired its own native speakers and assumed an equal or similar status of any human natural language.4. Language and society and cultureApart from establishing or maintaining social relationships between the speaker and the hearer or conveying information about the speaker, language may also reflect or reveal the social and cultural environment in which it is spoken.5. Language changeChapter 9 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of the relation between language and mind, especially language acquisition and learning, and language comprehension and production.1. Language acquisition and language learningLanguage acquisition refers to the process that children use in acquiring their first language or languages before the critical age around 13.Language learning refers to the process that language learners undergo in their language learning through formal language education.(1) Different theories about language acquisition:– Imitation theory– Theory of reinforcement– Theory of innate capacity(2) Stages of language acquisition 习得语言的几个阶段-- The naming and holophrastic stage 单语词阶段-- The telegraphic stage 电报式语言阶段(双语词阶段)-- The morphemic-transformational stage 词素与转换阶段(更长更复杂的句子)(3) Language acquisition and errorsOver-generalization (over-extension)过度推广化refers to assigning new objects to a wordOver-regularization (over-simplification)过度规则化refers to applying a regulation or a rule to a form which is(4) Transfer errors 转移错误Transfer errors found in L2 learning refer to the errors resulting from improper applications of L1 rules to L2).2. Language and thoughtLanguage as the instrument of thinking3. Language comprehensionfour different levels: perceptual level 感知层次, lexical level 词汇层次, sentential level 句子层次, discourse level话语层次4. Language productionConstruction 构建; Transformation or articulation 转换或发音; Execution执行About the Final Examination (Part I)Decide whether each statement is true (T) or false (F). (15 points)e.g. Linguistics studies one specific language. (F)综合练习一TLinguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.F Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.FModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, but sometimes prescriptive.TThe classification of English consonants involves both manner of articulation and place of articulation.FSometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.FLanguage is only linearly-structured.TMeaning is central to the study of communication.TPragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.TSociolinguistics studies language in social contexts.FThere is a three-word sentence stage in first language acquisition.综合练习二F A scientific study of language is based on whatthe linguist thinks.FMorphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.F A synchronic study of language is a historical study.TIntonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.T A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.T A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.TComplete synonyms are rare in language.T A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.FLinguistic performance is essentially a social phenomenon but not a context-dependent behavior.FThe age at which children pass through the one-word stage is the same from child to child.综合练习三TGeneral linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.TThe study of meaning in language is known as semantics.FLanguage is entirely arbitrary.FEnglish is a typical tone language.FCompounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.TGrammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.TThe naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.FThe notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.T A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.FSome languages are superior to other languages.综合练习四FSociolinguistics has nothing to do with language or society.TModern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.FOnly a few of the languages in the world today are both spoken and written.FDistinctive features are the same to any language.TMorphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules why words are formed.FIn English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usually precedes the verb.THomophones are words which are identical in sound.FAll utterances take the form of sentences.TFrom a sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.TPsycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics.About the Final Examination (Part II)Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement. (15 points)e.g. F.de Saussure is a(n) ___ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. Russian综合练习一1. ______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisiticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of ______. A. tongue B. hard palate C. soft palate D. vocal cords3. The vowel [u:] in [fu:d] (food) is ______ vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. central4. Two words that are ―opposite‖ in meaning are called ______.A. synonymsB. homonymsC. antonymsD. homophones5. The morpheme ―vision‖ in the common word ―television‖ is a(n) _______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme6. Modern English has a much weaker case marking system. Its sentences have to follow a basic order of ______. A. SVO B. VOS C. SOV D. OSV7. ______ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics8. Morphemes that represent ―tense‖, ―number‖, ―gender‖, ―case‖ and so forth are called ______ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational9. Application of the transformational rules yields ______ structure.A. phrase D. deep C. prelexical D. surface10. ______ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations. A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties综合练习二1. ______ is formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing sound.A. A plosiveB. A fricativeC. An affricateD. Laetrile2. The vowel [i:] in [fi:d] is a ______ vowel.A. close front unroundedB. close back unroundedC. open front roundedD. close back rounded3. ______ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SematicsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Stylistics4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by a process of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to as ______.A. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence5. Of all the speech organs, the _____ is / are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords6. ______ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country7. ______ made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChormskyB. SaussureC. SapirD. Hall8. Morphemes such as ―-er‖, ―-en‖, ―dis-‖ and so forth are called ______ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound9. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ of sentences.A. formB. structureC. sound patternD. meaning10. ______ are written identically but sound differently.A. HomographsB. HomohphonesC. HomonymsD. Synonyms综合练习三1. ______ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal2. The sound [s] and [z] are the results of air escaping under frication between tongue and ______ before passing through the teeth.A. hard palateB. uvulaC. alveolar ridgeD. soft palate3. ______ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics4. Modern linguistics, i.e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly ______, that is, it describes and analyses language.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic5. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its ______.A. syntaxB. vocabularyC. grammarD. accent6. The study of linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ______.A. phonologyB. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics7. ______ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language8. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. Applied linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguistics9. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in ______ and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciation10. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____.A. minimal pairsB. allophonesC. phonesD. allomorphs综合练习四1. V owels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ______ vowels. A. open B. close C. front D. central2. A sound pronounced with the vocal cord vibrating is said to be a ______ sound. A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicingD. consonant3. ______ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition4. The goal of ______ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and different social situations. A. psycholinguistics B. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. general linguistics5. Pitch variation is known as ______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice6. The study of language as a whole is often called ______ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative7. A scientific study of language is based on the ______ investigation of language data. A. symbolic B. systemic C. systematic D. system8. There are rules that govern which affix can be adde3de to what type of ______ to form a new word. A. stem B. affix C. root D. word9. The syntactic rules of any language are ______ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite10. Words that are opposite in meaning are ______.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. homophonesD. antonymsAbout the Final Examination (Part III)Dissect the following words into morphemes. (10 points)some words from the on-line exercisesEg. Refreshment (re-fresh-ment)About the Final Examination (Part IV)Define each of the following terms. (30 points)the terms in the on-line exercises综合练习一1. tone-unit: the basic unit of intonation in a language.2. consonant: the sound in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract. Consonants are characterized in pronunciation by constriction of the air-stream in the vocal tract.3. free morpheme: independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.4. acoustic phonetics: Acoustics phonetics studies the vibrations of the air molecules. It studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.5. reference: Reference means that a linguistic from refers to in a real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.6. synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning.7. discourse: a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, a unit of linguistic organization , and a recognizable communicative event.8. illocutionary act: the act of expressing t he speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.9. utterance: Utterance is the bit of spoken or written language that is produced and sent to the receiver in a specific context.10. language acquisition: a general term used to refer t o the development of a person’s first, second, or foreign language.综合练习二1. phonology: The study of sound system –the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.。

翻译中的语言学(全书,中文版)

翻译中的语言学(全书,中文版)

《翻译中的语言学》目录0.前言1.翻译中的语义学1.1概述1.2意义1.2.1.概念意义1.2.2.内涵意义1.2.3.社会意义1.2.4.情感意义1.2.5.反映意义1.2.6.搭配意义1.2.7.主题意义1.3语义场1.4语义成分分析1.5上下义关系1.6同义关系1.7语义变化1.7.1.语义变化的原因1.7.2.语义变化的类型1.8歧义1翻译中的语用学1.1概述1.2语境2.2.1.话语语境2.2.2.情景语境2.2.3.文化语境1.3指示2.3.1.指示概述2.3.2.指示语的翻译2.3.2.1.人称指示2.3.2.2.时间指示2.3.2.3.地点指示1.4言语行为2.4.1.言语行为概述2.4.2.言语行为的翻译2.4.2.1.个别言语行为的翻译2.4.2.2.语篇行为的翻译1.5会话含义2.5.1.会话含义概述2.5.2.会话含义的翻译2.5.2.1.保留原文会话含义形式2.5.2.2.显明原文的会话含义2.5.2.3.对译文中新产生的会话含义的处理2.5.2.4.用新的会话含义替代原文中的会话含义2.5.2.5.避免对会话含义作不必要的增补1.6礼貌原则2.6.1.礼貌原则概述2.6.2.礼貌原则的翻译2.6.2.1.按照目的语习惯表达礼貌原则2.6.2.2.保持原文和译文间的礼貌程度对等1.7前提2.7.1.前提概述2.7.2.前提的翻译2.7.2.1.涉及语言内部前提的翻译2.7.2.2.涉及语言外部前提的翻译1.8顺应论2.8.1.顺应论概述2.8.2.顺应论与翻译2.8.2.1.语境关系顺应2.8.2.2.语言结构顺应2.8.2.3.顺应的动态性2.8.2.4.顺应过程的意识程度2.9.关联理论2.9.1.关联理论概述2.9.2.关联理论对翻译的启示2.9.2.1.翻译是一种明示-推理性质的交际行为2.9.2.2.翻译的最根本目的是传递交际意图2.9.2.3.关联理论的“直接翻译”和“间接翻译”概念3.翻译中的句法学3.1概述3.2英汉语基本句型3.3英汉语句法结构差异及翻译中的句式转换3.3.1.形合与意合3.3.2.主动与被动3.3.3.静态与动态3.3.4.话题-评论与主语-谓语3.3.5.有灵主语与无灵主语4。

第八章 语言学与翻译

第八章 语言学与翻译

通过二次阅读和思考分析,我们发现 idyll 如果 简单地翻译为“田园诗”是不符合前一段叙述的内 容的。从第一段中,我们知道作者描述的是“闲适的心情”。当然本词也可勉强翻译为“田 园诗般的心情”,这时需要注意上下文的搭配,如 此,第一句应该翻译为“……我的田园诗般的心情 一定会保持得相当不错。” 类似地,我们可以分析出 plague 和 picknicker 因为要和上下文表达的意思相一致,所以这两个词 不能直接引用词典义,而应该作出适当的转化,分 别使用“烦扰”和“带饭到野外去吃的人”。

应用语言学作为学科名称,是波兰语言学家J. N. 博杜 恩· 德· 库尔特内在19世纪70年代提出来的。相对于理论语言 学,应用语言学是将理论语言学的知识应用于解决其他科学 领域的问题,或者说是研究语言在各个领域中实际应用的学 科。反过来,语言应用是促使语言理论研究的动力,因此两 者之间有密切的关系。应用语言学真正发展成为一门独立的 学科,是在20世纪40至50年代。应用语言学有广义和狭义 之分。广义的应用语言学研究语言学知识应用于其他科学领 域,狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学,特别是第二语言教学 和外语教学,还包括语言规范化、文字改革、辞书编纂、翻 译等。在国际著名语言学文摘刊物《语言学与语言行为文摘》 (Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts)的分类中, 应用语言学包含语言教育政策、本族语讲授、非本族语讲授、 语言测试与评估、成人语言发展、阅读的习得、教学和辅导、 阅读过程、阅读测试、写作的教学、习得、过程和测试、双 语教育、翻译、英语作为第二语言/外语的教学和学习等11 个(近年又增列为15个)分支学科。
在国际著名语言学文摘刊物语言学与语言行为文摘linguisticsandlanguagebehaviorabstracts的分类中应用语言学包含语言教育政策本族语讲授非本族语讲授语言测试与评估成人语言发展阅读的习得教学和辅导阅读过程阅读测试写作的教学习得过程和测试双语教育翻译英语作为第二语言外语的教学和学习等11个近年又增列为15个分支学科

现代大学英语课文译文VI

现代大学英语课文译文VI

现代大学英语课文译文V IHigh quality manuscripts are welcome to download现代大学英语课文译文VI-3四、课文译文星球之战巴里·卡门纳1.人类生活在两个世界中。

和所有的生物一样,我们生存在这个经过50多亿年物理、化学、生物变化所形成的地球上,即自然世界。

另外一个世界则源于人类的创造,如家庭、汽车、农场、工厂、实验室、食物、服装、书籍、绘画、音乐、诗歌等。

我们为人类世界所发生的一切承担责任,却对自然世界的变化无能为力。

风暴、干旱、洪水等都是上帝的“手笔”,人类无法控制,也无须负责。

2.但如今,从全球的角度看,这个界限已被打破。

对地球起保护作用的臭氧层出现空洞,全球变暖威胁人类,甚至干旱、洪水、热电波等都可能是人类的无心之过。

3.正如宇宙的建立,这种预示性的全球事件是影响深远的。

它们改变了地球与它的恒星太阳之间的关系。

太阳通过两种力量对地球发挥重要作用:重力和太阳辐射。

重力是一种使地球轨道绕太阳转的稳定力量。

太阳辐射——大部分为可见光和紫外线——是沐浴着地球表层的取之不尽、用之不竭的能量,它会随时间和季节的变化而波动。

太阳能为生命进程提供必需的能量:它创造了地球上的气候并掌管着庞大而多样的生物群的逐渐进化和当前的行为。

我们一直在滥用这股强大的力量,就像传说中的魔术师的徒弟一样,并没有意识到我们的这种行为很可能会导致灾难性的后果。

4.自从人类第一次登月起,我们就一直习惯于如今这平常无奇的地球景象——一个被装点着旋涡状白云的蓝色星球。

这真是个壮观的自然天体。

隔着那么远的距离,人类活动的明显痕迹无法被察觉。

但这种曾无数次展现在照片、海报和广告上的景象都是误导。

即使全球变暖这种灾害永不发生,即使臭氧层空洞仍然只是一种深奥的极地现象,人类活动已极大地改变了地球条件,这些也许是用照相机拍不出来的。

世界的每个角落都出现了由核爆炸和核能工业的危险剩余物质所产生的辐射现象,那是从前不存在的;烟霾的有害烈焰笼罩着世界上的大都市;各地都有报道发现母亲的奶水中有致癌的合成杀虫剂的成分;大片大片的森林被砍伐,摧毁了生态小环境,也毁灭了生存在其中的物种。

翻译的语言学派之交际理论派-课件

翻译的语言学派之交际理论派-课件
奈达的学术活动及成就是多方 面的, 但他的翻译理论最引人注目, 在西方翻译界, 甚至在东欧、苏联和 我国翻译界都产生了较大影响。
在中国, 奈达的翻译理论在当代 西方翻译理论中介绍得最早、最多, 影响也最大。他主要的理论贡献 “在于他帮助创造了一种用新姿态 对待不同语言和文化的气氛, 以增进 人类之间的相互语言交流和了解”。
在这本著作中, 他立足于社会符 号学的翻译理论, 强调与译文有关的 一切都具有意义。他认为形式具有 意义;指出语言的修辞特征在语言 交际及翻译中的重要作用;用“功 能对等”取代了“动态对等”的提 法, 使含义更加清楚;同时又将意义 重新细分为修辞意义、语法意义和 词汇意义, 各类意义又各分为指称意 义与联想意义两个层次。还阐述了 意义与大脑、意义与心理的关系, 提 出了意义产生过程中的“同构” (Isomorph)概念。
3.语言的口头形式优先于书面形 式
奈达提出语言的口头形式优先 于书面形式, 主要受到翻译《圣经》 的目的与经验的影响。为了译文听 众更好的了解文章内容, 奈达认为译 者要尽量避免使用含义模糊的词、 发音容易引起误解的词、书面形式 并不一定粗俗但发音粗俗的词以及 双关语等等, 以使译文简明易懂。译 文如果能听懂, 那么就肯定能看懂, 这就是在翻译时优先考虑口头形式 的一个最大的好处。
需要说明的是,奈达翻译定义 中的“信息”一词应该包括原语传 达的各种信息: 语义的、文体的、文 学形象上的、情景的和心理效果方 面的等等,也包括作品本身成功的 或不成功的信息。同时,这一定义 也提出了翻译的四个标准:
1)传达信息;
2)传达作品的精神和风格;
3)语言顺畅自然,完全符合译 语规范和惯例;
这一阶段的主要论著有《论翻译的社
会语言学理论》、《修辞学与文化》、 《符号、意义和翻译》、《译意》以及与 他人合著的《跨文化表达意义》、《文体 与话语》、《论翻译》、《从一种语言到 另一种语言》。其中, 1986年出版的新作 《从一种语言到另一种语言》集中反映了 他的最新理论成果, 对以前的观点有所改 变和发展。

现代散文翻译(汉译英)

现代散文翻译(汉译英)

荷塘月色
沿着荷塘,是一条曲折的小煤屑路。 沿着荷塘,是一条曲折的小煤屑路。这 是一条幽僻的路;白天也少人走, 是一条幽僻的路;白天也少人走,夜晚更 加寂寞。荷塘四面,长着许多树, 加寂寞。荷塘四面,长着许多树,蓊蓊郁 郁的。路的一旁,是些杨柳, 郁的。路的一旁,是些杨柳,和一些不知 道名字的树。没有月光的晚上, 道名字的树。没有月光的晚上,这路上阴 森森的,有些怕人。今晚却很好, 森森的,有些怕人。今晚却很好,虽然月 光也还是淡淡的。 光也还是淡淡的。
荷塘月色
月光如流水一般,静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。 月光如流水一般,静静地泻在这一片叶子和花上。 薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。 薄薄的青雾浮起在荷塘里。叶子和花仿佛在牛乳 中洗过一样;又像笼着轻纱的梦。虽然是满月, 中洗过一样;又像笼着轻纱的梦。虽然是满月, 天上却有一层淡淡的云,所以不能朗照; 天上却有一层淡淡的云,所以不能朗照;但我以 为这恰是到了好处——酣眠固不可少 酣眠固不可少, 为这恰是到了好处——酣眠固不可少,小睡也别有 风味的。月光是隔了树照过来的,高处丛生的灌 风味的。月光是隔了树照过来的, 落下参差的斑驳的黑影,峭楞楞如鬼一般; 木,落下参差的斑驳的黑影,峭楞楞如鬼一般; 弯弯的杨柳的稀疏的倩影,却又像是画在荷叶上。 弯弯的杨柳的稀疏的倩影,却又像是画在荷叶上。 塘中的月色并不均匀;但光与影有着和谐的旋律, 塘中的月色并不均匀;但光与影 moon sheds her liquid light silently over the leaves and flowers, which, in the floating transparency of a bluish haze from the pond, look as if they had just been bathed in milk, or like a dream wrapped in a gauzy hood. Although it is a full moon, shining through a film of clouds, the light is not at its brightest; it is, however, just right for me - a profound sleep is indispensable, yet a snatched doze also has a savour of its own. The moonlight is streaming down through the foliage, casting bushy shadows on the ground from high above, dark and check ered, like an army of ghosts; whereas the bengin figures of the drooping willows, here and there, look like paintings on the Io tus leaves. The moonlight is not spread evenly over the pond, but rather in a harmonious rhythm of light and shade, like a fa mous melody played on a violin.

【密训】00830 现代语言学

【密训】00830 现代语言学

现代语言学(课程代码:00830)Chapter1:Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics(普通语言学):The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics(应用语言学):In a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense,it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study(共时性研究):The study of a language at some point in time.e.g.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare's time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study(历时性研究):The study of a language as it changes through time.A diachronic study of language is a historical study,which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g.a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare's time is a diachronic study. 6).Language competence(语言能力):The ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.A transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语法)is a model of language competence.7).Language performance(语言行为):performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue(语言):Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently.9).Parole(言语):Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation to situation.10).Language(语言):Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness(任意性):It is one of the design features of language.It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity(多产性):Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality(二元性):Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of sounds at the lower or basic level,and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement(移位性):language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission(文化传递性):While we are born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features(普遍特征):It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language,but languages in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的,真实的)language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things:observing the way language is actually used,formulating some hypotheses,and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?(语言学的主要分支是什么。

现代语言学unit5 2015.10.17 4th

现代语言学unit5 2015.10.17 4th
语境有两种:情景语境和语言语境。


Behaviorism行为主义论 p93
given by Bloomfield 由 布鲁姆菲尔德提出;

the meaning of a language form is the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”

3. Lexical meaning 词汇意义


word meaning: lexical 小节3 the meaning of language 语言意义 sentence meaning 小节4 句子意义 词汇意义
the sense of the word "dog"


refers to

the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

意义是指语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特 征的总和,它是抽象且脱离语境的。
简单地说,意义是词汇内在的,抽象的,游离于语境 之外的意义。


3.1 Sense and reference 意义和所指

2)

Reference means
what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; (it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.)

现代语言学机器翻译技术与语言交流

现代语言学机器翻译技术与语言交流

现代语言学机器翻译技术与语言交流随着全球化的加速发展,语言交流变得越来越重要,并且跨语言交流的需求也日益增长。

传统的人工翻译虽然能够解决语言交流的问题,但速度慢、成本高是其存在的一大弊端。

而现代语言学机器翻译技术的出现,为语言交流提供了一种全新的解决方案。

1. 机器翻译的发展机器翻译是指利用计算机技术对文本进行自动翻译的过程。

最早的机器翻译系统诞生于20世纪50年代,但由于技术的限制,翻译质量一直不尽如人意。

随着计算机技术的不断进步,特别是神经网络和深度学习的兴起,机器翻译的翻译质量得到了巨大提升。

2. 机器翻译的原理机器翻译主要基于统计模型和神经网络模型。

统计模型基于大规模的双语语料库,通过统计学方法来计算源语言和目标语言之间的概率分布,从而进行翻译。

神经网络模型则通过构建深度神经网络来实现翻译,通过学习训练语料库中的语言规律,直接将源语言映射到目标语言。

3. 机器翻译的优势相比传统的人工翻译,机器翻译具有以下优势:(1)速度快:机器翻译可以在短时间内完成大量的翻译任务,提供即时的翻译结果;(2)成本低:机器翻译不需要雇佣人工翻译人员,能够大幅减少翻译成本;(3)可扩展性强:机器翻译系统可以根据需要不断进行优化和升级,适应不同领域和不同语种的翻译需求;(4)自动化程度高:机器翻译可以与其他自动化系统进行集成,实现无缝衔接,提高工作效率。

4. 机器翻译的挑战尽管机器翻译在翻译效率和成本方面具有优势,但仍面临一些挑战:(1)翻译质量不稳定:机器翻译在某些语种和特定领域的翻译质量仍然不够稳定,存在误译、漏译等问题;(2)上下文理解困难:机器翻译在上下文理解方面仍有不足,对于语境敏感的翻译任务存在一定的困难;(3)专业术语处理不准确:机器翻译对于某些专业领域的术语处理不准确,需要人工进行修正。

5. 人机协作模式为了克服机器翻译领域的挑战,人机协作模式应运而生。

人机协作模式将人工智能与人类翻译者的优势相结合,实现协同工作。

现代语言学意义上的_意译_与_直译_以林纾和鲁迅为中心

现代语言学意义上的_意译_与_直译_以林纾和鲁迅为中心

2
翻译的本 质是什么 ? 人们对 此众说纷 纭。巴
尔胡达罗夫认为它是 把一 种语言的言 语产物 , 在保 持内容不 变 的情 况 下改 变 为 另一 种 语言 的 言语 产 物。 . 费道罗夫则说 : 翻译就 是用一 种语言 把另一
/ 在中 种语言在内容与形式不可分割 地表达 出来 。
国 , 周代就曾将对北方方言 的翻译 , 称为 译 。 贾公 彦曾说 : 译即 易 , 谓换 易言 语使 相解 也。 上 述人 们尽管说法不同 , 但他们内 心都认为 , 翻译在 本质上 是不同语言间的转换 , 是属 于语言技巧 的范畴 , 不同 的语言 , 可以表 达共 同的 内容。 若从 翻译 学的 角度 来看 , 这种观点或许没有什 么错误 , 如果从现 代语言 学的角度视之 , 翻译活 动却 并不 仅仅 是语 言间 的转 换那么简单。 现代语言学的核心本质就是 语言本体 论。从俄 国形式主义、 布拉 格学 派、 语 义学 和新 批评 派 , 到结
48
通语言学教程∃ 中 , 十分 明确 地厘 定了 该观 点 , 他把 语言比喻成一张纸 : 思想是正面 , 声音 是反面 , 我们 不能切开正面而不 同时 切开 反面 , 同样 , 在 语言 里 , 我们不 能 使 声 音 离 开 思 想 , 也 不 能 使 思 想 离 开 声 音。 ! 也就是说 , 当人们 要表达某 种思想 时 , 不可能 在不使用语言的情 况下 , 却 又能 非常 明晰 完整 地将 其内容传达 出来。 索绪 尔认 为 , 从心 理方 面看 , 思 想离开了词的表达 , 只是一 团没有定形、 模糊 不清的 浑然之物。 ∀ 在 语言 出现 之前 , 一 切都 是模 糊 不清 的 , 语言对 思想所起的独特作用 不是为表达 观念而 创造一种物质的声 音手 段 , 而是 作为 思想 和声 音的 媒介 , 它们的结 合必然 导致 各自 单位 间彼 此划 清界 限。 # 人类如果 要生 存下 去就 必须 进行 思维 活 动 , 而进行思维 活动 就必 须在语 言活 动中 进行 的。 几 乎在语言表达开始 的时 候 , 思维 过程 像是 一种 精神 泛滥 , 就渗进来了 ; 并且 , 一个 概念一经确 定 , 必然会 影响到它的语言符 号的 生命 , 促 进语 言的 进一 步成 长。 ∃ 海德格尔更是说出了 语言 是存在 的家园 的 名言 , 其内涵为 : 任何 存在 者的 存在 居住 于词 语之 中。 % 把人的存 在归 证为 语言 这一 概念 , 是 现 代西 方哲学对人的本质 一种 最主 要的 认识 , 它 甚至 对整 个 20 世纪 的哲 学、 文学都 发生 了不可 限量 的影 响。 因为 , 人类如果要在这个世 界上 存在 下去 , 就必须 进行不间断的思维 , 而思维 活动所赖以 进行的家 园 , 就是语言。从事语言 的过 程 , 实 际上 就是 一种 力图 获得思想和情绪 以及表 达这 种思 想和 情绪 的过 程。 语言的外在结构虽 然是 表情 达意 的工 具和 手段 , 但 本质上 , 它是人们 思维 方式、 思想 内容 的呈 现 , 它正 处于人类精神活动的焦点地位 , 甚至可 以说 , 语言本 身就是一种精神实 体 , 通过 语言 可以 打通 人类 思想 领域和 心 灵 世界。 语言 成 长为 一 个 独立 的 系统 体 系 , 需要一个漫长 的过 程 , 而 它一 旦成 立 , 就会 对人 类的思想和思维产生强大的作 用力和控制 力。表面 上看 , 使用什么语言是人们 的自由 ; 本质上人 们选择 了什么样的语言体 系 , 也就 意味 着选 择了 什么 样的 思维方式和拥有什 么样 的思 想 , 该语 言系 统的 话语 方式 , 便会牢牢的控制了人 们思想自 由的限度。 当 我们说话时 , 自以 为自 己在 控制 着语 言 , 实 际上 , 我 们被语 言 控制 , 不 是 我在 说 话 , 而 是 话 在 说我 & 。 这也意味着人的思 想、 思维 不可 能脱 离语 言系 统而 单独地存在 , 你只能在该语 言系统所固 有、 所 允许的 范畴内 自由 地 思想。正 如 海德 格尔 说的 那样 , 哲 学家不只是在语言 中思 考 , 而且 是沿 着语 言的 方向

写在《现代语言学》中译本出版之际 唐吉诃德中译本什么时候出版的

写在《现代语言学》中译本出版之际 唐吉诃德中译本什么时候出版的

《写在《现代语言学》中译本出版之际唐吉诃德中译本什么时候出版的》摘要:自索绪尔以来,各种各样的语言或语法理论层出不穷,乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论就是其中的一种,语言能力――语言行为这一区别在乔氏理论中极为重要,它类似索绪尔“语言―言语”的区别,但又不完全相同,二十多年来,乔氏理论几次更新,经历了早期理论、标准理论、扩充的标准理论和修正的扩充标准理论这四个时期,这也说明乔氏理论是在发展的,并日趋完善自索绪尔以来,各种各样的语言或语法理论层出不穷,乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论就是其中的一种。

乔姆斯基革命始于一九五七年,他以观点和当时的思潮背道而驰的《句法结构》一书轰动了语言学、心理学和哲学各界。

二十多年过去了,哲学家、心理学家等对语言的研究越来越感兴趣,这应当归功于乔姆斯基。

对语言工作者来说,对乔氏的理论有个较全面的认识是非常重要的。

介绍乔氏理论方面的专著国外已出版了不少,英国语言学家尼尔・史密斯和达埃德尔・威尔逊合著的《现代语言学――乔姆斯基革命的结果》只是其中之一。

但该书的新颖之处则在于它不仅介绍了乔氏的句法理论,同时也结合乔氏有关语言和语言本质等方面的论述,简明扼要地介绍了音位学、语义学、语用学、语言类型学等现代语言学分支。

在本书中,作者强调了乔氏理论作为一种体系所具有的重要性。

正如作者在导论中所指出的:“我们认为乔姆斯基的主要贡献在于创建了一种体系,绘出一幅有关语言和语言使用者的性质的完整的图画。

我们觉得,正是乔姆斯基整个体系的一致性和生命力,而不是构成这个体系的具体论点,使得他的工作具有革命性。

”(第2页)从这一立场出发,作者为我们勾勒出现代语言学的一幅鲜明图画。

乔氏认为,只有人类才具有真正的语言,而人类的语言能力又是天赋的,它的习得是任何行为主义的条件反射理论所不能解释的。

语言学家的任务就是揭示人类的语言能力,即建立一种语法。

语法既是语言学家在描述语言时建立起来的系统,也是孩子们在习得母语的过程中所创造出来的。

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第一章:绪论1.什么是语言学?1.1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质,语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设,这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验,最终形成一条语言理论。

1.2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究,它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介,而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同,它主要研究特定语言的语音体系,即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构,及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的,传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义,独立于语境之外的意义,语用学也是研究语义,但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象,而是一种社会现象,各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理,如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上,应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学,在广义上,它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1.3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1.3.1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析,而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上,旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。

一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”,否则就被冠为“错误的”。

1.3.2共时性和历时性对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。

共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。

它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。

历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。

现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。

1.3.3口头语和书面语现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录,认为口头语是第一性的,是语言交际最基本的方式。

这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看,口头语先于笔头语,笔头语是对口头语的记录。

从交际的功能来看,人们交际主要采取口头形式。

此外,即使是在当今世界,仍然有不少语言只有口头形式,没有笔头形式。

所以语言学研究的语料应从口头语中采集。

传统语法学家过分重视笔头语料,轻视口头语料。

1.3.4语言和言语语言和言语的区别是瑞士语言学家索绪尔在20世纪初提出来的。

语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统,是一个语言社区所有的人应该遵守的一套约定俗成的规则,它相对稳定,因此索绪尔指出语言学只能研究语言系统本身,既语言。

言语是语言体系的实际使用,是具体的。

它因人而异,千变万化,所以索绪尔认为无法对言语进行系统的研究。

1.3.5能力和运用能力和运用的区别由乔姆斯基在20世纪50年代后期提出的。

“能力”指一个理想的语言使用者所具有的语言规则的知识,它是一整套内在化语言使用者脑海中的语言规则。

“使用”是“能力”的具体使用,是在交际活动中语言知识具体的体现。

乔姆斯基认为,语言学家应该研究“能力”,揭示人脑中已经内在化的语言规则,而不是研究“使用”,因为“使用”会受到各种偶然因素的影响,如口误等,因而是不体系的。

乔姆斯基的能力和使用之分与索绪尔的语言和言语之分有其相似性,两人都强调把语言体系与语言的使用区分开来,但是索绪尔是从社会的角度来分析语言,把语言看成社会的约定,而乔姆斯基则是从心理学的角度出发,把语言看成是个人人脑的特性。

2.1语言的定义语言学家对语言作了不同的定义,比较普遍地为语言学家所接受的一个定义是“语言是一种用于人类交际的任意的语音符号系统。

”这一定义包涵了语言的一些最重要的特征,即语言是一个受规则制约的体系,语言的符号是任意的,语言是有声的。

2.2语言的识别性特征美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征,其中最重要的识别性特种有5种:即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。

这些特征是所有人类语言所共有的。

人类语言的识别性特征是动物“语言”所不具有的。

1)任意性:它指音与义之间没有逻辑联系。

比如说,不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。

2)创造性:语言的创造性主要表现在语言使用者能够以有限的语言规则为基础说出和理解无限的句子,包括他们以前从没有听说过的句子。

3)二重性:它指语言在结构上存在两个层次:低层次和高层次。

在低层次是一个个没有意义的音,如/p/,/g/,/i/等,但是这些处在低层次的没有意义的音可以依照一定的语言规则结合在一起形成语言体系的高层次,即:有意义的单位,如词素,单词等。

4)移位性:移位性指人类可以使用语言来谈论过去的事情,现在的事情或将来的事情;语言也可以用来谈论我们客观世界中的事情,或假想世界中的事情。

总之,语言的使用可以脱离交际的直接情景语境,从而不受语言时空距离的影响。

5)文化传递性:文化的传递性是指,虽然人类习得语言的能力有遗传因素的原因,但是语言体系具体内容的习得不是通过遗传来传递的,而是要通过后天的学习来获得。

第二章音系学1.语言的声音媒介语言的形式有声音和文字。

在这两种媒介中,声音是语言最基本的媒介,是第一性的。

这是因为在语言的发展过程中,声音媒介早于文字。

文字是对声音的记录。

在日常交际中,大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的,只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。

除此之外,人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。

2. 语音学2.1什么是语音学语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介,即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

语音学有三个分支:发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。

它们各有自己的侧重点但又互有联系。

发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器官发出语音,并对所发出的音进行分类。

听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来研究语音,即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。

声学语音学主要研究语音的物理特性。

通过对语音声波的研究,声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。

最为重要的结论,所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语,如果从声音的物理特性上去分析,其实它们的声波并不相同,只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小,是人耳所不能辨别的。

如果它们的声波相同,这只是一种巧合。

因此,语音的等同只是一种理论上的理想。

2.2发音器官人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。

咽腔内最重要的发音器官是位于喉头的声带,发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊音化(voicing)。

浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音,如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的特性。

声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音,如[t],[k],[f]等。

声带颤动的频率决定了声音的高低。

口腔中发音器官最多,有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。

其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。

发音时,来自肺部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍,从而发出不同的音。

鼻腔和口腔相通。

发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔,气流只能从口腔通过,所发出的音没有鼻音化。

但当鼻腔通道打开,允许气流从鼻腔通过,所发出来的音便是鼻音。

2.3音标——宽式和严式标音法音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。

标音分为宽式和严式标音法。

宽式标音法是用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式。

严式标音法是一种使用变音符号的标音方式,旨在记录同一个音在不同的语音环境下所发生的细微的变化,如在star和tar中的/t/的发音就不一样,前者/t/是不送气音,后者/t/是送气音。

这些细微区别只有通过严式标音法才能表示。

2.4英语语音的分类英语中的语音根据气流的受阻情况分为元音和辅音。

气流没有受到任何阻碍所发出的音是元音;气流在口腔里受到不同方式的阻碍所发出的音是辅音。

2.4.1英语辅音的分类根据发音方式,英语的辅音可以分为:1)爆破音:发爆破音时,气流开始完全受阻,然后突然释放,如[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]2)摩擦音:发摩擦音时,气流部分受阻,气流从狭窄的通道挤出,产生摩擦,如[f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ ❆ ], [∫ ], [ ✞ ], [h]3)塞擦音:发塞擦音时,气流开始完全受阻,然后气流从狭窄通道缓慢释放,并伴有摩擦发生,如:[t∫], [d✞ ]4)流音:在发流音时,受阻的气流从舌头与上部(roof of the mouth)形成的通道释放出,如:[l],[r]。

5)鼻音:发音时,气流从鼻腔释放出所发出的音为鼻音,如[n],[m],[☠ ]6)滑音:滑音又称之为半元音。

英语中滑音有[w]和[j]。

它们的发音方式与[u]和[i]相同。

根据发音部位,英语辅音可以分为:1)双唇音:气流受阻部位在双唇,如[p],[b],[m],[w]2)唇齿音:下唇与上齿接触使气流受阻,如[f],[v]3)齿音:舌尖与上齿接触使气流受阻,如:[θ],[ ]4)齿龈音:舌尖与上齿龈隆骨接触使气流受阻,如:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]5)腭音:受阻部位发生在舌根与硬腭之间,如:[∫], [ ✞],[ t∫ ], [d ], [j]6)软腭音:舌根与软腭接触使气流受阻,如: [k], [g], [ ]7)喉音:声带短时接触使气流受阻,如:[h]元音与辅音不同,不能根据辅音的发音方式和发音部位来分类。

元音常根据舌位的高低、开口度、嘴唇形状、元音的长度和发音时喉部的紧张程度来分类。

1)舌位的高低发音时,舌头前部抬得最高的音为前元音,通常有:[i:] [i] [e] [ ] [a].发音时,舌头的中部抬得最高为中元音,如:[ :], [ ],[ ]发音时,舌根部位抬得最高为后元音,如:[u:] [☺] [ :], [ ]and [ :].2)开口度:根据开口度,通常把元音分为以下四种:闭元音:如:[i:],[ i],[u:],[ ]半闭元音:如:[e], [з: ]半开元音:如[ ], [ : ]开元音:如:[æ], [a], [Λ], [ ], [ɑ:]3)嘴唇形状:圆唇元音:英语中除了[ɑ:]以外,所有的后元音都是圆唇元音。

不圆唇元音:英语中所有的前元音和中元音都是不圆唇元音。

4)元音的长度:根据发音的长度,元音分为长元音和短元音。

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