Chapt 7(2010)
KAIJO焊线机FB-900的中文说明书09_Chapt_7(精)
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Chapt07
A dedicated effort to determine the complete nucleotide se-quence of the haploid genome in a variety of organisms has been underway since 1990. With this sequence information in hand, geneticists can consult the universal dictionary equating nu-cleotide sequence with amino acid sequence to decide what parts of a genome are likely to be genes. They can also identify genes through matches with nucleotide sequences already known to en-code proteins in other organisms. As a result, they can predict the total number of genes in an organism from the complete nu-cleotide sequence of its genome, and by extension, identify the number and amino acid sequences of all the polypeptides that de-termine phenotype. Knowledge of DNA sequence thus opens up powerful new possibilities for understanding an organism’s growth and development at the molecular level.Studies of the tiny nematode Caenorhabditis elegans illustrate the kind of insights researchers can gain from this DNA-sequence-based approach. C. elegans is a roundworm 1 mm in length that lives in soils throughout the world (Fig. 7.1a). Feeding on bacteria,it grows from fertilized egg to adult—either hermaphrodite or male—in just three days. At the end of this time, each hermaph-rodite produces between 250 and 1000 progeny. Because of its small size, short life cycle, and capacity for prolific reproduction, C. elegans is an ideal subject for genetic analysis.The haploid genome of C.elegans contains110million base pairs distributed among six chromosomes(Fig.7.1b).In the mid-1990s,a group of investigators reported the sequencing and pre-liminary analysis of2.2million base pairs on chromosome ing their knowledge of the concepts explored in this chapter,they found that this2%of the nematode genome carries about480 genes.Interestingly,at least20%of the genes recognized as hav-ing a known function encode molecules that play some role in gene expression: the process by which cells convert DNA se-quence information to RNA and then decode the RNA information to the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide(Fig.7.2).The fact that20%of the genes in this sequenced region encode compo-nents of gene expression suggests the importance of the processCHAPTER7Gene Expression: The Flowof Genetic Information from DNA via RNA to ProteinThe ability of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (red) to couple a particular tRNA (blue)to its corresponding amino acid is central to the molecular machinery that convertsthe language of nucleic acids into the language of proteins.The Genetic Code: How Precise Groupings of the 4 Nucleotides Specify 20 Amino Acids223Figure 7.1 C. elegans:An ideal subject for genetic analysis.(a)Micrograph of several adult worms. (b)Six chromosomes form the haploid genome of C. elegans.The highlighted region depicts a 2.2million base pair portion of chromosome III that has been analyzed and found to encode about 480 genes.(a)T ranslationPolypeptideFigure 7.2Gene expression: The flow of geneticinformation from DNA via RNA to protein.Transcription and translation convert the information encoded in DNA into the order of amino acids in a polypeptide. In transcription, an enzyme known as RNA polymerase catalyzes production of an RNA transcript. In translation, the cellular machinery uses instructions in mRNA to synthesize a polypeptide, following the rules of the genetic code.to the life of the organism.If this ratio holds for the rest of the worm’s genome,about 3600of its estimated 18,000genes gener-ate the machinery that enables genes to be interpreted as proteins.In this chapter, we describe the cellular mechanisms that carry out gene expression. As intricate as some of the details may ap-pear, the general scheme of gene expression is elegant and straightforward: Within each cell, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.In 1957 Francis Crick proposed that genetic information flows in only one direction, and named his concept of a one-way molecular flow the “Central Dogma” of molecular biol-ogy. As Crick explained, “once ‘information’ has passed into pro-tein, it cannot get out again.”Inside most cells, as the Central Dogma suggests, genetic in-formation flows from one class of molecule to another in two dis-tinct stages (see Fig. 7.2). If you think of genes as instructions written in the language of nucleic acids, the cellular machinery first transcribes a set of instructions written in the DNA dialect to the same instructions written in the RNA dialect. The conversion ofDNA-encoded information to its RNA-encoded equivalent is known as transcription . The product of transcription is a tran-script : a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) in prokaryotes;a molecule of RNA that undergoes processing to become an mRNA in eukaryotes. In the second stage of gene expression, the cellular machinery translates the mRNA to its polypeptide equiva-lent in the language of amino acids. This decoding of nucleotide information to a sequence of amino acids is known as transla-tion . It takes place on molecular workbenches called ribosomes,which are composed of proteins and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs); and it depends on the universal dictionary known as the genetic code , which defines each amino acid in terms of a specific se-quence of three nucleotides. It also depends on transfer RNAs (tRNAs), small RNA adaptor molecules that place specific amino acids at the correct position in a growing polypeptide chain. The tRNAs can bring amino acids to the right place on the translational machinery because tRNAs and mRNAs have complementary nu-cleotides that can base pair with each other.Four general themes emerge from our discussion of gene ex-pression. First, the pairing of complementary bases figures promi-nently in the precise transfer of information from DNA to RNA and from RNA to polypeptide. Second, the polarities of DNA, RNA, and protein molecules help guide the mechanisms of gene expression:the 3′-to-5′transcription of a template DNA strand yields a polar mRNA that grows from its 5′to its 3′end; the 5′-to-3′translation of this mRNA yields a polar protein running from amino terminal to carboxyl terminal. Third, like DNA replication and recombina-tion (discussed in Chapter 5), gene expression requires an input of energy and the participation of several specific proteins at differ-ent points in the process. Fourth, since the accurate one-way flow of genetic information determines protein structure, mutations224CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEINthat change this information or obstruct its flow can have dramatic effects on phenotype.As we examine how cells use the sequence information con-tained in DNA to construct proteins, we presentI The genetic code: How triplets of the 4 nucleotidesunambiguously specify 20 amino acids, making it possibleto translate information from a nucleotide chain to asequence of amino acids.I Transcription: How RNA polymerase, guided by basepairing, synthesizes a single-stranded mRNA copy of agene’s DNA template.I Translation: How base pairing between mRNA and tRNAsdirects the assembly of a polypeptide on the ribosome.I A comprehensive example of gene expression in C. elegans.I How mutations affect gene information and expression.THE GENETIC CODE:HOW PRECISE GROUPINGS OF THE4NUCLEOTIDES SPECIFY20AMINO ACIDSA code is a system of symbols that equates information in one language with information in another. A useful analogy for the genetic code is the Morse code, which uses dots and dashes or short and long sounds to transmit messages over radio or tele-graph wires. Various groupings of the dot-dash/short-long symbols represent the 26 letters of the English alphabet. Be-cause there are many more letters than the two dot or dash symbols, groups of up to four dots, four dashes, and varying combinations of the two represent some letters. And because anywhere from one to four symbols specify each letter, the Morse code requires a symbol for “pause” to signify where one letter ends and the next begins.In the Genetic Code, a Triplet Codon Represents Each Amino AcidThe language of nucleic acids is written in four nucleotides—A,G,C,and T in the DNA dialect;A,G,C,and U in the RNA dialect—while the language of proteins is written in amino acids.To understand how the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA encodes the order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain,it is essential to know how many distinct amino acids there are.Watson and Crick produced the now accepted list of the20amino acids that are genetically encoded by DNA or RNA sequence over lunch one day at a local pub.They cre-ated the list by analyzing the amino acid sequence of a vari-ety of naturally occurring polypeptides.Amino acids that are present in only a small number of proteins or in only certain tissues or organisms did not qualify as standard building blocks;Crick and Watson correctly assumed that such amino acids arise when proteins undergo modification after their synthesis.By contrast,amino acids that are present in most, though not necessarily all,proteins made the list.The ques-tion then became:How can4nucleotides encode20amino acids?Just as the Morse code conveys information through dif-ferent groupings of dots and dashes, the 4 nucleotides encode 20 amino acids through specific groupings of A, G, C, and T or A, G, C, and U. Researchers initially arrived at the number of letters per grouping by deductive reasoning, and later con-firmed it by experiment. They reasoned that if only one nu-cleotide represented an amino acid, there would be informa-tion for only four amino acids: A would encode one aminoacid; G, a second amino acid; C, a third; and T, a fourth. If twonucleotides represented each amino acid, there would be 42ϭ16 possible combinations of couplets.Of course, if the code consisted of groups containing oneor two nucleotides, it would have 4 ϩ16 ϭ20 groups and could account for all the amino acids, but there would be noth-ing left over for the pause denoting where one group ends and the next begins. Groups of three nucleotides in a row would provide 43ϭ64 different triplet combinations, more than enough to code for all the amino acids. If the code consisted of doublets and triplets, a signal denoting pause would once again be necessary. But a triplets-only code would require no symbol for “pause” if the mechanism for counting to three and distinguishing among successive triplets were very reliable.Although this kind of reasoning—explaining the un-known in terms of the known by looking for the simplest pos-sibility—generates a theory, it does not prove it. As it turnedout, however, the experiments described later did indeeddemonstrate that groups of three nucleotides represent all 20amino acids. Each nucleotide triplet is called a codon.Eachcodon, designated by the bases defining its three nucleotides,specifies one amino acid. For example, GAA is a codon forglutamic acid (Glu), and GUU is a codon for valine (Val). Be-cause the code comes into play only during the translation partof gene expression, that is, during the decoding of messengerRNA to polypeptide, geneticists usually present the code in theRNA dialect of A, G, C, and U, as depicted in Fig. 7.3. How-ever, when speaking of genes, they can substitute T for U toshow the same code in the DNA dialect.If you knew the sequence of nucleotides in a gene or itstranscript as well as the sequence of amino acids in the corre-sponding polypeptide, you could deduce the genetic codewithout understanding how the cellular machinery uses thecode to translate from nucleotides to amino acids. Althoughtechniques for determining both nucleotide and amino-acidsequence are available today, this was not true when re-searchers cracked the genetic code in the 1950s and 1960s. Atthat time, they could establish a polypeptide’s amino-acid se-quence, but not the nucleotide sequence of DNA or RNA. Be-cause of their inability to read nucleotide sequence, they usedAThe Genetic Code: How Precise Groupings of the 4 Nucleotides Specify 20 Amino Acids225Figure 7.3The genetic code: 61 codons represent the 20 amino acids, while 3 codons signify stop.To read the code, find the first letter in the left column, the second letter along the top, and the third letter in the right column; this reading corresponds to the 5′-to-3′direction along the mRNA. Although most amino acids are encoded by two or more codons, the genetic code is unambiguous because each codon specifies only one amino acid.an assortment of genetic and biochemical techniques to fathom the code. They began by examining how different mu-tations in a single gene affected the amino-acid sequence of the gene’s polypeptide product, using the abnormal (specific mutations) to understand the normal (the general relationship between genes and polypeptides).Mapping Studies Confirmed That a Gene’s Nucleotide Sequence Is Colinear with a Polypeptide’s Amino-Acid SequenceWe have seen that DNA is a linear molecule with base pairs following one another down the intertwined chains. Proteins, by contrast, have complicated three-dimensional structures. Even so, if unfolded and stretched out from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus, proteins have a one-dimensional, linear structure—a specific sequence of amino acids. If the informa-tion in a gene and its corresponding protein are colinear, the consecutive order of bases in the DNA from the beginning to the end of the gene would stipulate the consecutive order of amino acids from one end to the other of the outstretched pro-tein. Note that this hypothesized relationship implies that both a gene and its protein product have definite polarities with an invariant relation to each other.Charles Yanofsky, in studying the Escherichia coli gene for a subunit of the enzyme tryptophan synthetase, was the first to compare maps of mutations within a gene to the par-ticular amino-acid substitutions that resulted. He began by generating a large number of trpϪauxotrophic mutants that carried mutations in the trpA gene for the tryptophan syn-thetase subunit. He next made a fine structure recombinational map of these mutations; and then he purified and determined the amino acid sequence of the mutant tryptophan synthetase subunits. As Fig. 7.4a illustrates, Yanofsky’s data showed that the order of mutations mapped within the DNA of the gene by recombination was colinear with the positions of the amino-acid substitutions occurring in the resulting mutant proteins. Genetic Analysis Revealed That Nonoverlapping Codons Are Set in a Reading FrameBy carefully examining the results of his analysis,Yanofsky, in addition to confirming the existence of colinearity,de-duced key features of codons and helped establish many pa-rameters of the genetic code relating nucleotides to amino acids.A Codon Is Composed of More Than One Nucleotide Yanofsky observed that different point mutations(changes in only one nucleotide pair)may affect the same amino acid.In one example shown in Fig.7.4a,mutation#23changed the glycine(Gly)at position211of the wildtype polypeptide chain to arginine(Arg),while mutation#46yielded glutamic acid(Glu) at the same position.In another example,mutation #78changed the glycine at position234to cysteine(Cys), while mutation#58produced aspartic acid(Asp)at the same position.In both cases,Yanofsky also found that recombina-tion could occasionally occur between two mutations that changed the identity of the same amino acid,and such re-combination would produce a wildtype tryptophan syn-thetase gene(Fig.7.4b).Because the smallest unit of recombination is the base pair,two mutations capable of re-combination—in this case,in the same codon because they affect the same amino acid—must be in different(although nearby)nucleotides.Thus,a codon contains more than one nucleotide.Each Nucleotide Is Part of Only a Single CodonAs Fig. 7.4a illustrates, each of the point mutations in the tryp-tophan synthetase gene characterized by Yanofsky alters the identity of only a single amino acid. This is also true of the point mutations examined in many other genes, such as the hu-man genes for rhodopsin and hemoglobin (see Chapter 6). Since point mutations change only a single nucleotide pair and most point mutations affect only a single amino acid in a polypeptide, each nucleotide in a gene must influence the identity of only a single amino acid. If, on the contrary, a nu-cleotide were part of more than one codon, a mutation in that nucleotide would affect more than one amino acid.226CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEIN1 m.u.N C2114926822151234Figure 7.4Experiments analyzing the E. coli gene for a subunit of tryptophan synthetase confirm colinearity and reveal significant features of the genetic code.(a)A genetic map of the trpA gene of E. coli,identifying the amino-acid substitutions that characterize several of Yanofsky’s mutant strains. The positions of the mutations and amino-acid substitutions are colinear. These mutations change only a single amino acid, suggesting that each nucleotide is part of only a single codon. (b)Confirmation that codons must include two or more base pairs came from crosses between two strains that carried an altered amino acid at the same position. Since wildtype progeny occasionally appeared, each strain had a point mutation at a slightly different site. Crossing-over between the mutant sites could produce a wildtype allele.A Codon Is Composed of Three Nucleotides,and the Designated Starting Point for Each Gene Establishes the Reading Frame for These Triplets Although the most efficient code that would allow 4 nu-cleotides to specify 20 amino acids requires 3 nucleotides per codon, more complicated scenarios are possible. Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner obtained convincing evidence for the triplet nature of the genetic code in studies of mutations in the bacteriophage T4 rIIB gene (Fig. 7.5). They induced the mu-tations with proflavin, an intercalating mutagen that can insert itself between the paired bases stacked in the center of the DNA molecule (Fig. 7.5a). Their assumption was that proflavin would act like other mutagens, causing single-base substitutions. If this were true, it would be possible to gener-ate revertants through treatment with any mutagen. Surpris-ingly, genes with proflavin-induced mutations did not revert to wildtype upon treatment with other mutagens known to cause nucleotide substitutions. Only further exposure to proflavin caused proflavin-induced mutations to revert to wildtype (Fig.7.5b). Crick and Brenner had to explain this observation be-fore they could proceed with their phage experiments. With keen insight, they correctly guessed that proflavin does not cause base substitutions; instead, it causes insertions or dele-tions. This hypothesis explained why base-substituting muta-gens could not revert proflavin-induced mutations; it was also consistent with the structure of proflavin. By intercalating be-tween base pairs, proflavin would distort the double helix and thus interfere with the action of enzymes that function in the repair, replication, or recombination of DNA, eventually caus-ing the deletion or addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to the DNA molecule.Crick and Brenner began their experiments with a partic-ular proflavin-induced rIIBϪmutation. They next treated this mutant strain with more proflavin to isolate an rIIBϩrevertant (see Fig. 7.5b), and showed that the revertant’s chromosome actually contained two different rIIBϪmutations: One was the original mutation (FC0 in the figure); the other was newly in-duced (FC7). Either mutation by itself yields a mutant pheno-type, but their simultaneous occurrence in the same gene yielded an rIIBϩphenotype. Crick and Brenner reasoned that if the first mutation was the deletion of a single base pair, rep-resented by the symbol (Ϫ), then the counteracting mutation must be the insertion of a base pair, represented as (ϩ). The restoration of gene function by one mutation canceling an-other in the same gene is known as intragenic suppression. On the basis of this reasoning, they went on to establish T4 strains with different numbers of (ϩ) and (Ϫ) mutations in the same chromosome. Figure 7.5c tabulates the phenotypes asso-ciated with each combination of proflavin-induced mutations.I n analyzing the data, Crick and Brenner assumed that each codon is a trio of nucleotides, and for each gene there is a single starting point. This starting point establishes a read-Three single base insertions ( + + + )Single base insertion (+)Single base deletion (–)ATG AAC AA GCG C G G G GAA GCG GACATG AAC AA T GCG C C G G A G GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT G G CGC T CGG C AG GAA GCG GACATG AAC AAT GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT G G CGCCG GAG GAA GCG GACATG AAC AA T GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AA GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GACG GT CFigure 7.5Studies of frameshift mutations in thebacteriophage T4 rIIB gene show that codons consist of (e)228CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEINing frame: the partitioning of groups of three nucleotides such that the sequential interpretation of each succeeding tripletgenerates the correct order of amino acids in the resultingpolypeptide chain. If codons are read in order from a fixedstarting point, one mutation will counteract another if the twoare equivalent mutations of opposite signs; in such a case, eachinsertion compensates for each deletion, and this counterbal-ancing restores the reading frame. The gene would only regainits wildtype activity, however, if the portion of the polypeptideencoded between the two mutations of opposite sign is not re-quired for protein function, because in the double mutant, thisregion would have an improper amino-acid sequence. Simi-larly, if a gene sustains three or multiples of three changes ofthe same sign, the encoded polypeptide can still function, be-cause the mutations do not alter the reading frame for the ma-jority of amino acids (Fig. 7.5d). The resulting polypeptidewill, however, have one extra or one fewer amino acid thannormal (designated by three plus signs or three minus signs,respectively), and the region encoded by the part of the genebetween the first and the last mutations will not contain thecorrect amino acids.By contrast, a single nucleotide inserted into or deletedfrom a gene alters the reading frame and thereby affects theidentity of not only one amino acid, but of all other aminoacids beyond the point of alteration (Fig. 7.5e). Changes thatalter the grouping of nucleotides into codons are calledframe shift mutations: they shift the reading frame for all codons beyond the point of insertion or deletion, almost al-ways abolishing the function of the polypeptide product.A review of the evidence tabulated in Fig. 7.5c supportsall these points. A single (Ϫ) or a single (ϩ) mutation de-stroyed the function of the rIIB gene and produced an rIIBϪphage. Similarly, any gene with two base changes of the samesign (ϪϪor ϩϩ), or with four or five insertions or deletionsof the same sign (for example, ϩϩϩϩ) also generated a mu-tant phenotype. However, genes containing three or multiplesof three mutations of the same sign (for example, ϩϩϩor ϪϪϪϪϪϪ) as well as genes containing a (ϩϪ) pair of mutations generated rIIBϩwildtype individuals. In these lastexamples, intragenic suppression allowed restitution of thereading frame and thereby restored the lost or aberrant geneticfunction produced by other frameshift mutations in the gene. Most Amino Acids are Specified by More Than One Codon As Fig.7.5illustrates,intragenic suppression occurs only if in the region between two frameshift mutations of opposite sign, a gene still dictates the appearance of amino acids,even if these amino acids are not the same as those appearing in the normal protein.If the frameshifted part of the gene encodes instructions to stop protein synthesis,for example,by introducing a triplet of nucleotides that does not correspond to any amino acid,then wildtype polypeptide production would not continue.This is because polypeptide synthesis would stop before the compen-sating mutation could reestablish the correct reading frame.The fact that intragenic suppression occurs as often as itdoes suggests that the code includes more than one codon for some amino acids. Recall that there are 20 common amino acids but 43ϭ64 different combinations of three nucleotides. If each amino acid corresponded to only a single codon, there would be 64 Ϫ20 ϭ44 possible triplets not encoding an amino acid. These noncoding triplets would act as “stop” sig-nals and prevent further polypeptide synthesis. I f this hap-pened, more than half of all frameshift mutations (44/64) would cause protein synthesis to stop at the first codon after the mutation, and the chances of extending the protein each amino acid farther down the chain would diminish exponen-tially. As a result, intragenic suppression would rarely occur. However, we have seen that many frameshift mutations of one sign can be offset by mutations of the other sign. The distances between these mutations, estimated by recombination fre-quencies, are in some cases large enough to code for more than 50 amino acids, which would be possible only if most of the 64 possible triplet codons specified amino acids. Thus, the data of Crick and Brenner provide strong support for the idea that the genetic code is degenerate:Two or more nucleotide triplets specify most of the 20 amino acids (see Fig. 7.3). Cracking the Code: Biochemical Manipulations Revealed Which Codons Represent Which Amino AcidsAlthough the genetic experiments just described enabled re-markably prescient insights about the nature of the genetic code,they did not make it possible to assign particular codons to their corresponding amino acids.This awaited the discovery of messenger RNA and the development of techniques for syn-thesizing simple messenger RNA molecules that researchers could use to manufacture simple proteins in the test tube. The Discovery of Messenger RNAs, Moleculesfor Transporting Genetic InformationIn the1950s researchers exposed eukaryotic cells to amino acids tagged with radioactivity and observed that protein syn-thesis incorporating the radioactive amino acids into polypep-tides takes place in the cytoplasm,even though the genes for those polypeptides are sequestered in the cell nucleus.From this discovery,they deduced the existence of an intermediate molecule,made in the nucleus and capable of transporting DNA sequence information to the cytoplasm where it can di-rect protein synthesis.RNA was a prime candidate for this in-termediary information-carrying molecule.Because of RNA’s potential for base pairing with a strand of DNA,one could imagine the cellular machinery copying a strand of DNA into a complementary strand of RNA in a manner analogous to the DNA-to-DNA copying of DNA replication.Subsequent stud-ies in eukaryotes on the incorporation of radioactive uracil(a base found only in RNA)into molecules of RNA showed that although the molecules are synthesized in the nucleus,at least some of them migrate to the cytoplasm.Among those RNA molecules that migrate to the cytoplasm are the messenger RNAs,or mRNAs,depicted in Fig.7.2.They arise in the nu-cleus from the transcription of DNA sequence information through base pairing and then move,after processing,to the。
布兰查德宏观经济学第七版第7版英文版chapter (24)
Macroeconomics, 7e (Blanchard)Chapter 24: Epilogue: The Story of Macroeconomics24.1 Keynes and the Great Depression1) Which of the following statements about Keynes' contribution to macroeconomics is correct?A) Although he published his most important ideas about the economy long before the 1930s, few economists paid attention to Keynes until the Great Depression proved him correct.B) Keynes argued that depressions and recessions were almost always caused by changes in the money supply.C) Keynes argued that balancing the budget could be an effective way to cure a recession or depression.D) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 12) According to Keynes,A) the Great Depression was caused by ill-considered expansionary fiscal policy.B) balancing the budget in the midst of a depression would be a serious mistake.C) inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.D) the Phillips curve is stable.E) none of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 13) Liquidity preference refers toA) Keynes' name for the demand for money.B) the "random walk" behavior of consumption spending.C) monetarists explanations for stagflation.D) real business cycle theorists' explanations for stagflation.E) the controversy sparked by the Lucas critique.Answer: ADiff: 14) "In the long run, we're all dead" was Keynes' way of saying thatA) intellectual pursuits, like understanding the economy, are unimportant in the scheme of things.B) no one would appreciate his theories during his lifetime.C) there is no point in saving for retirement.D) it is very important to save for one's retirement.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 15) "Effective demand" represents which of the following?A) money demandB) demand for exportsC) domestic demandD) the demand for laborE) aggregate demandAnswer: EDiff: 16) Liquidity preference refers to the theory ofA) money demand.B) consumption.C) investment.D) expectations.Answer: ADiff: 124.2 The Neoclassical Synthesis1) The neoclassical synthesisA) was a name coined by Keynes himself for his new theories.B) rejected virtually all of Keynes' insights.C) held that econometric models of the economy could not be used to predict the future.D) held that economy always operated at or very near the natural rate of unemployment.E) was the dominant school of thought among economists in the 1950s and 1960s. Answer: EDiff: 12) Which of the following was not part of the neoclassical synthesis?A) the IS curveB) the LM curveC) the Phillips curveD) aggregate demandE) rational expectationsAnswer: EDiff: 13) Which of the following schools of thought advised against fine-tuning, due to our limited understanding of the economy?A) MonetaristB) KeynesianC) New KeynesianismD) New growthE) NeoclassicalAnswer: EDiff: 14) The intellectual leader of the monetarists wasA) Robert Lucas.B) Milton Friedman.C) John Maynard Keynes.D) Paul Romer.E) John Taylor.Answer: BDiff: 15) In the 1960s, the monetarist school of thought held thatA) monetary and fiscal policy could explain most of the output fluctuations in U.S. history.B) there is a long-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.C) efforts to fine-tune the economy are likely to do more harm than good.D) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 16) If the IS curve is relatively steep, thenA) there can be no long-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.B) monetary policy cannot be very effective in changing GDP.C) rational expectations theory is probably correct.D) Ricardian equivalence most likely holds.E) budget deficits will not affect future capital accumulation.Answer: BDiff: 17) During the 1970s and 1980s, macroeconomists were busy integrating the insights of which of the following into their ideas about the economy?A) real business cycle theoryB) Keynesian theoryC) supply side economicsD) classical macroeconomicsE) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 18) The neoclassical synthesis had emerged by what decade?A) 1930sB) 1940sC) 1950sD) 1960sE) 1990sAnswer: CDiff: 19) The IS-LM model was developed byA) Friedman and Phelps.B) Hicks and Hansen.C) Modigliani and Friedman.D) Lucas and Sargent.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 110) The theories of consumption were developed byA) Friedman and Phelps.B) Hicks and Hansen.C) Modigliani and Friedman.D) Lucas and Sargent.Answer: CDiff: 111) The theories of investment were developed byA) Friedman and Phelps.B) Hicks and Hansen.C) Modigliani and Friedman.D) Lucas and Sargent.E) Tobin and Jorgenson.Answer: EDiff: 112) Which of the following argued that the Great Depression was caused by monetary factors?A) Friedman and SchwartzB) Hicks and HansenC) Modigliani and FriedmanD) Lucas and SargentE) Tobin and JorgensonAnswer: ADiff: 113) Explain several of the key contributions of Keynes.Answer: Obviously, answers to this question could be quite long. Answers should include topics like: the importance of expectations, business cycle theory, the importance of aggregate demand in causing fluctuations, liquidity preference, and the concept of the multiplier.Diff: 114) Explain what is meant by liquidity preference.Answer: Liquidity preference is the phrase Keynes gave to money demand.Diff: 115) Discuss what is meant by the neoclassical synthesis and explain how it emerged. Answer: This is the title given to what was believed to be the emerging consensus in economics.Diff: 116) In the 1960s, there was significant debate between Keynesians and monetarists. Explain several aspects of this debate.Answer: There were three key areas of this debate: (1) the relative importance of monetary and fiscal policy; (2) the perceived stability of the Phillips curve; and (3) the role of policy to stabilize the economy.Diff: 124.3 The Rational Expectations Critique1) Which of the following events led to the crisis in macroeconomics and to the development of rational expectations theory?A) the Great DepressionB) the stock market crash of 1987C) the stock market speculative bubble of the late 1990sD) stagflation in the 1970sE) large budget deficits in the 1980sAnswer: DDiff: 12) Milton Friedman attributed the Great Depression primarily toA) the government's failure to respond to an increase in the budget deficit.B) a reduction in the money supply.C) economists' and policy-makers' failure to acknowledge their limited knowledge.D) the failure of wages to rise.E) inaccurate expectations by consumers and firms.Answer: BDiff: 13) Which of the following is an implication of rational expectations theory?A) Deviations of output from the natural rate are likely to be serious and long-lived.B) The economy is like a complex machine, that needs to be optimally controlled with the proper policy.C) Macroeconometric models based on past behavior will not be very useful in formulating policy.D) Wages and prices are set almost entirely at random, so it is pointless to try to model their behavior.E) Business cycles almost always result from a shift in aggregate demand.Answer: CDiff: 14) Most economists would agree that, unless it incorporates rational expectations or something like it, a model cannot account forA) the Great Depression.B) shifts in aggregate supply.C) the relationship between consumption and income.D) the stagflation of the 1970s.E) the different initial impact of a permanent versus a temporary policy change.Answer: EDiff: 15) According to rational expectations theory, monetary policy will affect output only if it isA) anticipated.B) unanticipated.C) a very large change.D) a very small change.E) a policy that has been tried in the past.Answer: ADiff: 16) The staggering of wage and price decisions suggests thatA) people do not possess rational expectations.B) people do possess rational expectations.C) the economy will adjust slowly to shocks even if people possess rational expectations.D) the Lucas critique is entirely correct.E) real business cycle theory is correct.Answer: CDiff: 17) Which of the following argued that a long-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment could not exist?A) Friedman and PhelpsB) Hicks and HansenC) Modigliani and FriedmanD) Lucas and SargentE) Tobin and JorgensonAnswer: ADiff: 18) The steeper is the IS curve,A) the more effective is monetary policy.B) the less effective is monetary policy.C) the effectiveness of monetary policy does not change.D) a given change in the money supply will have a greater effect on output.Answer: ADiff: 19) As the IS curve becomes flatter, we know thatA) a given change in the money supply will cause a larger change in output.B) a given change in the money supply will cause a smaller change in output.C) a given change in the money supply will cause the same change in output.D) monetary policy becomes less effective.Answer: BDiff: 110) Stagflation refers toA) a reduction in inflation.B) a simultaneous reduction in inflation and reduction in unemployment.C) a liquidity trap.D) reduction in the price level and a reduction in the unemployment rate.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 111) Which of the following led a strong attack against mainstream macroeconomists during the 1970s?A) Friedman and PhelpsB) Hicks and HansenC) Modigliani and FriedmanD) Lucas, Barro, and SargentAnswer: DDiff: 112) The research by Robert Hall on the theory of consumption suggests that the best forecast of consumption for next year would beA) unpredictable.B) random.C) this year's consumption.D) last year's consumption.Answer: CDiff: 113) The more staggered are labor contracts,A) the more rapidly the economy will adjust to changes in aggregate demand.B) the less rapidly the economy will adjust to changes in aggregate demand.C) the greater the inflationary effects of a given change in money growth in the medium run.D) the less inflationary effects of a given change in money growth in the medium run. Answer: ADiff: 114) The new classical interpretation of the economy suggests thatA) output is always above the natural level.B) output is always below the natural level.C) output is always equal to the natural level.D) recessions will not occur.Answer: CDiff: 115) The flatter is the IS curve,A) the more effective is monetary policy.B) the less effective is monetary policy.C) the effectiveness of monetary policy does not change.D) a given change in the money supply will have a smaller effect on output.Answer: BDiff: 116) As the IS curve becomes steeper, we know thatA) a given change in the money supply will cause a larger change in output.B) a given change in the money supply will cause a smaller change in output.C) a given change in the money supply will cause the same change in output.D) monetary policy becomes more effective.Answer: ADiff: 117) The less staggered are labor contracts,A) the more rapidly the economy will adjust to changes in aggregate demand.B) the less rapidly the economy will adjust to changes in aggregate demand.C) the greater the inflationary effects of a given change in money growth in the medium run.D) the less inflationary effects of a given change in money growth in the medium run. Answer: BDiff: 118) Discuss some of the implications of rational expectations.Answer: Answers should include a discussion of the implications of rational expectations on: (1) our understanding of the behavior of consumption and financial market variables; (2) the determinants of wage and price setting behavior; and (3) the theory, implementation, and effectiveness of policy.Diff: 119) First, what is the Lucas critique? Second, explain how it might relate to the implementation of monetary policy.Answer: The Lucas critique refers to the argument made by Robert Lucas that using existing macro models to make predictions about the effects of proposed policy would not be successful. These models' predictions were based on previous relationships that, as Lucas noted, would no longer hold as new policy is implemented. When monetary policy is implemented, these models might predict, for example, increases in output. However, as we now know, expectations of the effects of these policies would change.Diff: 124.4 Developments in Macroeconomics up to 2009 Crisis1) According to real business cycle theorists,A) fiscal policy explains most changes in output.B) price and wage rigidity explain most changes in output.C) efficiency wage theory explains wage rigidity.D) changes in output primarily represent changes in the natural level of output.E) fiscal policy explains most changes in efficiency wage theory.Answer: DDiff: 12) One problem with real business cycle theory is thatA) it is more successful in explaining expansions than in explaining contractions.B) it relies almost entirely on Keynes' original ideas, ignoring much of the progress made since then.C) it treats government officials as well-meaning public servants, despite much evidence to the contrary.D) it defines "productivity" in a new and not very intuitive way.E) its models downplay the importance of technological progress in the economy.Answer: ADiff: 13) Those economists who attempt to explain why wages and prices do not freely adjust would most likely beA) real business cycle theorists.B) new classical economists.C) new Keynesian economists.D) new growth theorists.E) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 14) The existence of menu costs are often used to explain whyA) fiscal and monetary policies should be relatively effective.B) the price of services, like those provided by restaurants and barbers, rise at a faster rate than the price of goods, like automobiles and clothing.C) food prices tend to rise disproportionately rapidly in the consumer price index.D) price and wage adjustments will be relatively rapid.E) people prefer to look backward, instead of forward, when anticipating the future. Answer: ADiff: 15) If consumers are very foresighted, we would expect actual consumption spending toA) increase during recessions.B) increase during episodes of stagflation.C) have no relation to wealth.D) resemble a "random walk."E) be entirely predictable.Answer: DDiff: 26) A core belief of modern macroeconomics is that in the short run,A) fiscal policy is more effective in changing output than monetary policy.B) monetary policy is more effective in changing output than fiscal policy.C) fluctuations in aggregate demand affect unemployment.D) fluctuations in aggregate demand have no impact on the price level.E) the economy always operates at or near the natural rate of unemployment.Answer: CDiff: 17) A core belief of modern macroeconomics is that in the long run,A) a change in money growth will affect the level of output, but not its composition.B) a change in money growth will affect the composition of output, but not its level.C) output can deviate permanently from its natural level.D) a change in fiscal policy will not affect the composition of output.E) greater saving will result in greater output.Answer: EDiff: 18) One of the most important areas of disagreement among macroeconomists today is overA) the slope of the IS curve.B) the slope of the LM curve.C) the definition of consumption spending.D) the definition of government spending.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 19) Both the new classical and new Keynesian models had in common the belief thatA) in the medium run, output returns to its natural level.B) output is always at its natural level.C) in the short run, output would likely deviate from its natural level.D) none of the aboveAnswer: ADiff: 110) The main debate during the 1960s wasA) between Keynesians and classicals.B) between new Keynesians and new classicals.C) between Keynesians and monetarists.D) between new Keynesians and monetarists.Answer: CDiff: 111) The intellectual leader of new classicals isA) Edward Prescott.B) John Taylor.C) Stanley Fischer.D) Ben Bernanke.Answer: ADiff: 112) Discuss new classical economics and real business cycle theory.Answer: New classical economics refers to that area of research where it is assumed that there is sufficient wage and price flexibility. It was a fairly logical extension of Lucas' work on rational expectations. Real business cycle theory attempts to explain fluctuations in output as changes in the natural level of output.Diff: 113) Explain what is meant by "new Keynesians" and discuss some of the research conducted in this area.Answer: New Keynesians focus on the implications of market imperfections such as nominal rigidities. This research has also focused on the determination of wages (e.g. efficiency wage theory). Others have focused on "menu costs" to explain why prices might not adjust as rapidly to clear product markets.Diff: 114) Briefly discuss new growth theory.Answer: New growth theory focuses on the determinants of technological progress and on the extent to which increasing returns to scale might exist.Diff: 115) Explain the menu cost explanation of output fluctuations.Answer: Each wage setter or price setter is largely indifferent as to when and how often he changes his own wage or price. Therefore, even small costs of changing prices can lead to infrequent and staggered price adjustment. This staggering leads to slow adjustment of the price level and to large aggregate output fluctuations in response to movements in aggregate demand. In short, decisions that do not matter much at the individual level (how often to change prices or wages) lead to large aggregate effects (slow adjustment of the price level, and shifts in aggregate demand that have a large effect on output).Diff: 124.5 First Lessons for Macroeconomics after the Crisis1) The crisis reflects a major intellectual failure of macroeconomics to understand the macroeconomic importance ofA) financial system.B) growth.C) unemployment.D) inflation.Answer: ADiff: 12) Work by Doug Diamond and Philip Dybvig in the 1980s had clarified the nature ofA) unemployment.B) bank runs.C) inflation.D) growth.Answer: BDiff: 13) Economist ________ shows the "limits of arbitrage."A) Doug DiamondB) Andrei ShleiferC) Philip DybvigD) Richard ThalerAnswer: BDiff: 14) The Great Depression had led economists to suggest a larger role forA) market mechanism.B) government intervention.C) price mechanism.D) international trade.Answer: BDiff: 15) Recent research up to the crisis proceeded mainly on three fronts. Discuss each of them. Answer: New classical: the extent to which fluctuations in output are explained by movements in the natural level of output. New Keynesian: exploring the nature of market imperfections and nominal rigidities and the extent to which they can explain fluctuations in output. New Growth theory: examines the determinants of technological progress and the implications of increasing returns to scale for economic growth.Diff: 16) Discuss the major intellectual failure on macroeconomics from the crisis.Answer: The failure was in not realizing that such a large crisis could happen,that the characteristics of the economy were such that a relatively small shock, in this case the decrease in U.S. housing prices, could lead to a major financial and macroeconomic global crisis. The source of the failure, in turn, was a lack of focus on the role of the financial institutions in the economy.Diff: 17) Discuss research on the role of banks and other financial institutions in the intermediation of funds between lenders and borrowers.Answer: Work by Doug Diamond and Philip Dybvig in the 1980s had clarified the nature of bank runs : liquid assets and liquid liabilities created a risk of runs even for solvent banks. The problem could only be avoided by the provision of liquidity by the central bank if and when needed. Work by Bengt Holmström and Jean Tirole had shown that liquidity issues were endemic to a modern economy. Andrei Shleifer discussed the limits of arbitrage. Behavioral economists had pointed to the way in which individuals differ from the rational individual model typically used in economics, and had drawn implications for financial markets.Diff: 18) Discuss the consensus on the adjustment process after the crisis.Answer: The crisis has raised a larger issue, about the adjustment process through which output returns to its natural level. If there is a consensus, it might be that with respect to small shocks and normal fluctuations, the adjustment process works, and policy can accelerate this return; but that, in response to large, exceptional shocks, the normal adjustment process may fail, the room for policy may be limited, and it may take a long time for the economy to repair itself.Diff: 1。
布兰查德宏观经济学第七版第7版英文版chapter (7)
Macroeconomics, 7e (Blanchard)Chapter 7: The Labor Market7.1 A Tour of the Labor Market1) Which of the following is considered out of the labor force?A) the unemployedB) those temporarily laid off who will soon be recalledC) those who worked full time, but in a family businessD) those individuals who have started searching for employment for the first timeE) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 1Use the information provided below to answer the following question(s).The non-institutional civilian population is 250 million, of which 100 million are employed and 10 million are unemployed.2) Based on the information above, the unemployment rate isA) 4%.B) 6.6%.C) 9.1%.D) 10%.E) 11.1%.Answer: CDiff: 23) Based on the information above, the labor force participation rate isA) 36%.B) 40%.C) 44%.D) 90.1%.E) 66%.Answer: CDiff: 24) Based on the information above, the non-employment rate isA) 4%.B) 9.1%.C) 10%.D) 60%.E) 66%.Answer: DDiff: 25) Which of the following individuals would be considered unemployed?A) an individual who works only part-timeB) an individual who works full-time in a family business, but is not paidC) an individual who is not working and is not looking for workD) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 26) Based on the data provided in the chapter, which of the following represents the largest component of the labor force?A) discouraged workersB) retired individualsC) employedD) unemployedAnswer: CDiff: 17) The labor force is defined asA) the sum of the employed and unemployed.B) the total number employed.C) the total number of working age individuals in the population.D) the sum of the number of employed, unemployed and discouraged individuals. Answer: ADiff: 18) The participation rate in the United States in 2010 was approximately equal toA) 96%.B) 90%.C) 65%.D) 26%.E) 5%.Answer: CDiff: 19) Which of the following represents the participation rate?A) the ratio of the number employed to the size of the labor forceB) the ratio of the number employed to the civilian noninstitutional populationC) the ratio of the labor force to the civilian noninstitutional populationD) the ratio of the labor force to the total number of employed and unemployed workers Answer: CDiff: 110) The average amount of time people spend unemployed is approximatelyA) 1 month.B) 6 months .C) 12 months.D) none of the aboveAnswer: DDiff: 211) The Current Population Survey interviews approximately how many households each month?A) 5,000B) 10,000C) 60,000D) 100,000Answer: CDiff: 112) In the United States, how many workers become unemployed, on average, every day?A) 5,000B) 10,000C) 50,000D) 100,000Answer: CDiff: 113) In the United States, the average length of time people spend unemployed isA) approximately one month.B) between two and three months.C) between ten and eleven months.D) greater than twelve months.Answer: BDiff: 214) A reduction in the unemployment rate will tend to cause which of the following?A) an increase in the separation rateB) a reduction in the nominal wageC) a reduction in the duration that one is unemployedD) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 215) When the unemployment rate is low, we would expect thatA) the probability of losing a job is high.B) the probability of losing a job is low.C) the probability an unemployed individual will find another job is low.D) the separation rate will increase.Answer: BDiff: 216) The participation rate in the U.S. has increased steadily over time. First, explain what the participation rate represents. Second, explain why the participation rate has increased. Answer: The participation rate is the ratio of the labor force to the working age population. One of the reasons for the significant increase in the participation rate is the increasing participation of women in the labor force.Diff: 217) What effect does the existence of discouraged workers have on the ability of the official unemployment rate to provide accurate information about the extent to which labor is employed? Answer: Discouraged workers are individuals who have stopped searching for employment because, for example, they have become "discouraged" with the prospects of finding employment. Once they stop searching (after 4 weeks), they are no longer counted as unemployed and, therefore, in the labor force. Such a dynamic would cause the official unemployment to fall. Alternatively, the existence of discouraged workers implies that the official unemployment rate underestimates the extent to which labor is being is not being used. This explains why the existence of discouraged workers can cause the unemployment rate to be an imperfect measure of the utilization of labor.Diff: 218) First, provide a brief explanation of what the unemployment rate measures. Second, explain how changes in each of the components of the unemployment rate can cause changes in the unemployment rate.Answer: The unemployment rate measures the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed. The unemployment rate is based on a monthly survey of households. Individuals are classified as employed, unemployed, or out of the labor force. Individuals employed or unemployed are in the labor force. Suppose individuals decide to enter the labor force for the first time. This increase in the size of the labor force, all else fixed, would cause an increase in the unemployment rate.On the other hand, if there were an increase in the number of individuals unemployed (caused by, for example, firms laying off workers as demand for their products falls), we would observe no change in the labor force but an increase in the unemployment rate.Diff: 27.2 Movements in Unemployment1) Data on labor-force flows show thatA) almost all separations are due to death.B) almost all separations are due to serious illness.C) almost all separations are quits.D) almost all separations are layoffs.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 22) Data on labor-force flows show thatA) in any given month, almost none of the unemployed gets jobs.B) in any given month, almost all of the unemployed gets jobs.C) the average duration of unemployment is about 2 weeks.D) the average duration of unemployment is about 2 years.E) in any given month, about one-fourth of the unemployed get jobs.Answer: EDiff: 23) Which of the following variables is most directly determined in the labor market?A) stock pricesB) nominal wagesC) interest ratesD) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 14) The two labor markets in the "dual labor market" areA) southern versus northern.B) western versus eastern.C) English speaking versus non-English speaking.D) domestic versus foreign.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 15) When the Current Population Survey (CPS) was introduced in 1940, it was based on a survey of approximately 8,000 households. The CPS survey is now based on a survey of how many households?A) 8,000B) 10,000C) 12,000D) 20,000E) 60,000Answer: EDiff: 26) As the unemployment rate falls,A) the proportion of the unemployed finding a job increases.B) the separation rate increases.C) the young and unskilled experience larger-than-average decreases in unemployment.D) both A and C.E) all of the aboveAnswer: DDiff: 27.3 Wage Determination1) Which of the following statements about wage setting is true?A) most workers in the U.S. have their wages set by formal contracts.B) formal contracts play a more important role in Japan and Western Europe than in the United States.C) the minimum wage in the U.S. is about 75% of the average wage.D) all of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 12) The reservation wage isA) the wage that an employer must pay workers to reduce turnover to a reasonable level.B) the wage that ensures a laid-off individual will wait for re-hire, rather than find another job.C) the lowest wage firms are allowed by law to pay workers.D) the wage offer that will end a labor-strike.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 13) Efficiency wage theory suggests thatA) workers will be paid less than their reservation wage.B) productivity might drop if the wage rate is too low.C) the government can only set tax rates so high before people will prefer not to work.D) unskilled workers will have a lower turnover rate than skilled workers.E) firms will be more resistant to wage increases as the labor market tightens. Answer: BDiff: 24) If efficiency wage theory is valid, we would expect a relatively low premium over the reservation wage whenA) the unemployment rate is low.B) the job requires very little training.C) workers can be easily monitored.D) workers have few other options for employment in the area.E) all of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 25) Henry Ford's experiment with efficiency wages resulted inA) a dramatic drop in productivity.B) a dramatic increase in the turnover rate.C) a reduction in the layoff rate.D) new problems with the work force, like drunkenness and reckless driving.E) no noticeable effects.Answer: CDiff: 26) In the wage-setting relation, the nominal wage tends to decrease whenA) the price level increases.B) the unemployment rate decreases.C) unemployment benefits decrease.D) the minimum wage increases.E) all of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 17) In the wage setting relation W = P e F(u,z), the variable z does not include which of the following variables?A) the minimum wageB) unemployment benefitsC) the extent to which firms mark up prices over their marginal costD) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 18) Labor productivity is represented by which of the following?A) the ratio of output to employmentB) workers per unit of capitalC) capital per workerD) the ratio of output to populationE) the ratio of output to the labor forceAnswer: ADiff: 19) Today, about ________ of U.S. workers have their wages set by collective bargaining agreements.A) 10%B) 15%C) 20%D) 25%Answer: ADiff: 210) Explain several implications and characteristics of efficiency wage theories.Answer: The efficiency wage theory suggests that firms will pay workers a wage in excess of the workers' reservation wage to minimize quits and to increase productivity. The efficiency wage theory also suggests that nominal wages will be a function of labor market conditions. As the unemployment rate falls, the nominal wage will rise.Diff: 211) Explain how an increase in the unemployment rate will affect bargaining power and nominal wages.Answer: As the unemployment rate increases, it is more difficult for individuals to find employment at other firms. So, workers' bargaining power will fall. As bargaining power falls, the nominal wage will fall.Diff: 212) First, explain what the WS relation represents. Second, explain why it has its particular shape.Answer: The WS relation illustrates the effect of changes in the unemployment rate on the real wage implied by the wage-setting behavior of firms and workers. The WS curve (or relation) is downward sloping because as the unemployment rate increases, workers have less bargaining power so the nominal wage will decrease. This decrease in W, given P, implies that the real wage will also fall. Hence, the WS curve is downward sloping.Diff: 27.4 Price Determination1) The price setting equation is represented by the following: P = (1 + m)W. When there is perfect competition, we know that m will equalA) W.B) P.C) 1.D) W/P.E) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 22) Explain why nominal wages are a function of the expected price level.Answer: Workers and firms care about the real wage. Nominal wages are typically set for a period of time by contracts. Individuals will, therefore, be concerned about what the future price level will be when determining the nominal wage. When setting the nominal wage, individuals will form expectations of what the future price level will be. They will use this to help determine the nominal wage.Diff: 27.5 The Natural Rate of Unemployment1) The natural rate of unemployment is the rate of unemploymentA) that occurs when the money market is in equilibrium.B) that occurs when the markup of prices over costs is zero.C) where the markup of prices over costs is equal to its historical value.D) that occurs when both the goods and financial markets are in equilibrium.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 22) The natural level of output is the level of output that occurs whenA) the goods market and financial markets are in equilibrium.B) the economy is operating at the unemployment rate consistent with both the wage-setting and price-setting equations.C) the markup (m) is zero.D) the unemployment rate is zero.E) there are no discouraged workers in the economy.Answer: BDiff: 23) Suppose we wish to examine the determinants of the equilibrium real wage and equilibrium level of employment (N). In a graph with the real wage on the vertical axis, and the level of employment on the horizontal axis, the price-setting relation will now beA) a vertical line.B) a horizontal line.C) an upward sloping line.D) a downward sloping line.E) kinked at the natural rate of unemployment.Answer: BDiff: 24) Suppose we wish to examine the determinants of the equilibrium real wage and equilibrium level of employment (N). In a graph with the real wage on the vertical axis, and the level of employment on the horizontal axis, the wage-setting relation will now beA) a vertical line.B) a horizontal line.C) an upward sloping line.D) a downward sloping line.E) a curve that first slopes upward, then downward.Answer: CDiff: 25) The natural level of employment (N) will increase when which of the following occurs?A) an increase in the markup of prices over costsB) a reduction in unemployment benefitsC) an increase in the actual unemployment rateD) all of the aboveE) none of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 26) Suppose workers and firms expect the overall price level to increase by 5%. Given this information, we would expect thatA) the nominal wage will increase by less than 5%.B) the nominal wage will increase by exactly 5%.C) the nominal wage will increase by more than 5%.D) the real wage will increase by 5%.E) the real wage will increase by less than 5%.Answer: BDiff: 27) Suppose the actual unemployment rate decreases. This will causeA) an upward shift in the WS curve.B) a downward shift in the WS curve.C) an upward shift in the PS curve.D) a downward shift in the PS curve.E) none of the aboveAnswer: EDiff: 28) Suppose the actual unemployment rate increases. This will causeA) an upward shift in the WS curve.B) a downward shift in the WS curve.C) an upward shift in the PS curve.D) a movement along the WS and the PS curves.E) none of the aboveAnswer: DDiff: 29) With the real wage on the vertical axis and the unemployment rate on the horizontal axis, we know thatA) the WS curve is upward sloping.B) the WS curve is downward sloping.C) the PS curve is upward sloping.D) the PS curve is downward sloping.Answer: BDiff: 210) Based on wage setting behavior, we know that a reduction in the unemployment rate will causeA) no change in the real wage.B) a reduction in the real wage.C) an increase in the real wage.D) an upward shift of the WS curve.Answer: CDiff: 211) Based on price setting behavior, we know that a reduction in the unemployment rate will causeA) no change in the real wage.B) a reduction in the real wage.C) an increase in the real wage.D) an upward shift of the PS curve.Answer: ADiff: 212) Suppose the aggregate production function is given by the following: Y = AN. Given this information, we know that labor productivity is represented by which of the following?A) 1/AB) AC) 1/ND) N/YAnswer: BDiff: 213) Suppose the aggregate production function is given by the following: Y = N. Given this information, we know that labor productivity is represented by which of the following?A) 1/NB) NC) N/YD) 1Answer: DDiff: 214) A reduction in unemployment benefits will tend to cause which of the following?A) an upward shift in the WS curveB) a downward shift in the WS curveC) an upward shift in the PS curveD) a downward shift in the PS curveE) none of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 215) An increase in the minimum wage will tend to cause which of the following?A) an upward shift in the WS curveB) a downward shift in the WS curveC) an upward shift in the PS curveD) a downward shift in the PS curveE) none of the aboveAnswer: ADiff: 216) Suppose that increased international trade makes product markets more competitive in the U.S. Given this information, we would expect to observe which of the following?A) an upward shift in the WS curveB) a downward shift in the WS curveC) an upward shift in the PS curveD) a downward shift in the PS curveE) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 217) With the real wage on the vertical axis and employment (N) on the horizontal axis, we know thatA) the WS curve is upward sloping.B) the WS curve is downward sloping.C) the PS curve is upward sloping.D) the PS curve is downward sloping.Answer: ADiff: 218) Based on our understanding of the labor market model presented in Chapter 6, we know that an increase in the minimum wage will causeA) an increase in the equilibrium real wage.B) a reduction in the equilibrium real wage.C) a reduction in the natural rate of unemployment.D) both B and CAnswer: ADiff: 219) Based on our understanding of the labor market model presented in Chapter 6, we know that an increase in the markup will causeA) an increase in the equilibrium real wage.B) a reduction in the equilibrium real wage.C) a reduction in the natural rate of unemployment.D) both B and CAnswer: BDiff: 220) Based on our understanding of the labor market model presented in Chapter 6, we know thata reduction in the markup will causeA) an increase in the equilibrium real wage.B) a reduction in the equilibrium real wage.C) an increase in the natural rate of unemployment.D) a reduction in the natural rate of unemployment and no change in the real wage.Answer: ADiff: 221) For this question, assume that Y = N. Based on our understanding of the labor market model presented in Chapter 6, we know that an increase in the minimum wage will causeA) an increase in the natural level of output.B) a reduction in the natural level of output.C) no change in the natural level of output.D) an increase in the natural level of employment.Answer: BDiff: 222) For this question, assume that Y = N. Based on our understanding of the labor market model presented in Chapter 6, we know that a reduction in the markup will causeA) an increase in the natural level of output.B) a reduction in the natural level of output.C) no change in the natural level of output.D) a reduction in the natural level of employment.Answer: ADiff: 223) Based on wage setting behavior, we know that an increase in the unemployment rate will causeA) no change in the real wage.B) a reduction in the real wage.C) an increase in the real wage.D) an upward shift of the WS curve.Answer: BDiff: 224) Based on price setting behavior, we know that an increase in the unemployment rate will causeA) no change in the real wage.B) a reduction in the real wage.C) an increase in the real wage.D) an upward shift of the PS curve.Answer: ADiff: 225) An increase in unemployment benefits will tend to cause which of the following?A) a downward shift in the WS curveB) an upward shift in the PS curveC) an upward shift in the WS curveD) a downward shift in the PS curveE) none of the aboveAnswer: CDiff: 226) A reduction in the minimum wage will tend to cause which of the following?A) an upward shift in the WS curveB) a downward shift in the WS curveC) an upward shift in the PS curveD) a downward shift in the PS curveE) none of the aboveAnswer: BDiff: 227) Explain what effect a reduction in the unemployment rate will have on the real wage based on: (1) the WS relation; and (2) the PS relation.Answer: A reduction in the unemployment rate will increase bargaining power, increase the nominal wage, and therefore increase the real wage based on wage setting behavior. Changes in the unemployment rate have no effect on the real wage based on price setting behavior.Diff: 228) First, explain what the PS relation represents. Second, explain why it has its particular shape. Answer: The PS relation illustrates the effect of changes in the unemployment rate on the real wage implied by the price-setting behavior of firms. Firms set prices as a markup over their marginal cost of producing goods. Given that the marginal cost is assumed to be independent of the level of employment (and, therefore, the unemployment rate), changes in u will have no effect on the price firms set and, therefore, on the real wage based on PS behavior.Diff: 229) Graphically illustrate (using the WS and PS relations) and explain the effects of an increase in the markup on the equilibrium real wage, the natural rate of unemployment, the natural level of employment, and the natural level of output.Answer: An increase in the markup will cause firms to raise the price given the nominal wage. This will cause the real wage based on price setting behavior to decrease; this is represented by a downward shift in the PS curve. This reduction in the real wage will also occur with an increase in the unemployment rate. So, the natural rate of unemployment will rise and the natural level of employment and, therefore, output will fall. The equilibrium real wage will also be lower. Diff: 230) Graphically illustrate (using the WS and PS relations) and explain the effects of an increase in the minimum wage on the equilibrium real wage, the natural rate of unemployment, the natural level of employment, and the natural level of output.Answer: An increase in the minimum wage will cause the nominal wage based on wage setting behavior to increase; this is represented as an upward shift in the WS relation. As the nominal wage increases, firms will respond by increasing the price level so we will observe no change in the equilibrium real wage. We will observe an increase in the natural rate of unemployment and a reduction in both the natural level of employment and output.Diff: 231) Based on your understanding of the labor market model presented by Blanchard (i.e., the WS and PS relations), explain what types of policies could be implemented to cause a reduction in the natural rate of unemployment.Answer: The natural rate of unemployment will change whenever either the PS or WS relations change. To reduce the natural rate, policy makers could implement polices that: (1) reduce unemployment benefits; (2) reduce the minimum wage; or (3) increase competition in product markets.Diff: 232) Explain how a reduction in the unemployment rate will affect bargaining power and nominal wages.Answer: As the unemployment rate decreases, it is easier for individuals to find employment at other firms. So, workers' bargaining power will increase. As bargaining power increases, the nominal wage will increase.Diff: 233) Graphically illustrate (using the WS and PS relations) and explain the effects of a reduction in the markup on the equilibrium real wage, the natural rate of unemployment, the natural level of employment, and the natural level of output.Answer: A reduction in the markup will cause firms to reduce the price given the nominal wage. This will cause the real wage based on price setting behavior to increase; this is represented by a upward shift in the PS curve. This increase in the real wage will also occur with an decrease in the unemployment rate. So, the natural rate of unemployment will decrease and the natural level of employment and, therefore, output will increase. The equilibrium real wage will also be higher.Diff: 234) Graphically illustrate (using the WS and PS relations) and explain the effects of a reduction in the minimum wage on the equilibrium real wage, the natural rate of unemployment, the natural level of employment, and the natural level of output.Answer: A reduction in the minimum wage will cause the nominal wage based on wage setting behavior to decrease; this is represented as an downward shift in the WS relation. As the nominal wage deceases, firms will respond by reducing the price level so we will observe no change in the equilibrium real wage. We will observe a decrease in the natural rate of unemployment and an increase in both the natural level of employment and output.Diff: 235) Explain what effect an increase in the unemployment rate will have on the real wage based on: (1) the WS relation; and (2) the PS relation.Answer: An increase in the unemployment rate will decrease bargaining power, decrease the nominal wage, and therefore decrease the real wage based on wage setting behavior. Changes in the unemployment rate have no effect on the real wage based on price setting behavior.Diff: 2。
chapt7企业价值评估139页PPT
（一）企业的整体价值
企业的整体价值观念主要体现在以下几个方面： 1.整体不是各部分的简单相加 企业整体能够具有价值，在于它可以为投资人
带来现金流量。这些现金流量是所有资产联合起来 运用的结果，而不是资产分别出售获得的现金流量。
2.整体价值来源于要素的结合方式 3.部分只有在整体中才能体现出其价值 4.整体价值只有在运行中才能体现出来 如果企业停止运营，那么这个时候的价值是指 清算价值，而不是我们的作为整体的运营价值。
5
二、价值评估的目的
价值评估的目的是帮助投资人和管理者改善 决策。它的主要用途表现在以下三个方面：
①价值评估可以用于投资分析； ②价值评估可以用于战略分析； ③价值评估可以用于以价值为基础的管理 。
6
三、企业价值评估的对象
企业价值评估的一般对象是企业 整体的经济价值。企业整体的经济 价值是指企业作为一个整体的公平 市场价值。公平市场价值就是未来 现金流量的现值。
2
3
第一节 企业价值评估概述
一、企业价值评估的含义
企业价值评估简称价值评估，是一种经 济评估方法，目的是分析和衡量企业（或者 企业内部的一个经营单位、分支机构）的公 平市场价值并提供有关信息，以帮助投资人 和管理当局改善决策。
4
需要注意的问题：
1.价值评估使用的方法 价值评估是一种经济"评估"(evaluation)方法 。" 评估"一词不同于"计算”(calculation)，评估是一种定 量分析，但它并不是完全客观和科学的。价值评估 既然带有主观估计的成分，其结论必然会存在一定 误差，不可能绝对正确。 2.价值评估提供的信息 价值评估提供的是有关"公平市场价值"的信息。 价值评估不否认市场的有效性，但是不承认市场的 完善性。
chapt7信息系统项目质量管理
•软件项目生存期各阶段文档编制
编号
阶段
文档 1 可行性研究报告 2 项目开发计划
可行性 需求 软件 编码/单集成 运行 研究 分析 设计 元测试 测试 维护
3 软件需求规格说明
4 数据要求规格说明 5 测试计划 6 概要设计规格说明
7 详细设计规格说明
8 用户手册
9 操作手册
10 测试分析报告 11 开发进度月报
•正确的设计 •错误的设 •对错误说明的设
计
计
•正确编 •错误编码 •对错误设 •对错误说明的
码
计的编码
编码
•测试
•正确功 •可改正的错 •不可改正 •潜伏的错
能
误
的错误 误
•不完善的软件产品
•￥60100
•￥1 5
•￥6.
•￥
5
1
缺陷代价曲线
7.2.2 信息系统质量保证
1、信息系统质量保证的含义 ®为使信息系统产品符合规定需求所进行的一系列有计划的、
7.1.1 质量管理的发展历史阶段
1、自检式质量管理阶段 2、质量检验管理阶段（1875—1925） 3、统计质量管理阶段（1925—1960） 4、全面质量管理阶段（1960—至今）
PPT文档演模板
chapt7信息系统项目质量管理
7.1.2 质量与质量管理的概念
1、质量的概念
®质量是反映实体（产品、服务、过程）满足明
2、软件过程改进的含义
•工具与技术
•1 检查 •2 控制图 •3 帕累托图 •4 统计抽样 •5 流程图 •6 趋势分析
•输 出
•1 质量提高 •2 验收决定 •3 返工 •4 完成的检查 表 •5 过程调整
PPT文档演模板
跨国课件 第七章
Fifth Edition EUN / RESNICK
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
if the price goes down, the long pays the short if the price goes up, the short py resettlement, each party has a new contract at the new price with one-dayshorter maturity.
7-12
Daily Resettlement: An Example
Settle Gain/Loss Account Balance $1.30 –$– $6,500 $1.31 $1,250 $7,750 $1.30 –$1,250 $6,500 $1.27 –$3,750 $2,750 + $3,750 $1.26 $5,250 –$1,250 $1.24 –$2,500 $2,750 Total loss = – $7,500 = ($1.24 – $1.30) × 125,000 = $2,750 – ($6,500 + $3,750)
Futures and Options on Foreign Exchange
Chapter Objective:
Chapter Seven
7
This chapter discusses exchange-traded currency futures contracts, options contracts, and options on currency futures.
chap7_第1讲
s-plane
z-plane
8
Requirements on the Transformation
6
7.1 Design of D-T IIR Filters from C-T Filters
设计离散时间IIR滤波器的传统方法：将连续时间 IIR滤波器变换成满足指标要求的离散时间滤波器
连续时间IIR滤波器的设计方法非常成熟，并且 已经取得许多有用的成果可供利用。
许多有用的连续时间IIR滤波器设计方法有比较 简单完整的设计公式。
Ch7. Filter Design Techniques
Main contents
Design of D-T IIR Filters from C-T Filters Impulse Invariance Bilinear Transformation Frequency Band Transformation (补充)
Hc (
j)
2
1
1 2VN2 ( /
c )
Hc ( j)
Hc ( j)
纹波参数 N 阶Chebyshev多项式
Properties:
幅度特性在通带内是等波纹，在阻带内单调递减
N为奇数时，Hc( j0) 1 ；N为偶数时，Hc ( j0)
当 c 时，Hc ( jc )
1
1 2
1
1 2
17
C-T滤波器的设计思想： 求出C-T滤波器的系统函数，使其逼近某个理
chap7总
Verilog and VHDL are the two most popular
HDLs used to describe the functionality at the RTL level. We discuss RTL-based logic synthesis with Verilog HDL. Behavioral synthesis tools that convert a behavioral description into an RTL description are
Logical
Relational
Equality Bit-wise
Reduction
Shift
Concatenation Conditional
7.1.2 Synthesis Design Flow
• Having understood how basic Verilog constructs are interpreted by the logic synthesis tool, let us now discuss the synthesis design flow from an RTL description to an optimized gate-level description.
Figure 1. Designer's Mind as the Logic Synthesis Tool
7.1.1 Verilog HDL Synthesis
For the purpose of logic synthesis, designs are currently written in an HDL at a register transfer level (RTL). The term RTL is used for an HDL description style that utilizes a combination of data flow and behavioral constructs. Logic synthesis tools take the register transfer-level HDL description and convert it to an optimized gate-level netlist.
生产运作管理教案chapt7岗位设计
第7章 工作设计与工作测量7.1 引言：生产率与人的行为人关系，工作设计与工作测量的理论基础7.2 岗位设计(Job design)：影响岗位设计的因素，做什么，何处做，提供什么条件7.3 工作测量(Work Measurement)：工作标准，业绩衡量7.4 人机工程 （Human Engineering)：如何做，人机系统协调本章讨论生产与运作管理中的工作设计的内容。
将介绍工作设计的有关概念、基本原理、方法、技术和社会因素等内容，讨论如何通过工作的多样化、丰富化、扩大化和工作轮换等措施满足操作者的心理需求，如何保持和提高操作者对工作的热情，进而提高生产率等有关问题。
这一章中还要研究工作测量问题，将对测时法、预定标淮时间法及工作抽样法等制定标准作业时间和劳功定额的方法进行详细讨论。
在本章，你可以利用文字素材开展学习。
在学习中，要重点把握工作设计、工作扩大化、工作丰富化以及工作测量的方法以及团队的相关概念。
在人力资源管理的相关课程中，对于工作设计、工作测量会有深入的介绍。
如果大家想加深对本章相关内容的了解，请参阅相关的人力资源管理书籍。
教学要求：1. 了解生产率与人的行为两者之间的内在联系；2. 理解工作设计的有关概念，掌握工作设计中的社会技术理论和行为理论，理解团队工作方式等内容；3. 理解生产时间消耗结构及工时定额，掌握工作测量的几种方法：测时法、预定时间按标准法（PTS 法）和工作抽样法；4. 理解人机系统，了解工作环境研究与设计的主要内容。
教学重点：1. 工作设计中的社会技术理论和行为理论；2. 工作测量的方法：测时法、预定时间按标准法（PTS 法）和工作抽样法。
7.1 引言7.1.1 生产率与人的行为7.1.2 工作设计与工作测量7.1.3 工作设计与工作测量的基础——科学管理原理7.1.1 生产率与人的行为1）生产率及其影响因素生产率是指生产系统输出的产品或服务与生产这些产品或服务所消耗资源之比，即 提高生产率的方案有：在资源消耗量一定火减少的情况下，增加产出在产出一定或增加的情况下，减少资源消耗量资源消耗量略微增加，但产出大幅度增加产出略微减少，但资源消耗量大幅度减少企业内部影响生产率的因素：技术因素（硬因素）和操作者行为因素（软因素）2）生产管理中的人的行为影响为达到提高生产率的目的，人们除了采用技术先进的装备之外，还必须考虑使用和管理这些设备的人的因素。
KAIJO焊线机FB-900的中文说明书09_Chapt_7.
第7章自动焊线与Error处理目录7-1 AUTO B’ g(自动焊线的开始7-2 AUTO B’ g(自动焊线的停止7-3 AUTO B’ g(自动焊线中的Error履历版変更内容変更日1 初版 2010/01/017-1 AUTO B’g(自动焊线的开始准备完了之后开始进行焊线。
确认Loader的Magazine Changer里有已放入产品的料盒,unloader 的Magazine Changer里有空料盒。
又,如在送出位置有料盒时需要取出料盒。
请将[LOADER STOP]开关,[BONDING CHECK]开关设为OFF。
● 请仔细确认料盒的摆向,料盒内的支架摆向,搬送程序与实际产品是否一致。
以上情况不正确时,会导致不能正常执行产品的搬送,损坏产品的情况发生。
● Stocker(储存站里安装料盒时小心支架脱落。
又,在支架飞出料盒的状态下欲安装料盒会使支架变形。
敬请注意。
7-1-1 Full AUTO B’g(全自动焊线转换对位MODE到[FULL],B’g (焊线MODE 到[BOND]。
按 START 开关。
引线框架搬送到B’g Stage(焊线区域,自动执行对位后进行B’g(焊线。
7-1-2 Semi-AUTO B’g(半自动焊线按 START 键。
相对于Full AUTO B’g(全自动焊线自动执行对位,在Semi-AUTO B’g(半自动焊线中必须有操作员手动进行对位操作。
[ SKIP ] : 不执行此芯片的对位与焊线转到下一个。
「工程管理」的SKIP DMODE (略过模式下,选择[BY CHIP]转到下一个芯片,选择 [BYUNIT]转到下一个unit(执行搬送。
请从Semi-AUTO(半自动对位继续进行操作。
(此时,1个单位1个芯片的情况与[EJECT]相同动作。
[ EJECT ] : 搬送焊线区域上的1coma,返回到开始前的操作画面。
成为Auto Mode的开始等待状态。
chap7存储论-讲义-文档资料
存储论就是要研究如何合理的进行库存，以使 总的费用最小。
7.1 基本概念
一、存储现象及定义
在经营管理中，为了促进系统的有效运转，往往需要对零 部件、器材以及其它物资保障条件维持合理的储备。
存储论就是研究在什么时间，以多大数量，从什么来源保 证这些储备，并使得为保存合理的库存量和补充采购所需的 总费用最小的理论。
• 专门研究这类有关存储问题的科学，构成运筹学的一 个分支，叫作存储论。
• 存储论 (Inventory Theory)
存储论又称库存论
起源于物资管理和生产过程控制 经典存储理论和现代物流管理
－－经典研究最佳订货周期和订货量 －－现代研究如何将存储降至最低，减少和优化物流环节， 如 Supply Chain
5、存储策略
决定多长时间补充一次, 每次补充多少的策略.
一个好的存储策略，既可以使总费用最小，又可避免因缺货影 响生产(或对顾客失去信用)。
分析原则：所用总费用最低 总费用＝存储费+订货费+生产费+缺货费
6、存储类型
确定性存储模型：模型中的数据皆为确定的数值
随机性存储模型： 模型中含有随机变量，而不是确定
订货批量
经济订购批量公式，即
EOQ公式
与货物单价K无关
C(t)C3 t
12C1Rt
模型一：不允许缺货，一次性补充
C(t)
C3 t
12C1R
t
C*C*(t) 2C3C1R
总费用与时间关系图
C
C(t)C(Q)C* Nhomakorabea0
Qt0 0
12C1CRstQ/2 DCd CQ3/t
chap007(1)
CHASE AQUILANO JACOBS
©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Operations Management For Competitive Advantage ninth edition
13
Example: Run Chart
Diameter
0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52
12
Example: Pareto Analysis
Can be used
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C A J Operations Management For Competitive Advantage ninth edition
HASE
QUILANO ACOBS
1
Operations Management
For Competitive Advantage
Chaptnt
9 10 11 12
©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Operations Management For Competitive Advantage ninth edition
14
Example: Histogram
Can be used to identify the frequency of quality defect occurrence and display quality performance.
chapt07
CHAPTER 7 DEAD RECKONING DEFINITION AND PURPOSE700. The Importance Of Dead ReckoningDead reckoning allows a navigator to determine his present position by projecting his past courses steered and speeds over ground from a known past position. He can also determine his future position by projecting an ordered course and speed of advance from a known present posi-tion. The DR position is only an approximate position because it does not allow for the effect of leeway, current, helmsman error, or gyro error.Dead reckoning helps in determining sunrise and sunset; in predicting landfall, sighting lights and predicting arrival times; and in evaluating the accuracy of electronic positioning information. It also helps in predicting which celestial bodies will be available for future observation.The navigator should carefully tend his DR plot, up-date it when required, use it to evaluate external forces acting on his ship, and consult it to avoid potential naviga-tion hazards.CONSTRUCTING THE DEAD RECKONING PLOTMaintain the DR plot directly on the chart in use. DR at least two fix intervals ahead while piloting. If transiting in the open ocean, maintain the DR at least four hours ahead of the last fix position. If operating in a defined, small operating area, there is no need to extend the DR out of the operating area; extend it only to the operating area boundary. Maintaining the DR plot di-rectly on the chart allows the navigator to evaluate a vessel’s future position in relation to charted navigation hazards. It also allows the conning officer and captain to plan course and speed changes required to meet any operational commitments.This section will discuss how to construct the DR plot. 701. Measuring Courses And DistancesTo measure courses, use the chart’s compass rose near-est to the chart section currently in use. Transfer course lines to and from the compass rose using parallel rulers, rolling rulers, or triangles. If using a parallel motion plotter (PMP), simply set the plotter at the desired course and plot that course directly on the chart.The navigator can measure direction at any convenient place on a Mercator chart because the meridians are parallel to each other and a line making an angle with any one makes the same angle with all others. Measure direction on a con-formal chart having nonparallel meridians at the meridian closest to the area of the chart in use. The only common non-conformal projection used is the gnomonic; a gnomonic chart usually contains instructions for measuring direction.Compass roses give both true and magnetic directions. For most purposes, use true directions.Measure distances using the chart’s latitude scale. As-suming that one minute of latitude equals one nautical mile introduces no significant error. Since the Mercator’s latitude scale expands as latitude increases, measure distances on the latitude scale closest to the area of interest. On large scale charts, such as harbor charts, use the distance scale provided. To measure long distances on small-scale charts, break the distance into a number of segments and measure each seg-ment at its mid-latitude.Navigational computers can also compute distances be-tween two points. Because of the errors inherent in manually measuring track distances, use a navigation computer if one is available.702. Plotting And Labeling The Course Line And PositionsDraw a new course line whenever restarting the DR. Ex-tend the course line from a fix in the direction of the ordered course. Above the course line place a capital C followed by the ordered course. Below the course line, place a capital S fol-lowed by the speed in knots. Label all course lines and fixes soon after plotting them because a conning officer or navigator can easily misinterpret an unlabeled line or position.Enclose a fix from two or more LOPs by a small circle and label it with the time to the nearest minute. Mark a DR position with a semicircle and the time. Mark an estimated position (EP) by a small square and the time. Determining an EP is covered later in this chapter.Express the time using four digits without punctuation. Use either zone time or GMT.Label the plot neatly, succinctly, and clearly.Figure 702 illustrates this process. The navigator plots and labels the 0800 fix. The conning officer orders a course113114DEAD RECKONINGof 095°T and a speed of 15 knots. The navigator extends the course line from the 0800 fix in a direction of 095°T. He calculates that in one hour at 15 knots he will travel 15 nau-tical miles. He measures 15 nautical miles from the 0800 fix position along the course line and marks that point on the course line with a semicircle. He labels this DR with the time. Note that, by convention, he labels the fix time hori-zontally and the DR time diagonally.THE RULES OF DEAD RECKONING703. Plotting The DRPlot the vessel’s DR position:1. At least every hour on the hour.2. After every change of course or speed.3. After every fix or running fix.4. After plotting a single line of position.Figure 703 illustrates applying these rules. Clearing the harbor at 0900, the navigator obtains a last visual fix. This is taking departure, and the position determined is called the departure. At the 0900 departure, the conning officer orders a course of 090°T and a speed of 10 knots. The nav-igator lays out the 090°T course line from the departure.At 1000, the navigator plots a DR position according to the rule requiring plotting a DR position at least every hour on the hour. At 1030, the conning officer orders a course change to 060°T. The navigator plots the 1030 DR position in accordance with the rule requiring plotting a DR position at every course and speed change. Note that the course line changes at 1030 to 060°T to conform to the new course. At 1100, the conning officer changes course back to 090°T. The navigator plots an 1100 DR because of the course change, Note that, regardless of the course change, an 1100 DR would have been required because of the “every hour on the hour” rule.At 1200, the conning officer changes course to 180°T and speed to 5 knots. The navigator plots the 1200 DR. At 1300, the navigator obtains a fix. Note that the fix position is offset to the east from the DR position. The navigator de-termines set and drift from this offset and applies this set and drift to any DR position from 1300 until the next fix to determine an estimated position. He also resets the DR to the fix; that is, he draws the 180°T course line from the 1300 fix, not the 1300 DR.Figure 702. A course line with labels.Figure 703. A typical dead reckoning plot.DEAD RECKONING115704. Resetting The DRReset the DR plot to the ship’s latest fix or running fix. In addition, consider resetting the DR to an inertial estimat-ed position as discussed below.If a navigator has not received a fix for a long time, the DR plot, not having been reset to a fix, will accumulate time-dependent error. Soon that error may become so sig-nificant that the DR will no longer show the ship’s position with sufficient accuracy. If his vessel is equipped with an inertial navigator, the navigator should consider resetting the DR to the inertial estimated position. Some factors to consider when making this determination are:(1)Time since the last fix and availability of fix infor-mation. If it has been a short time since the last fix and fix information may soon become available, it may be advis-able to wait for the next fix to reset the DR.(2)Dynamics of the navigation situation. If, for exam-ple, a submerged submarine is operating in the Gulf Stream, fix information is available but operational considerations may preclude the submarine from going to periscope depth to obtain a fix. Similarly, a surface ship with an inertial nav-igator may be in a dynamic current and suffer a temporary loss of electronic fix equipment. In either case, the fix infor-mation will be available shortly but the dynamics of the situation call for a more accurate assessment of the vessel’s position. Plotting an inertial EP and resetting the DR to that EP may provide the navigator with a more accurate assess-ment of the navigation situation.(3)Reliability and accuracy of the fix source. If a sub-marine is operating under the ice, for example, only the inertial EP and Omega fixes may be available for weeks at a time. Given a known inaccuracy of Omega, a high prior correlation between the inertial EP and highly accurate fix systems such as GPS, and the continued proper operation of the inertial navigator, the navigator may well decide to reset the DR to the inertial EP rather than the Omega fix.DEAD RECKONING AND SHIP SAFETYProperly maintaining a DR plot is important for ship safety. The DR allows the navigator to examine a future po-sition in relation to a planned track. It allows him to anticipate charted hazards and plan appropriate action to avoid them. Recall that the DR position is only approxi-mate. Using a concept called fix expansion compensates for the DR’s inaccuracy and allows the navigator to use the DR more effectively to anticipate and avoid danger.705. Fix ExpansionOften a ship steams in the open ocean for extended pe-riods without a fix. This can result from of any number of factors ranging from the inability to obtain celestial fixes to malfunctioning electronic navigation systems. Infrequent fixes are particularly common on submarines. Whatever the reason, in some instances a navigator may find himself in the position of having to steam many hours on DR alone.The navigator must take precautions to ensure that all hazards to navigation along his path are accounted for by the approximate nature of a DR position. One method which can be used is fix expansion.Fix expansion takes into account possible errors in the DR calculation caused by factors which tend to affect the vessel’s actual course and speed over ground. The naviga-tor considers all such factors and develops an expanding “error circle” around the DR plot. One of the basic assump-tions of fix expansion is that the various individual effects of current, leeway, and steering error combine to cause a cumulative error which increases over time, hence, the con-cept of expansion.Errors considered in the calculation of the fix expan-sion encompass all errors that can lead to DR inaccuracy.Some of the most important factors are current and wind, compass or gyro error, and steering error. Any method which attempts to determine an error circle must take these factors into account. The navigator can use the magnitude of set and drift calculated from his DR plot. See section 707 below. He can obtain the current’s magnitude from pilot charts or weather reports. He can determine wind speed from weather reports or direct measurement. He can deter-mine compass error by comparison with an accurate standard or by obtaining an azimuth of the sun. The naviga-tor determines the effect each of these errors has on his course and speed over ground, and applies that error to the fix expansion calculation.As noted above, the error is a function of time; it grows as the ship proceeds down the track without a obtaining a fix. Therefore, the navigator must incorporate his calculat-ed errors into an error circle whose radius grows with time. For example, assume the navigator calculates that all the various sources of error can create a cumulative position er-ror of no more than 2 nm. Then his fix expansion error circle would grow at that rate; it would be 2 nm after the first hour, 4 nm after the second, and so on.At what value should the navigator start this error cir-cle? Recall that a DR is laid out from every fix. All fix sources have a finite absolute accuracy, and the initial error circle should reflect that accuracy. Assume, for example, that a satellite navigation system has an accuracy of 0.5 nm. Then the initial error circle around that fix should be set at 0.5nm.Construct the error circle as follows. When the navigator obtains a fix, reset the DR to that fix. Then, enclose that DR position in a circle the radius of which is equal to the accura-cy of the system used to obtain the fix. Lay out the ordered116DEAD RECKONINGcourse and speed from the fix position. Then, apply the fix expansion circle to the hourly DR’s. In the example given above, the DR after one hour would be enclosed by a circle of radius 2.5 nm, after two hours 4.5 nm, and so on. Having encircled the four hour DR positions with the error circles, the navigator then draws two lines originating tangent to the original error circle and simultaneously tangent to the other error circles. The navigator then closely examines the area between the two tangent lines for hazards to navigation. This technique is illustrated in Figure 705 below.The fix expansion encompasses all the area in which the vessel could be located (as long as all sources of error are considered). If any hazards are indicated within the cone, the navigator should be especially alert for those dan-gers. If, for example, the fix expansion indicates that the vessel may be standing into shoal water, continuously mon-itor the fathometer. Similarly, if the fix expansion indicated that the vessel might be approaching a charted obstruction, post extra lookouts.The fix expansion may grow at such a rate that it be-comes unwieldy. Obviously, if the fix expansion grows to cover too large an area, it has lost its usefulness as a tool for the navigator, and he should obtain a new fix.DETERMINING AN ESTIMATED POSITIONAn estimated position is a DR position corrected for the effects of leeway, steering error, and current. This section will briefly discuss the factors that cause the DR position to diverge from the vessel’s actual position. It will then discuss calculating set and drift and applying these values to the DR to obtain an estimated position. Finally, it will discuss deter-mining the estimated course and speed made good.706. Factors Affecting DR Position AccuracyTidal current is the periodic horizontal movement of the water’s surface caused by the tide-affecting gravitation-al force of the moon. Current is the horizontal movement of the sea surface caused by meteorological, oceanograph-ic, or topographical effects. From whatever its source, the horizontal motion of the sea’s surface is an important dy-namic force acting on a vessel moving through the water. Set refers to the current’s direction, and drift refers to the current’s speed.Leeway is the leeward motion of a vessel due to that component of the wind vector perpendicular to the vessel’s track.Leeway and current effects combine to produce the most pronounced natural dynamic effects on a transiting vessel.In addition to these natural forces, helmsman error and gyro error combine to produce a steering error that causes additional error in the DR.707. Calculating Set And Drift And Plotting An Estimated PositionIt is difficult to quantify the errors discussed above individually. However, the navigator can easily quantify their cumulative effect by comparing simultaneous fix and DR positions. Were there no dynamic forces acting on the vessel and no steering error, the DR position and the fix position would coincide. However, they seldom coincide. The fix is offset from the DR by a finite dis-tance. This offset is caused by the error factors discussed above.Note again that this methodology provides no means to determine the magnitude of the individual errors. It simply provides the navigator with a measurable represen-tation of their combined effect.Figure 705. Fix expansion. All possible positions of the ship lie between the lines tangent to the expanding circles.Examine this area for dangers.DEAD RECKONING117When the navigator measures this combined effect, he often refers to it as the “set and drift.” Recall from abovethat these terms technically were restricted to describing current effects. However, even though the fix-to-DR offset is caused by effects in addition to the current, this text will follow the convention of referring to the offset as the set and drift.The set is the direction from the DR to the fix. The drift is the distance in miles between the DR and the fix divided by the number of hours since the DR was last reset. This is true regardless of the number of changes of course or speed since the last fix. Calculate set and drift at every fix.Calculate an EP by drawing from a DR position a vec-tor whose direction equals the set and whose magnitude equals the product of the drift and the number of hours since the last DR reset. See Figure 707. From the 0900 DR posi-tion the navigator draws a set and drift vector. The end of that vector marks the 0900 EP. Note that the EP is enclosed in a square and labeled horizontally with the time. Plot and evaluate an EP with every DR position.708. Estimated Course And Speed Made GoodThe direction of a straight line from the last fix to the EP is the estimated track made good . The length of this line divided by the time between the fix and the EP is the estimated speed made good .Solve for the estimated track and speed by using a vector diagram. See the example problems below. See. Figure 708a Example 1: A ship on course 080°, speed 10 knots, is steaming through a current having an estimated set of 140°and drift of 2 knots.Required: Estimated track and speed made good.Solution: See Figure 708a. From A, any convenient point, draw AB, the course and speed of the ship, in direc-tion 080°, for a distance of 10 miles.From B draw BC, the set and drift of the current, in direction 140°, for a distance of 2 miles. The direction andFigure 707. Determining an estimated position.Figure 708a. Finding track and speed made good through a current.Figure 708b. Finding the course to steer at a given speed to make good a given course through a current.118DEAD RECKONINGlength of AC are the estimated track and speed made good.Answers: Estimated track made good 089°, estimated speed made good 11.2 knots.To find the course to steer at a given speed to make good a desired course, plot the current vector from the ori-gin, A, instead of from B. See Figure 708b.Example 2: The captain desires to make good a course of 095° through a current having a set of 170° and a drift of 2.5 knots, using a speed of 12 knots.Required: The course to steer and the speed made good.Solution: See Figure 708b. From A, any convenient point, draw line AB extending in the direction of the course to be made good, 095°.From A draw AC, the set and drift of the current.Using C as a center, swing an arc of radius CD, the speed through the water (12 knots), intersecting line AB at D.Measure the direction of line CD, 083.5°. This is the course to steer.Measure the length AD, 12.4 knots. This is the speed made good.Answers: Course to steer 083.5°, speed made good 12.4 knots.To find the course to steer and the speed to use to make good a desired course and speed, proceed as follows:See Figure 708c.Example 3: The captain desires to make good a course of 265° and a speed of 15 knots through a current having a set of 185° and a drift of 3 knots.Required: The course to steer and the speed to use.Solution: See Figure 708c. From A, any convenient point, draw AB in the direction of the course to be made good, 265° and for length equal to the speed to be made good, 15 knots.From A draw AC, the set and drift of the current.Draw a straight line from C to B. The direction of this line, 276°, is the required course to steer; and the length, 14.8 knots, is the required speed.Answers: Course to steer 276°, speed to use 14.8 kn.Figure 708c. Finding course to steer and speed to use to make good a given course and speed through the current.。
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第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
一．油层的热容 二．岩石的比热 三．导热系数 四．岩石的热扩散系数
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
一、油层的热容 heat capacity
单位体积的岩石温度升高1℃所需的热量， 单位体积的岩石温度升高1℃所需的热量，KJ/(m3.℃) 1℃所需的热量
储层岩石的力学性质 第五节 储层岩石的力学性质
• 油气井钻完井工程, 油气井防沙, 压裂工艺，都必须研究“ 油气井钻完井工程, 油气井防沙, 压裂工艺，都必须研究“岩 石力学” 杨氏模量， 石力学”。杨氏模量，泊松比
•
本章内容为引出：地球物理测井，地层评价（测井地质学）， 本章内容为引出：地球物理测井，地层评价（测井地质学）， 热力采油技术（稠油热采），岩石力学。 热力采油技术（稠油热采），岩石力学。 ），岩石力学
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
四、岩石的热扩散系数 heat diffusivity
• • 反映了非稳态传热过程中岩石的导热能力与沿途岩石储热能力 之间的关系。 之间的关系。 热扩散系数α定义为： 热扩散系数α定义为：
λ α= ρC
7-20
式中： 式中：α，热扩散系数，m2/s； 热扩散系数， /s； λ，导热系数w/(m.℃)； 导热系数w/(m.℃)； w/(m.℃) C，比热，J/(kg.℃)；ρ，岩石密度，kg/m3. 比热，J/(kg.℃)； 岩石密度，
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
三、含水岩石的电阻率
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
四、含油岩石的电阻率
• 岩石含油越多，其电阻率就越高。电阻指数（ 岩石含油越多，其电阻率就越高。电阻指数（Resistivity Index）表示含油岩石的电阻率R Index）表示含油岩石的电阻率Rt与该岩石完全充满地层水时的 电阻率R 的比值， 电阻率Ro的比值，即：
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
三、含水岩石的电阻率
• • 含水砂岩电阻率取决于地层水电阻率、孔隙度、 含水砂岩电阻率取决于地层水电阻率、孔隙度、胶结情况及孔 隙形状。 隙形状。 实验证明：对于给定的岩样，孔隙中饱和地层水岩石的电阻率 实验证明：对于给定的岩样， 与这种地层水的电阻率R 有正比关系， 线性, Ro与这种地层水的电阻率Rw有正比关系，即R0=CRw线性, R0/Rw 为一常数。 为一常数。
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
二、地层水的电阻率
• • • • • 地层水的电阻率取决于其溶解盐的化学成分，含盐浓度和水温。 地层水的电阻率取决于其溶解盐的化学成分，含盐浓度和水温。 油气储层地层水所含盐类常见的有：NaCl，KCl，Na2SO4，MgSO4， 油气储层地层水所含盐类常见的有：NaCl，KCl， 但主要为NaCl 因此可以把地层水近似视为NaCl溶液。 NaCl， NaCl溶液 CaSO4，但主要为NaCl，因此可以把地层水近似视为NaCl溶液。 等效氯化钠矿化度的换算方法见例7-1 等效氯化钠矿化度的换算方法见例 含盐浓度↗ 含盐浓度↗，ρ↘ 温度↗ 温度↗，ρ↘
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
一、物质的导电性与电阻率
• • 离子导电的岩石： 离子导电的岩石：其电阻率大小主要取决于岩石孔隙中所含溶 液的性质和浓度。如沉积岩。 液的性质和浓度。如沉积岩。 电子导电的岩石： 电子导电的岩石：其电阻率主要由所含导电矿物的性质和含量 来决定。 来决定。如：大部分火成岩，玄武，花岗，其中含有石墨及铜 大部分火成岩，玄武，花岗， 、铁矿物。 铁矿物。 • • 火成岩电阻率> 火成岩电阻率>沉积岩 油气储层中的油、气不导电， 油气储层中的油、气不导电，所有油气储层的导电能力主要取 决于岩石孔隙中地层水的导电能力。 决于岩石孔隙中地层水的导电能力。
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
四、岩石的热扩散系数 heat diffusivity
•
α越大，说明岩石的某一部分一旦获得热量，就会 越大，说明岩石的某一部分一旦获得热量， 很快扩散，使整个岩层温度趋于一致。 很快扩散，使整个岩层温度趋于一致。
•
α大，对热采有利还是不利？Why? 对热采有利还是不利？
第三节
物理法采油技术： 物理法采油技术： • • 油藏人工地震增产技术 井下波声波增产技术
储层岩石的放射性 第四节 储层岩石的放射性
• •
放射性元素广泛分布，泥岩中尤为丰富，可用放射性测井（ 放射性元素广泛分布，泥岩中尤为丰富 ，可用放射性测井（ 伽 玛测井）检测储层中的泥质含量与识别泥岩隔层（夹层） 玛测井）检测储层中的泥质含量与识别泥岩隔层（夹层）。 瓷砖、花岗岩石材、餐具的安全性。 瓷砖、花岗岩石材、餐具的安全性。
F= R0 a = m Rw φ
7-9
式中： 式中：m，胶结指数，胶结岩石的m值，在1.8~2.0之间，非胶 胶结指数，胶结岩石的m 1.8~2.0之间， 之间 结岩石的m 结岩石的m值，大约为1.3。 大约为1.3。 1.3 a，比例系数，随岩性的不同而变化。 比例系数，随岩性的不同而变化。 ф，岩石的孔隙度。 岩石的孔隙度。
《油层物理学》（网络课程）
第七章 储层岩石的其他物理性质
Other Physical Properties of Reservoir Rocks
主讲教师：祁大晟
Main Points
• • • • • 含流体岩石的导电特性 储层岩石的热学性质 储层岩石的声学特性 储层岩石的放射性 储层岩石的力学性质
I=
•
Rt
采用比值的方法，电阻指数消除了地层水电阻率、 采用比值的方法，电阻指数消除了地层水电阻率、岩石孔隙度 和孔隙结构等因素的影响，当岩性一定时，它只与岩石含油饱 和孔隙结构等因素的影响，当岩性一定时， 和度有关。 和度有关。
Байду номын сангаасR0
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
四、含油岩石的电阻率
通过实验，得到以下电阻指数公式： 通过实验，得到以下电阻指数公式：
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
三、导热系数 λ thermal conductivity
• • • 实验表明：水的导热系数大约为空气的30倍 实验表明：水的导热系数大约为空气的30倍，而矿物颗粒 30 的导热性比水还要大许多倍。 的导热性比水还要大许多倍。 This is why we take water as the cooling liquid. 油层导热系数： 油层导热系数：130.4~160.5 KJ/(d.m.℃)
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第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
一、物质的导电性与电阻率
据物理学电阻率公式： 据物理学电阻率公式：
ρ
r，电阻，Ω； 电阻，
r A = L
式中：ρ，电阻率，Ωm； 式中： 电阻率， m A，导体截面积，m2； 导体截面积， L，导体长度，m. 导体长度， 电阻率ρ仅与导体的材料性质有关。 电阻率ρ仅与导体的材料性质有关。
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第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
三、含水岩石的电阻率
通常称R 为岩石的地层因子或相对电阻， 表示， 通常称R0/Rw为岩石的地层因子或相对电阻，用F表示，即：
R 0 F= R w
式中： 式中：F，地层因子或相对电阻，无因次。 地层因子或相对电阻，无因次。 100%饱和电阻率为Rw的地层水时 岩层的电阻率， m. 饱和电阻率为Rw的地层水时， Ro，100%饱和电阻率为Rw的地层水时，岩层的电阻率，Ωm. Rw，地层水电阻率，Ωm. 地层水电阻率， m.
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
三、含水岩石的电阻率
• • • 相对电阻率F消除了地层水电阻率R 的影响， 相对电阻率F消除了地层水电阻率Rw的影响，它反映地层本身固有 的电性、特征。实质上， 是岩石孔隙度和孔隙结构的函数。 的电性、特征。实质上，F是岩石孔隙度和孔隙结构的函数。 (ф，孔隙结构) F=f (ф，孔隙结构) 可以推导出岩石的电性参数与岩石其它物性参数之间的关系为： 可以推导出岩石的电性参数与岩石其它物性参数之间的关系为：
I= Rt b b = = R0 S n (1− S )n w 0
7-14
式中： 分别为含油、气饱和度。 式中：So，Sw分别为含油、气饱和度。 n，饱和度指数。 饱和度指数。 b，系数，实质为迂曲度。 系数，实质为迂曲度。 指数n和系数b与岩性有关，可用实验方法测定。（怎样测定 指数n和系数b与岩性有关，可用实验方法测定。（怎样测定 。（ ？）知道了n 便可用电阻指数公式求出S ？）知道了n，b，I 便可用电阻指数公式求出So。 知道了 7-14是电测井方法中一个十分有用的公式。 14是电测井方法中一个十分有用的公式。 是电测井方法中一个十分有用的公式
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
一．物质的导电性与电阻率 二．地层水的电阻率 三．含水岩石的电阻率 四．含油岩石的电阻率 五．电阻率的测定（为实验室内容） 电阻率的测定（为实验室内容）
第一节 含流体岩石的导电特性
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研究导电特性的目的是根据测量的岩层电阻率来判断 岩性，划分油气水层，研究储集层的含油性、 岩性，划分油气水层，研究储集层的含油性、渗透性 和孔隙性等。 和孔隙性等。 一门重要专业课，地球物理测井（电阻率测井）。 一门重要专业课，地球物理测井（电阻率测井）。 地层评价学（测井地质学）。 地层评价学（测井地质学）。
二、岩石的比热：specific heat 岩石的比热：
• • • • 单位质量的岩石温度升高1℃所需的热量，KJ/(kg.℃) 单位质量的岩石温度升高1℃所需的热量， 1℃所需的热量 一般砂岩的比热：0.837~1.315 KJ/(kg.℃) 一般砂岩的比热： 干岩样的比热： 干岩样的比热：0.766~0.846 饱和水岩样的比热： 饱和水岩样的比热：0.888~1.419
第二节 储层岩石的热学性质
三、导热系数 λ thermal conductivity