1. Introduction
1.Introduction
特殊光学显微镜技术
暗视野显微镜 偏光显微镜 倒置显微镜 相位差显微镜 荧光显微镜 激光共聚焦显微镜
荧光显微镜
激光扫描共聚焦显微镜
laser scanning confocal microscope, LSCMope, EM）技术 ）
苏木精（ 苏木精（Hematoxylin）+ 伊红（Eosin）染色 ） 伊红（ ） 碱性染料 将嗜碱性物质（ 将嗜碱性物质（本身 酸性） 酸性）染成紫蓝色 细胞核中的DNA、RNA 、 细胞核中的 细胞质中的 细胞质中的RNA 酸性染料 将嗜酸性物质（ 将嗜酸性物质（本身 碱性） 碱性）染成粉红色 细胞质、膜性结构 细胞质、 线粒体、溶酶体、 （线粒体、溶酶体、 滑面内质网） 滑面内质网）
细胞化学和组织化学
如： 检测多糖：过碘酸雪夫反应 检测多糖：过碘酸雪夫反应(periodic acid Schiff reaction)：简称 PAS反应。 反应。 ： 反应 检测脂类 ：苏丹III染色法 苏丹III染色法 III
反应) 过碘酸雪夫反应 (PAS反应 反应
脂类组织化学染色（苏丹 染色） 苏丹III染色
一般光学显微镜技术（light microscope, LM） ）
石蜡切片、冷冻切片、涂片、舖片、磨片
一般光学显微镜技术
最常用的是石蜡切片，HE染色 切片的制作步骤： 固定（fixation) 包埋 (embedding) 切片 (section) 染色（staining)
HE染色： 染色： 染色
核酸分子原位杂交术
是利用标记的特 异性DNA、RNA或 寡核苷酸探针检 测细胞内某种基 因片断的方法
组织学实验技术的作用
组织学实验技术是现代生物医学领域 诸多基础及前沿学科学习和研究的重 要技术支持。
1.Introduction+structures
I. Classification of Writings
A. Literature Writings B. Scientific Writings (factual writings)
II. Principles for Good Scientific Writing (1)
Content: original Organization/Structure: complete, coherent Language: correct 文风有独创性；主题 处理好； 中心思想明确； 行文逻辑严密；选辞精确；句子、段落表达 完整；阅读效果好；没有错别字及语法、标 点符号的错误。
Brief & Simple
Though I usually go to the country for a walk during the weekend, I decided to spend the whole day in the city for a change last Sunday. I went to the Tian’anmen Square and the Zhongshan Park. It was so early when I left home that the streets around my neighborhood were deserted. Without the usual crowds and traffic, everything was strangely quiet.
Writing Suggestions:
Plan your writing (audience awareness / target readers). Ignore the language. Write and rewrite. Find readers. Keep writing. Find suitable methods from handbooks and guides. There is many a way to write.
1Introduction
主要内容 (Outline)• 绪论小规模集成电路三（SSI）• 逻辑函数基础 门电路个• 组合逻辑电路模 块中规模集成电路 （MSI）• 集成触发器 • 时序逻辑电路大规模集成电路 • 半导体存储器（LSI）• 数模、模数转换电路绪论 (Introduction)一、数字(digital)信号和模拟(analog)信号 数字量和模拟量 数字电路和模拟电路二、数字信号相关概念 二进制数 Binary Digits 数字信号的逻辑电平 Logic Levels 数字信号波形 Digital Waveforms一、Digital Signal and Analog Signal Digital and Analog Quantities电子 电路 中的 信号模拟信号: 连续analogue signal value数字信号: 离散digital signal valuetime time模拟信号T( C) 30采样信号T( C)sampled3025离散化 2520202 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 t (h)A.M.P.M.2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 t (h)A.M.P.M.数字化－表示 为由0、1组成 的二进制码Analog Electronic SystemDigital and Analog Electronic System★ 工作在模拟信号下的电子电路是模拟电路。
研究模拟电路时，注重电路输入、输出信号 间的大小、相位关系。
包括交直流放大器、 滤波器、信号发生器等。
★ 模拟电路中，晶体管一般工作在放大状态。
★ 工作在数字信号下的电子电路是数字电路。
研究数字电路时，注重电路输出、输入间的逻 辑关系。
主要的分析工具是逻辑代数，电路的 功能用真值表、逻辑表达式或波形图表示。
★ 在数字电路中，三极管工作在开关状态， 即工作在饱和状态或截止状态。
情景英语1(introduction)
Scene 1: You are the new comer to the office. You meet your new coworker Peter Smith in the office. Please introduce each other and have a very nice greeting.
A: David! It’s great to see you! you look as young as ever And you must B: Philip, ___________________________. be Roger. C: Hi. A: Yes, this is my youngest son Roger. Roger, I want you to meet the king dancer of tango of Harvard— David Lin. C: Nice to meet you, Mr. Lin. B: Well, you are so tall. How old are you this year? C: Seven. we haven’t seen each other for years since our graduation, B: So ______________________________________________, Philip. Well, how’ve you been? A: Oh, working too hard.
A: Good evening, Mr. Wu. B: Good evening, Mr. Smith. A: Have you met my wife, Juliet? I haven’t had the pleasure B: No,______________________________. A: Mary, this is Mr. Wu, my Chinese friend. C: How do you do, Mr. Wu? Welcome. B: How do you do? Have a glass of wine Mr. Wu. A:_____________________, let me introduce you to some of my guests. And___________________________________________. B: Thank you.
1.introduction 简介
Introduction
1、生物化学的概念 2、生物化学的发展简史
3、生物化学的主要研究内容 4、生物化学与其它学科的关系
生物化学的概念
生物化学是研究生命 化学的学科，它在分子水 平上探讨生命的本质，即 研究生物体的分子结构与 功能，物质代谢与调节， 及其在生命活动中的作用。
①吴宪
在血液化学分析方面创 立了血滤液的制备和血糖测定法； ②蛋白质方面，提出了蛋白质变 性学说； ③免疫学方面，研究抗原抗体的 反应机制；
④1965年，首先人工合成具
有生物活性的胰岛素； ⑤1981年，成功合成酵母丙 氨酰tRNA; ⑥完成人类基因组计划工作 的1％。
生物化学的研究内容
静态生物化学 动态生物化学 1、 功能生物化学 分子生物学 2、生物化学的研究采用化 学的原理和方法； 3、生物化学与细胞学、遗传学、 生理学关系密切；
生物化学的发展简史
1、初级阶段
2、发展阶段 3、分子生物学阶段
4、现状
初级阶段
1、对糖类、脂类、氨基酸作
了比较系统的研究； 2、发现了核酸； 3、化学合成了简单多肽； 4、酵母发酵过程中可溶性催 化剂的发现奠定了酶学的基础。
1、生物大分子的结构与功能； 2、物质代谢及其调节； 3、基因信息的传递及其调控。
生物大分子：由某些 基本结构单位按照一定的 顺序和方式连接所形成的 多聚体。 分子量一般在104以上
生物化学与其他学科的关系
1、与农业的关系 2、与工业的关系 3、与药学的关系 4、与医学的关系
与农业的关系
人类基因组计划
科学研究证明，人类的生老病死
都与基因有关，如果能够破译人 类基因的序列和功能，就有可能 真正有效地预防、诊断和治疗各 种疾病。因此，1990年正式启动 的人类基因组计划一开始就引起 了全世界的广泛关注。
Topic 1 Introduction
Trygve Haavelmo (Norway)
1980 Nobel Laureates in Economics
Lawrence R. Klein (University of Pennsylvania), “For the creation of econometric models and their application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies”
Topic 1: Introduction to Econometrics
What is econometrics? Why study econometrics? Types of econometrics Nobel Prize and Econometrics Methodology of econometrics
2. Specification of the Mathematical Model 1) Specification of variables e.g. consumption (income) inflation (money supply of the previous period, GDP growth rate) income (qualification, IQ, EQ, gender, etc.) weight (height, gender, race, age, etc.) * It should be based on economic theory and analysis of economic phenomena * Data availability * The relationship among variables: independence
unit 1 introduction
~ lecture 1~
翻译的定义
翻译是在接受语中寻找和原语信息尽可能接近、 翻译是在接受语中寻找和原语信息尽可能接近、自然的对等话 首先是意义上的对等，其次才是风格上的对等。 语，首先是意义上的对等，其次才是风格上的对等。 Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. （Eugene Nida，1969） ， ） Translating is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text. (Peter Newmark) cf.(pp.4-5)
汉英翻译对译者素养的要求
深厚的语言功底、广博的文化知识、 深厚的语言功底、广博的文化知识、高度的责 任感）（ ）（Mercedes） 任感）（ ） 深厚的语言功底(汉语功底 汉语功底)， ①深厚的语言功底 汉语功底 ，英语语感及英 语表达能力 英语的语感包括：语法意识（ 英语的语感包括：语法意识（sense of grammar）、惯用法意识（sense of ）、惯用法意识 ）、惯用法意识（ idiomaticness）和连贯意识 sense of ）和连贯意识( coherence)。(杨晓荣，2002:16-19) 。 杨晓荣， 杨晓荣 英语表达能力是指用自然、地道、 英语表达能力是指用自然、地道、合乎语法规 范的英语进行表达的能力，换言之， 范的英语进行表达的能力，换言之，即用英语 进行写译是将一种语言文化承载的意义转换到 另外一种语言中的跨语言、 另外一种语言中的跨语言、跨文化的交际 活动。翻译的本质是释义，是意义的转换。 活动。翻译的本质是释义，是意义的转换。 翻译活动涉及的诸多因素： 翻译活动涉及的诸多因素： translator, author, source text, source-text readers, target text/ translated text/ target version, target-text readers.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION1.1. WHY USE ELECTRONS?Why should we use an electron microscope? Historically, TEMs were developed because of the limited image resolution in light microscopes, which is imposed by the wavelength of visible light. Only after electron microscopes were developed was it realized that there are many other equally sound reasons for using electrons, most of which are utilized to some extent in a modern TEM. By way of introduction to the topic let's look at how the TEM developed and the pros and cons of using such an instrument.1.1.A. An Extremely Brief HistoryLouis de Broglie (1925) first theorized that the electron had wave-like characteristics, with a wavelength substantially less than visible light. Then Davisson and Germer (1927) and Thompson and Reid (1927) independently carried out their classic electron diffraction experiments which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons. It didn't take long for the idea of an electron microscope to be proposed, and the term was first used in the paper of Knoll and Ruska (1932). In this paper they developed the idea of electron lenses into a practical reality, and demonstrated electron images taken on the instrument shown in Figure 1.1. This was a most crucial step, for which Ruska received the Nobel Prize, somewhat late, in 1986. Within a year of Knoll and Ruska's publication, the resolution limit of the light microscope was surpassed. Ruska, surprisingly, revealed that he hadn't heard of de Broglie's ideas about electron waves and thought that the wavelength limit didn't apply to electrons. TEMs were developed by commercial companies only four years later. The Metropolitan-Vickers EM 1 was the first commercial TEM. It was built in the UK in 1936, but apparently it didn't work very well and regular production was really started by Siemens and Halske in Germany in 1939. TEMs became widely available from several other sources (Hitachi, JEOL, Philips and RCA, inter alia) after the conclusion of World War II.For materials scientists a most important development took place in the late 1940s when Heidenreich (1949) first thinned metal foils to electron transparency. This work was followed up by Bollman in Switzerland and Hirsch and co-workers in Cambridge. Because so much of the early TEM work examined metal specimens, the word "foil" has come to be synonymous with "specimen." In addition, the Cambridge group also developed the theory of electron diffraction contrast with which we can now identify, often in a quantitative manner, all known line and planar crystal defects in TEM images. This theoretical work is summarized in a formidable but essential text often referred to as the "Bible" of TEM (Hirsch et al. 1977). For the materials scientist,practical applications of the TEM for the solution of materials problems were pioneered in the United States by Thomas and first clearly expounded in his text (Thomas 1962). Other materials-oriented texts followed, e.g., Edington (1976) and Thomas and Goringe (1979).Today, TEMs constitute arguably the most efficient and versatile tools for the characterization of materials. If you want to read a history of the TEM, the book by Marton (1968) is a compact, personal monograph and that edited by Hawkes (1985) contains a series of individual reminiscences. Fujita (1986) emphasizes the contribution of Japan to the development of the instrument. The field is now at the point where many of the pioneers have put their memoirs down on paper, or Festschrifts have been organized in their honor (e.g., Cosslett 1979, Ruska 1980, and Hashimoto 1986) which detail their contributions over the decades, and compile some useful overview papers of the field. If you enjoy reading about the history of science, we strongly recommend the review of Fifty Years of Electron Diffraction, edited by Goodman (1981), and Fifty Years of X-ray Diffraction, edited by Ewald (1962). (The spelling of X-ray is discussed in the CBE Manual, 1994.)Figure 1.1. The electron microscope built by Ruska and Knoll in Berlin in the early 1930s.1.1.B. Microscopy and the Concept of ResolutionWhen asked what a "microscope" is, most people would answer that it is an instrument for magnifying things too small to see with the naked eye, and most likely they would be referring to the visible-light microscope. Because of the general familiarity with the concept of the light microscope, we will draw analogies between electron and visible-light microscopes wherever it's instructive.The smallest distance between two points that we can resolve with our eyes is about 0.1-0.2 mm, depending on how good our eyes are, and assuming that there's sufficient illumination to see by. This distance is the resolution or resolving power of our eyes. So any instrument that can show us pictures (or "images" as we'll refer to them) revealing detail finer than 0.1 mm could be described as a microscope, and its highest useful magnification is governed by its resolution. A major attraction to the early developers of the TEM was that, since electrons are smaller than atoms, it would be possible, at least theoretically, to build a microscope that could "see" detail well below the atomic level. The idea of being able to "see" with electrons may be confusing to you. Our eyes are not sensitive to electrons. If a beam of high-energy electrons was aimed into your eye, you would most likely be blinded as the electrons killed the retinal cells, but you wouldn't see anything! So an integral part of any electron microscope is a viewing screen of some form, which translates electron intensity to light intensity, and which we observe or record photographically. We'll discuss these screens and other ways of recording electron images in later chapter.The resolution of a TEM means different things for different functions of the instrument, and we'll discuss them in the appropriate chapters. It's easiest to think of the image resolution in TEM in terms of the classical Rayleigh criterion for light microscopy, which states that the smallest distance that can be resolved, , is given approximately by δβµλ=δsin 61.0 [1.1]In equation 1.1, is the wavelength of the radiation, is the refractive index of the viewing medium, and is the semiangle of collection of the magnifying lens. For the sake of simplicity we can approximate sin (which is sometimes called the numerical aperture) to unity and so the resolution is equal to about half the wavelength of light. For green light in the middle of the visible spectrum, is about 550 nm (5500Å), and so the resolution of a good light microscope is about 300 nm. In TEMs we can approximate the resolution in equation 1.1 to 0.61/ which, as we'll see later, is very small.λµβµβλλβNow although 300 nm is a small dimension to us it corresponds to about 1000 atom diameters, and therefore many of the features that control the properties of materials are on a scale well below the resolution of the light microscope. So there's a real need to image detail down to the atomic level if we want to understand the properties of materials, and that's a major reason why TEMs are so useful.We'll try to use nanometers throughout this book, but you'll find that many microscopists still insist on using Angstroms rather than the SI units. However, the Angstrom is close to the atomic diameter and so is a more convenient unit because it saves us using convoluted phrases like “three tenths of a nanometer.”This limit of light microscopy was well understood at the turn of this century and prompted Ernst Abbe, one of the giants in the field, to complain that "it is poor comfort to hope that human ingenuity will find ways and means of overcoming this limit." (He was right to be so depressed because he died in 1905, some 20 years before de Broglie's ingenuity solved the problem.) Now de Broglie's famous equation shows that the wavelength of electrons is related to their energy, E, and if we ignore relativistic effects we can show approximately (and exactly in Section 1.4 below) that2/122.1~Eλ [1.2]In this equation E is in electron volts (eV) and in nm. Remember that we should be precise in our use of the units V and eV: the former represents the accelerating voltage of the microscope while the latter refers to the energy of the electrons in the microscope. So for a 100-keV electron, we find that ~ 4 pm (0.004 nm), which is much smaller than the diameter of an atom.λλFigure 1.2. A twin boundary in spinel stepping from one {111} plane to another parallel plane. The white dots are columns of atoms. The change in atomic orientation across the twin boundary can be readily seen, even if we do not know what causes the white dots or why, indeed, they are white.We'll see later that we are nowhere near building TEMs that approach this wavelength limit of resolution, because we can't make perfect electron lenses (see Section 2). But progress was rapid after Ruska's early work on lenses and, since the mid-1970s, many commercial TEMs have been capable of resolving individual columns of atoms in crystals, creating the field of "high-resolution transmission electron microscopy," or HRTEM. A typical HRTEM image is shown in Figure 1.2. The advantages of shorter wavelengths led in the 1960s to the development of high voltage electron microscopes (HVEMs), with accelerating potentials between 1 MV and 3 MV . In fact, most of these instruments were used to introduce controlled amounts of radiation damage into specimens in an attempt to simulate nuclear reactor environments, but changes in the emphasis of energy research mean there is not much call for such instruments today. While we can still improve the resolution byincremental amounts, the drive for much better resolution is now no longer paramount and the TEM is developing in other ways. In fact, only one HVEM (1 MV) for HRTEM imaging was constructed in the 1980s and three 1.25-MV machines in the 1990s. Intermediate voltage electron microscopes (IVEMs) were introduced in the 1980s. These TEMs operate at 300 or 400 kV, but still offer very high resolution, close to that achieved at 1 MV.1.1.C. Interaction of Electrons with MatterElectrons are one type of "ionizing radiation," which is the general term given to radiation that is capable of removing one of the tightly bound inner-shell electrons from the attractive field of the nucleus.One of the advantages to using ionizing radiation is that it produces a wide range of secondary signals from the specimen, and some of these are summarized in Figure 1.3. Many of these signals are used in "analytical electron microscopy,'' or AEM, giving us chemical information and a lot of other detail about our samples. AEM uses X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry (XEDS) and electron energy-loss spectrometry (EELS). For example, Figure 1.4A is an X-ray spectrum from a very small region of a TEM specimen showing characteristic peaks which identify the elements present. We can transform such spectra into quantitative data describing elemental changes associated with inhomogeneous microstructures as also shown in Figures 1.4B and C. In contrast, microscopes using nonionizing radiation such as visible light usually only generate light (but not much heat, which is good). AEMs generally offer improved performance at intermediate voltages, similar to HRTEMs.Figure 1.3. Signals generated when a high-energy beam of electrons interacts with a thin specimen. Most of these signals can be detected in different types of TEM. The directions shown for each signal do not always represent the physical direction of the signal but indicate, in a relative manner, where the signal is strongest or where it is detected.In order to get the best signal out of our specimens we have to put the best signal in, and so the electron source is critical. We are now very accomplished in this respect as you'll see in Section 4, so modern TEMs are very good signal-generating instruments. To localize these signals we need to get our TEM to form a very fine electron beam, typically <10 nm and at best <1 nm in diameter. We accomplish this by combining TEM and scanning electron microscope (SEM) technology to create a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). The STEM is both the basis for AEMs and a unique scanning imaging microscope in its own right. In fact there are instruments that are only capable of operating in scanning mode and these are sometimes referred to as "dedicated STEMs," or DSTEMs.1.1.D. Depth of FieldThe depth of field of a microscope is a measure of how much of the object we are looking at remains "in focus" at the same time. Like the resolution, this property is governed by the lenses in the microscope. The best electron lens is not a very good one, as we've already mentioned, and has been compared to using the bottom of a Coca-Cola bottle as a lens for light microscopy. To minimize this problem we have to use very small limiting apertures in the lenses, narrowing the beam down to a thin "pencil" of electrons which at most is a few micrometers across. These apertures cut down the intensity of the electron beam, but also act to increase the depth of focus of the images that we produce. Remember that "depth of field" refers to the specimen while "depth of focus" refers to the image.While this large depth of field is chiefly used in the SEM to produce 3D-like images of the surfaces of specimens with large changes in topography, it is also critical in the TEM. It turns out that in the TEM, all of the specimen is usually in focus at the same time, independent of the specimen topography, as long as it's electron transparent! Figure 1.5 shows a TEM image of some dislocations in a crystal. The dislocations appear to start and finish in the specimen, but in fact they are threading their way through the specimen from the top to the bottom, and they remain in sharp focus at all times. Furthermore, we can record the final image at different positions below the final lens of the instrument and it will still be in focus. Compare this with the visible-light microscope where, as you probably know, unless the surface of the specimen is flat to within the wavelength of light, it is not all in focus at the same time. This aspect of TEM gives us both advantages and disadvantages in comparison to the visible-light microscope.A BC Figure 1.4. (A) An X-ray spectrum from asmall biotite crystal showing peaks atenergies that are characteristic of theelements present in the region thatinteracts with the electron beam. Themajor peaks from left to right are for Mg,Al, Si, K, Fe, and the Cu support grid. (B)A TEM image of a precipitate-free zone(PFZ) in an aged Al-16 wt% Ag alloy. (C)The Ag profile across the PFZ in (B),obtained through X-ray spectrometry inthe TEM showing the depletion of Agresponsible for the PFZ formation.Figure 1.5. TEM image of dislocations in GaAs. A band of dislocations threads through the thin specimen from the top to the bottom but remains in focus through the foil thickness.1.1.E. DiffractionThompson and Reid showed that electrons could be diffracted when passing through thin crystals of nickel, and the possibility of combining electron diffraction into TEMs was realized by Kossel and Mollenstedt (1939). Today, electron diffraction is an indispensable part of TEM and is arguably the most useful aspect of TEM for materials scientists. Figure 1.6 shows a TEM diffraction pattern which contains information on the crystal structure, lattice repeat distance, and specimen shape, as well as being a most striking pattern. We'll see that the pattern can always be related to the image of the area of the specimen from which it came, in this case shown in the inset. In addition to the things we just listed, you can conduct a complete crystallographic symmetry analysis of minuscule crystals, including such esoteric aspects as point-group and space-group determination, and at all times the crystallography can be related to the image of your specimen. There is no similar capability on a light microscope because of the relatively large wavelength of visible light.So an electron microscope can produce atomic level images, can generate a variety of signals telling you about your sample chemistry and crystallography, and you can always produce images that are in focus. There are many other good reasons why you should use electron microscopes. We hope they will become evident as you read through this book. At the same time there are many reasons why you should not always seek to solve your problems with the TEM, and it is most important that you realize what the instrument cannot do, as well as knowing its capabilities.Figure 1.6. TEM diffraction pattern from a thin foil of A1-Li-Cu containing various precipitate phases, shown in the inset image. The central spot (X) contains electrons that come directly through the foil and the other spots and lines are diffracted electrons which are scattered from different crystal planes.。
unit_1_Introduction_and_greeting
I will choose two groups to present!
Dialog 1
• • • • • • Read the dialog together. Find out the elements below: Who: Where: When: What:
• Page 6. Act Out.
forms and ceremonies seriously; freedom from constraint or embarrassment 非正式，不拘礼节
a garrulous informality that is explosive, intense and distinctly American. 他29岁，有着深蓝色的眼镜，絮絮叨叨不拘礼节，是个活 泼、热情、典型的美国人。
Part I: Intensive Reading Task1: Topic: Ways Americans greet, introduce and
say goodbye to people.
Section Learning
Main ideas:
1) In the American society, informality is valued very highly. 2) When you greet people who you already know, you are expected to show a certain amount of informality toward them.
e.g: He is 29 years old, with quiet blue eyes and
Section Learning
Language Points:
制药工程_专业英语_Unit_5
2、研发计划 对候选药物是否有可能提供有竞争力的优势方面的评估，首先
需要强调的是应达到一整套的产品目标或目标产品的特性。应当 特别注意竞争者（指药物）之间的差异。随着对有限的处方、医 疗保健费用以及药品经济学的日益关注，这种情况变得越来越重 要（本章稍后讨论）。
A target profile will define the indication(s) that a drug candidate will be develope d for along with goals such as once a day dosing，faster onset of action， better side effect profile than a major competitor. The target profile can be refined and revised as a drug candidate moves through development and new data on the drug candidate or competitors become available. The logical next steps are to defin e the development strategy，for example，which indications to develop first which countries to aim to market the drug in and then to define the core clinical st udies necessary to achieve regulatory approval and commercial success.
新视角研究生英语读说写1二单元课后练习答案
Text Outline
1. Introduction (Paras. 1–7)
I can still remember my mother’s words pushing me to work hard for success in my boyhood.
Unit 2: Structure of the text
B. I became interested in crime stories in newspapers and I b_e_c_a_m__e_a__p_o_l_ic_e__re_p_o__rt_e_r working for Baltimore Sun in 1947
upon graduation from John Hopskins. (Paras. 16–18)
Unit 2: Reading comprehension
5. How did the author feel when his childhood fantasy about becoming a journalist with the New York Times came true?
雅思写作大作文SimonWritingTask2视频课笔记
Lesson 2: Introductions ---- Four types of questions1. DiscussionSome people think that it is more effective for students to study in groups, while others believe that it isbetter for them to study alone. Discuss both views and give your own opinion.Topic- study in groups or aloneAnswer- sometimes better alone, usually better in a groupPeople have different views about the effectiveness of group study as opposed to working alone. While there are some benefits to studying independently, I believe that group work is usually more productive.2. OpinionSome people believe that unpaid community service should be a compulsory part of high school programmers. To what extent do you agree or disagree?Topic- community service for all teenagersAnswer- 3 choice (agree, disagree, balanced opinion)It is sometimes argued that high school students should be made to do some work in their local communities. (agree) I completely agree that this kind of scheme would be a good idea.(disagree) It is sometimes argued that high school students should be made to do some work in their local communities. In my opinion, it would be wrong to force teenagers to do any kind ofunsalaried work.(want mention both side) It is sometimes argued that high school students should be made to do some work in their local communities. While I disagree with the idea of making such programmers compulsory, I do believe that voluntary community service could benefit young people.3. Problem and solutionSome people reoffend after they have been punished. Why do some people continue to commit crimesafter they have been punished, and what measures can be taken to tackle this problem?Topic- criminals reoffendAnswer- several reasons, a variety of measures (government, communities)It is true that punishments do not always deter criminals from committing more crimes. There are various reasons why offenders repeatedly break the law, but governments could certainly take steps to address this issue.4. Two-part questionAs most people spend a major part of their adult life at work, job satisfaction is an important element of individual well-being. What factors contribute to job satisfaction? How realistic is the expectation of job satisfaction for all workers?Topic- job satisfactionAnswer- several factors, unrealistic / impossibleWork plays a central role in our lives, and we would all like to feel fulfilled professionally. While a variety of factors may lead to job satisfaction, it would be unrealistic to expect everyone to be happy at work.Lesson 3: Main paragraphs ---- Firstly, secondly, finally & Idea, explain, example4 paragraph essay- 2 main body paragraphs - 5 sentences in each- 90 to 100 words each 2 types- Firstly, secondly, finally[ advantages, disadvantages, problems, solutions ] - Idea, explain, example[ one idea, a reason, an opinion ]Some people believe that unpaid community service should be a compulsory part of high school programmers. To what extent do you agree or disagree?Firstly, secondly, finally3-minute plan:-disagree for several reasons-school timetable is full, no time for community service-students’ work in other subjects would be affected-teenagers might not want to do it (reluctant, no motivation) Try to write 5 sentences1. Topic sentences2. Firstly3. Secondly4. FinallyThere are several reasons why I would argue against having compulsory community service for secondary school students. Firstly, the school curriculum is already full with important academic subjects, such as maths, science and languages. For example, I remember having an extremely busy timetable when I was at high school, and it would not have been possible to add to it. Secondly, students’ performance in other subjects would be affected if valuable study time were taken by charity work or neighbourhood improvement schemes. Finally, I believe that teenage students would be reluctant to take part in any programme of obligatory work, and this could lead to poor motivation and even bad behaviour.Idea, explain, example3-minute plan:- voluntary (not compulsory) community service is positive - students more motivated if they can choose- gain work experience, self confidence, skills- good for CVs, career, university admissions, employers3 Try to write 5 sentences IdeaExplain (2 or 3 sentences) ExampleOn the other hand, the opportunity to do voluntary community service could be extremely positive for high school students. By making these programmes optional, schools would ensure that only motivated students took part. These young people would gain valuable experience in an adult working environment, which could help to build their self confidence and enhance their skills. Having such experience and skills on their CVs could greatly improve school leavers’c areer prospects. For example, a period of voluntary work experience might impress a university admissions officer or a future employer.Linking words do not help your “vocabulary” score.Examiners want to see “topic vocabulary”.blue - linking words green - Topic vocabulary red– paraphrasingLesson 4: Conclusions- One sentence - No new information - Paraphrasing to show variety1. Discussion questionIn many cities the use of video cameras in public places is being increased in order to reduce crime,but some people believe that these measures restrict our individual freedom.Do the benefits of increased security outweigh the drawbacks?IntroductionIt is true that video surveillance has become commonplace in many cities in recent years. While I understand that critics may see this as an invasion of privacy, I believe that there are more benefits than drawbacks.ConclusionIn conclusion, I would argue that the advantages of using video security systems in public places dooutweigh the disadvantages.2. Opinion questionFamilies who send their children to private schools should not be required to pay taxes that support thestate education system.To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?IntroductionSome people believe that parents of children who attend private schools should not need to contribute to state schools through taxes. Personally, I completely disagree with this view.ConclusionIn conclusion, I do not believe that any financial concessions should be made for people who chooseprivate education.3. Problem and solution questionIn the developed world, average life expectancy is increasing.What problems will this cause for individuals and society?Suggest some measures that could be taken to reduce the impact of ageing populations.IntroductionIt is true that people in industrialised nations can expect to live longer than ever before. Although there will undoubtedly be some negative consequences of this trend, societies can take steps to mitigate these potential problems.ConclusionIn conclusion, various measures can be taken to tackle the problems that are certain to arise as the populations of countries grow older.4. Two-part questionThere are many different types of music in the world today.Why do we need music? Is the traditional music of a country more important than the internationalmusic that is heard everywhere nowadays?IntroductionIt is true that a rich variety of musical styles can be found around the world. Music is a vital part of all human cultures for a range of reasons, and I would argue that traditional music is more important than modern, international music.ConclusionIn conclusion, music is a necessary part of human existence, and I believe that traditional music should be given more importance than international music.Lesson 5: PlanningSome people think that it is more effective for students to study in groups, while others believe that it is betterfor them to study alone.Discuss both views and give your own opinion. 10-minute essay plan, 3 steps:1. Read and understand the question2. Plan your essay structure3. Plan ideas for the 2 main paragraphs1. Read and understand the question - highlight / underline key parts2. Plan your essay structure (4 paragraphs)1. Introduction: topic + answer[ topic ] – study in groups or alone[ answer ] – sometimes better alone, usually better in a group2. Benefits of studying alone3. Benefits of group study (my view)4. Conclusion: repeat answer - both have benefits, but I prefer group3. Plan ideas for the 2 main paragraphs (6 minutes)- brainstorm, note down any ideas you have- develop ideas in detail- keep asking yourself “why?” - think of examples to support your ideas- finally, try to group related ideas (number them)Lesson 6: Opinion essay ---- Do YOU agree or disagree? ( You CAN use “I” ,“my” or “in my opinion” )The money spent by governments on space programmes would be better spent on vital public servicessuch as schools and hospitals. To what extent do you agree or disagree? (275 words, band 9)agree, public services instead of space projectsgovernment spending[ answer ] – 1. Introduction: [ topic ] –2. Explain why “space” spending should be stoppedexpensive (scientists, facilities, equipment),no benefits to normal people, politicians showing power,waste of money when project fail, risk of accidents, death e.g.challenger space shuttle3. Explain why public service spending is bettercheaper e.g. doctors, teachers, police instead of astronautspublic service impact on everyonewe all use schools, hospitals, police, roads etc.reduce poverty, better quality of lifespend on services that benefit us all4. Conclusion: repeat answer – Governments in some countries spend large amounts of money onspace exploration programmes. I completely agree with the ideathat these are a waste of money, and that the funds should beallocated to public services.There are several reasons why space programmes should beabandoned. Firstly, it is extremely expensive to train scientists andother staff involved with space missions, and facilities andequipment also come at a huge cost to the government. Secondly,these programmes do not benefit normal people in our daily lives;they are simply vanity projects for politicians. Finally, manymissions to space fail completely, and the smallest technologicalerror can cost astronauts their lives. The Challenger space shuttledisaster showed us that space travel is extremely dangerous, andin my opinion it is not worth the risk.I believe that the money from space programmes should go to vitalpublic services instead. It is much cheaper to train doctors,teachers, police and other public service workers than it is to trainastronauts or the scientists and engineers who work on spaceexploration projects. Furthermore, public servants do jobs that havea positive impact on every member of society. For example, we alluse schools, hospitals and roads, and we all need the security thatthe police provide. If governments reallocated the money spent onspace travel and research, many thousands of people could belifted out of poverty or given a better quality of life.In conclusion, my view is that governments should spend money onservices that benefit all members of society, and it is wrong towaste resources on projects that do not improve our everyday lives.Lesson 7: Discussion essaySome people think that a sense of competition in children should be encouraged. Others believe that children who are taught to co-operate rather than compete become more useful adults.Discuss both these views and give your own opinion. (270 words, band 9)1. Introduction:benefits of both, co-operation more important [ topic ] –competition or co-operation?[ answer ] –2. Why encourage competition?motivation,work harder, be better than other children,self confidence, independent work, faster progress,competitive situation when leave school e.g. job interviews,prepared for adult life3. Why teach co-operation? (my view)co-operation even more important,e.g. at work (team, follow boss’s instructions, help junior staff),collaboration more useful than winning,better attitude for young people,working togetheraccept both views, co-operation better4. Conclusion: repeat answer – People have different views about whether children should be taught to becompetitive or co-operative. While a spirit of competition can sometimes beuseful in life,I believe that the ability to co-operate is more important.On the one hand, competition can be a great source of motivation forchildren. When teachers use games or prizes to introduce an element ofcompetitiveness into lessons, it can encourage children to work harder tooutdo the other pupils in the class. This kind of healthy rivalry may help to, while pushing them to work independentlybuild children’s self confidenceand progress more quickly. When these children leave school, theirconfidence and determination will help them in competitive situations suchas job interviews. It can therefore be argued that competition should beencouraged in order to prepare children for adult life.On the other hand, it is perhaps even more important to prepare childrenfor the many aspects of adult life that require co-operation. In the workplace,adults are expected to work in teams, follow instructions given by theirsuperiors, or supervise and support the more junior members of staff.Team collaboration skills are much more useful than a competitivedetermination to win. This is the attitude that I believe schools should fosterin young people. Instead of promoting the idea that people are eitherwinners or losers, teachers could show children that they gain more fromworking together.In conclusion, I can understand why people might want to encouragecompetitiveness in children, but it seems to me that a co-operative attitudeis much more desirable in adult life.Lesson 8: Problem and solution essayIn many countries schools have severe problems with student behaviour.What do you think are the causes of this? What solutions can you suggest? (270 words, band 9)1. Introduction:variety of reasons, steps can be taken to tackle [ topic ] –student behaviour in schools[ answer ] – 2. Cause of bad student behaviourparents not strict (too leninent), children don’t accept teachers’ instructions or school rules, teachers’ fault, no control, bad classroom management,influence of celebrities who are bad example3. My suggested solutionsparents set rules for children, use punishments, actions have consequences,schools train teachers and parents, discipline techniques, better communication,famous people act as role modelssummarise the problem and steps4. Conclusion: repeat answer – It is true that the behaviour of school pupils in some parts of the worldhas been getting worse in recent years. There are a variety ofpossible reasons for this, but steps can definitely be taken to tacklethe problem.In my opinion, three main factors are to blame for the way youngpeople behave at school nowadays. Firstly, modern parents tend tobe too lenient or permissive. Many children become accustomed togetting whatever they want, and they find it difficult to accept thedemands of teachers or the limits imposed on them by school rules.Secondly, if teachers cannot control their students, there must be anissue with the quality of classroom management training or supportwithin schools. Finally, children are influenced by the behaviour ofcelebrities, many of whom set the example that success can beachieved without finishing school.Student behaviour can certainly be improved. I believe that thechange must start with parents, who need to be persuaded that it isimportant to set firm rules for their children. When childrenmisbehave or break the rules, parents should use reasonablepunishments to demonstrate that actions have consequences. Also,schools could play an important role in training both teachers andparents to use effective disciplinary techniques, and in improving thecommunication between both groups. At the same time, famouspeople, such as musicians and football players, need to understandthe responsibility that they have to act as role models to children.In conclusion, schools will continue to face discipline problemsunless parents, teachers and public figures set clear rules anddemonstrate the right behaviour themselves.Lesson 9: Two-part essayNews editors decide what to broadcast on television and what to print in newspapers. What factors do you think influence these decisions? Do we become used to bad news, and would it be better if more good news was reported? (285 words, band 9)variety of factors, yes too much bad news1. Introduction: [ topic ] –decisions about news stories[ answer ] – 2. Factors that influence news editorsinterest or attract viewers / readersinform the public, important issue and events, in the public interestpressure from owners, promote political views3. Too much bad news, should report more goodaccustomed to bad news,war, crime, natural, disasters, human suffering,desensitizes us, cynical about the world,prefer positive news, e.g. medical workers, volunteers, kindness,news to inspire usdifficult news choices, more positive4. Conclusion: repeat answer – It is true that editors have to make difficult decisions about which news storiesthey broadcast or publish, and their choices are no doubt influenced by avariety of factors. In my opinion, we are exposed to too much bad news, and Iwould welcome a greater emphasis on good news.Editors face a range of considerations when deciding what news stories tofocus on. Firstly, I imagine that they have to consider whether viewers orreaders will be interested enough to choose their television channel or theirnewspaper over competing providers. Secondly, news editors have aresponsibility to inform the public about important events and issues, and theyshould therefore prioritise stories that are in the public interest. Finally, editorsare probably under some pressure from the owners who employ them. Forexample, a newspaper owner might have particular political views that he orshe wants to promote.It seems to me that people do become accustomed to negative news. We areexposed on a daily basis to stories about war, crime, natural disasters andtragic human suffering around the world. I believe that such repeatedexposure gradually desensitizes people, and we become more cynical aboutthe world and more sceptical that we can do anything to change it. I wouldprefer to see more positive news stories, such as reports of the work ofmedical staff after a natural disaster, or the kindness of volunteers who help intheir communities. This kind of news might inspire us all to lead better lives.In conclusion, it must be extremely difficult for editors to choose which newsstories to present, but I would like to see a more positive approach to this vitalpublic service.。
【精选】跨文化交际word版(1)
Unit 1 introduction一．文化文化是冻结了的人际交流，而交流是流动着的文化----W.B. Pearce, 1994.背景：长期以来，文化被认为是无处不在，无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。
被笼统地当作“生活方式”，社会生活的一切方面，积淀物，价值观念体系，众多规范，乃至艺术，政治，经济，教育，修养，文学，语言，思维的总和。
概括地讲，文化即是人们所思，所言，所为，所觉的总和。
在不同的生态或自然环境下，不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化，也被自己的文化所塑造。
It is said that there are at least 150 definitions about culture.“Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”(Sapir, 1921) “Culture is man’s medium, there is not one aspect of human life that isnot touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people expressthemselves, including shows of emotion, the way they think, how they move, howproblems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and fuction.” (E.T. Hall,1959)“A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, andbehaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas” (D.Brown, 1978)文化的特性：1). 文化是由人们的内隐和外显行为组成的。
外贸函电与写作第五章
3. Counter Offer:
■ 1. Counter-offers: A buyer does not agree with any or some of the transaction terms of a quotation or a firm offer, he sends a counter-offer. ■ In the counter-offer, the buyer may show his disagreement to the certain term or terms and state his own idea instead. Such alterations, no matter how slight they may appear to be, signify that business has to be negotiated on the renewed basis.
In the following cases you may give flexible offer: 1. New customer with the first inquiry. ■ 2. Old customer with the first inquiry for an new products. ■ 3. On the fair or show.
1. Introduction
Offers Counter-offer Counter-counter Offers
2.Offer :
An offer is a promise to supply goods on the terms and conditions stated. In an offer, the seller not only quotes the price of the goods, but also indicates all necessary terms, just as: The name of the goods, Quality, Quantity, Price, Time of Shipment, Terms of Payment and so on.
1.introduction
Introduction to Immunology
Liu chun 2016 – 03 – 01
1
一、发展史：
古老： 16世纪 人痘预防天花
① 接触法 ② 痘浆法 ③ 旱苗法 ④ 水苗法
18世纪 牛痘预防天花 ( Jenner )
Edward Jenner discovered that cowpox vaccination protected against smallpox in 1796. Officially smallpox eradicated in 1979.
中 枢
2、未成熟 LC克隆遇Ag 刺激后发生克隆清除; 成 熟 LC克隆遇Ag刺激后则 活化增殖分化，并清除Ag； 3、由于未成熟 LC克隆 在胸腺、骨髓中与自身Ag 相遇而致自身反应性LC克 隆清除；所以成熟LC克隆 主要针对外来Ag。因而免
疫系统能区别自己与非己。
外 周
7
克隆选择学说 ( Burnet )
44
20世纪获得诺贝尔医学生理学奖的免疫学家
年代 1901 1905 1908 1912 1913 1919 1930 1951 1957 1960 1972 1977 1980 学者姓名 Behring Koch Ehrlich Metchnikoff Carrel Richet Bordet Landsteiner Theler Bovet Burnet Medawar Edelman Porter Yalow Dausset Snell Benacerraf Jerne Kohler Milstein Tonegawa Murray Thomas Doherty Zinkernagel 国家 德国 德国 德国 俄国 法国 法国 比利时 奥地利 南非 意大利 澳大利亚 英国 美国 英国 美国 法国 美国 美国 丹麦 德国 阿根廷 日本 美国 美国 澳大利亚 瑞士 获奖成就 发现抗毒素，开创免疫血清疗法 发现结核杆菌，发明诊断结核病的结核菌素 提出抗体生成侧链学说和体液免疫学说 发现细胞吞噬作用，提出细胞免疫学说 器官移植 发现过敏现象 发现补体, 建立补体结合试验 发现人红细胞血型 发明黄热病疫苗 抗组胺药治疗超敏反应 提出抗体生成的克隆选择学说 发现获得性移植免疫耐受性 阐明抗体的化学结构 阐明抗体的化学结构 创立放射免疫测定法 发现人白细胞抗原 发现小鼠H-2系统 发现免疫应答的遗传控制 提出天然抗体选择学说和免疫网络学说 杂交瘤技术制备单克隆抗体 单克隆抗体技术及Ig基因表达的遗传控制 抗体多样性的遗传基础 第一例肾移植成功 第一例骨髓移植成功 提出MHC限制性，即T细胞的双识别模式 提出MHC限制性，即T细胞的双识别模式
戴语言学1-INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions "What is language?" and "How does language work?" It probes into various problems related to language such as "What do all languages have in common?", "What range of variation is found among languages?", "What makes language change?", "To what extent are social class differences reflected in language?", "How does a child acquire his mother tongue?", and many others.Linguistics studies not a n y particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.★Four criteria of doing linguistics: objectivity, rigorousness(accuracy), explicitness, and adequacy (信息充分).▲(Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The process of linguistic study is: first, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; second, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts; third, the hypotheses are tested by further observations; and finally, a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.)1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time. This has given rise to a number of relatively independent branches within the area of linguistics.What first drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Then, as linguists became interested in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication, they developed another branch of study related tosounds called phonology. (the study of sound patterns)The sounds used in linguistic communication are represented by symbols, i. e. morphemes. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax. (★The study of sentence structure; it attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in terms of rules)But the ultimate objective of language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences. In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.The study of all these aspects of language form the core of linguistics.Then, language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. Naturally, in the course of time the study of language has established close links with other branches of social studies, resulting in some interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study.Language and society are closely connected. The language a person uses often reveals his social background, and there exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; and language changes are often caused by social changes. The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolin guistics.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize, and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generallyBut in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.▲(Other branches of linguistics include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.)Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normally known as "grammar" in that the latter is based on "high" (religious, literary) written language. It aims to set models for language users to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it "correct" or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.▲(Modern linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. The major task of a linguist is to describe language in an objective way. His investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive in the sense that it tries to lay down a series of grammatical rules and these grammatical rules are then forced on the language users. Any use of language which conforms to the prescribed rules is labelled as correct, otherwise, it will be lablled as incorrect.)★高:All languages are systems of conventions, not systems of natural laws.The first and essential step in the study of any language is observing and setting down precisely what happens when native speakers speak it. Each language is unique in its pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. It cannot be described in terms of logic or of some theoretical, ideal language. It cannot be described in terms of any other language, or even in terms of its past. All languages are dynamic rather than static, and hence a “rule” in any language can only be a statement of contemporary practice. “Correctness”can rest only upon usage, for the simple reason that there is nothing else for it to rest on and all usage is relative.1.1.3.2Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. It is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.1.1.3.3Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. (▲And then in terms of function, the spoken form of language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written form, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.)Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the "revised" record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.1.1.3.4The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.1.1.3.5Similar to Saussure's distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950's. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, this enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g., slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F: de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century. But we have to be aware that before that language had been studied for centuries in Europe by such scholars as philosophers and grammarians. The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as "traditional grammar." Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Some of these have already been briefly mentioned before.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness". He does not believe that there is some absolute standard of correctness concerning language use which linguists or school teachers should view as their duty to maintain. Instead, he would prefer to be an observer and recorder of facts, but not a judge. He might recognize that one type of speech appears to be more socially acceptable than others because of the influence of fashion. But this will not make him think that the socially acceptable variety can replace all the other varieties, or the old words are always better than new ones or vice versa. He will regard the changes in language and language use as the result of a natural and continuous process, not something to be feared.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not thewritten. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Before the invention of sound recording, it was difficult for people to deal with utterances which existed only for seconds. Then, the traditional classical education was also partly to blame. People were encouraged to imitate the "best authors" for language usage. Many of the rules of traditional grammar apply only to the written language; they cannot be made meaningful in terms of the spoken language, without much qualification and addition.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. For a long time on the European continent it was unquestionably assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit. As a result, other languages were forced to fit into Latin patterns and categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present and future. To modern linguists, it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all the others. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.1.2 What is language?If we take linguistics to be the scientific study of language, our next question then is "What is language?" This may at first sound like a naive and simple question. Yet to this extremely familiar, everyday phenomenon, it is difficult to give a satisfactory definition. Some people probably will say "language is a tool for human communication". Far from a definition, this only tells us what language does, or what it is used f or, i.e. its function. Alternatively, one might say "language is a set of rules. " Then this tells nothing about its functions, and there are actually other systems that are also rule-governed.Modern linguists have proposed various definitions of language, some of which are quoted below:"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir, 1921)Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." (Hall, 1968)"From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infi nit e) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. " (Chomsky, 1957)Each of these definitions has its own special emphasis, and is not totally free from limitations. However, there are some important characteristics of human language linguists have agreed on; these are embraced in the following generally accepteddefinition:Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why "iblk" is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why "Been he wounded has " is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word "pen" and the thing we write with. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. "Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.1.2.2Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. By comparing language with animal communication systems, we can have a better understanding of the nature of language. A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett. He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.▲vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryAs mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. (▲In addition, the same sound may be used to refer to different objects in different languages.) On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example while"photo" and "copy" are both arbitrary, the compound word "photocopy" is not entirely arbitrary. But, non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language.The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.▲creativity or open-endednessLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear we are saying or hearing for the first time.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for gibbons draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. And bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.double articulation (sounds and meanings)Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. For example, the grouping of the three sounds /k/, /a:/, and /p/ can mean either a kind of fish (carp), or a public place for rest and amusement (pa rk). Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.▲By duality we mean that each language is organized at two levels or layers, one is sound and the other is meaning. The advantage of this division is that we can use limited number of sounds to produce unlimited number of sound combinations with distinctive meanings. e.g. in the language of English we use around 48 sounds to produce almost indefinite number of sound combinations (words). This feature is very economical for the system of language.eg. Santa Claus, Superman, mimicsLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what "displacement" means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e., in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.5)While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e., animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. e.g. the distinction between pack and back in meaning can only be due to the difference between the / p / and / b / sound in these two words.Revision exercises:1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?。
1. Introduction
Belt Analyst TM is a belt conveyor mathematical modeling tool developed by Overland Conveyor Co., Inc. It is the most easy-to-use engineering calculation program available today. Formulas in this program generally follow the form as published in the 5th and 6th Editions of BELT CONVEYORSFOR BULK MATERIALS as published by CEMA.The use of computers in the design of conveyor systems and the selection of components such as conveyor belt, idlers, drives and takeups, have enabled engineers to simulate almost any imaginable service condition and design accordingly. However, the traditional methodology to conveyor design is the use of rigid mechanics. This approach assumes the conveyor belt to be a rigid member and react accordingly. Up until a few years ago, this was adequate for most engineers' needs.As much longer conveyors with much greater loads became reality and unexplained problems arise, engineers became aware of these deficiencies. Many times, high service factors were used to offset the unknowns that occurred during the critical periods of acceleration and deceleration. During these periods, the elastic conveyor belt can react in a much less predictable pattern than a conveyor which is running at full speed.The computer results from Belt Analyst TM are based on the traditional rigid body theory. The dynamic modeling, essential on long overland flights, high tension conveyors and/or high speed conveyors requires much more information on the exact starting and stopping characteristics of the drive systems.If a dynamic analysis is required, please contact Overland Conveyor Co., Inc. for more information.Help Version 9.3.0CopyrightThis main source code and compiled executable applications of Belt Analyst TM is protected by United States copyright laws and international treaty provisions. You may make one copy of Belt Analyst TM solely for backup and archival purposes.You may not otherwise copy Belt Analyst TM or any accompanying written materials.Belt Analyst TM Copyright 1999 - 2010 Overland Conveyor Company, Inc., Lakewood, Colorado, USA.Disclaimer NoticeThis software and the information contained in the accompanying database have been prepared in accordance with recognized engineering principles.While it is believed to be accurate, this software and database information should not be used or reliedupon for any specific application without competent professional examination and verification for its accuracy, suitability, and applicability by a reputable conveyor engineer.Overland Conveyor Co., Inc. for itself and its respective agents and employees, disclaims any and allexpress or implied warranties, without limitation, and particularly those of fitness for any general or particular use or purpose, or of freedom from infringement of any patent, trademark, or copyright inregard to information contained or referred to herein.Nothing contained herein shall be construed as granting a license, express or implied, under any patents or copyrights.Technical SupportUse the following options for technical help:1.Belt Analyst TM help files.3.E-mail -BeltAnalyst@4.Telephone - (303) 973-7357 Office5.Fax - (303) 217-5208Demo ProgramThe Demo program is actually a complete, full featured copy of the Belt Analyst TM software package. The demo can be evaluated for 30 days after it is installed on a computer. The number of evaluation days remaining is displayed on the splash screen in the License Status field when the program boots up. The splash screen can also be accessed from the program by selecting the File / License Information menu item.After the 30-day evaluation period is over the program will become a "Read Only" version beyond the splash screen. To activate the program the user will have to go through the licensing procedure which can be accessed by depressing the License button on the splash screen.The software will not let the user initiate a second evaluation period on the same computer. However, the software will allow the user to install a 30-day evaluation copy on as many different computers as desired. Overland Conveyor Co., Inc. encourages the sharing of the evaluation software with otherusers.The most up-to-date version of Belt Analyst TM can be downloaded over the internet fromPurchase / RegistrationBelt Analyst TM purchase information can be found on the web site . Call for special rates on a network version or for multiple single user copies.Please call with a credit card number or P.O. number.1-888-252-7665 Toll Free1-303-217-5207 Voice1-303-217-5208 FaxThe toll-free number will be answered between 9:00 AM and 4:00 PM CST Monday through Friday.A site code (see licensing procedure) to activate your software can be delivered via telephone, fax, e-mail or post.For more purchasing information use the following e-mail address:SalesInfo@ReferencesWhile it is believed to be accurate, this software and database information should not be used or relied upon for any specific application without competent professional examination and verification for its accuracy, suitability, and applicability by a reputable engineer. There are several references to the proper design of a belt conveyor.BELT CONVEYORS FOR BULK MATERIALS, 5th Edition, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association, 1997BELT CONVEYORS FOR BULK MATERIALS, 6th Edition, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association, 2005License AgreementOverland Software License AgreementThis Software License Agreement (Agreement) is made effective as of the date of purchase or first use of the Belt Analyst TM, between the Licensee and Overland Conveyor Company, Inc., with offices at 12640 West Cedar Drive, Suite D, Lakewood, Colorado 80228 ("Overland").This Agreement pertains to Overland's software, called Belt Analyst TM, including object code and documentation. Overland has the sole and exclusive ownership of all right, title, and interest in and toBelt Analyst TM source code, object code and documentation, and all copies thereof, and allmodifications and enhancements thereto (including ownership of all copyrights and other intellectual property rights pertaining thereto), subject only to the license expressly granted to the Licensee herein. This Software License Agreement does not provide the Licensee with title or ownership ofBelt Analyst TM, but only a right of limited use. From time to time, at its sole discretion, Overland Conveyor Co., Inc may provide enhancement, updates or newer versions of the software on its then standard terms and conditions thereof. This agreement shall apply to such enhancements.In exchange for the non-exclusive, non-transferable license to use Belt Analyst TM and subject to the terms and provisions of this agreement, Overland and the Licensee agree as follows:I. PAYMENTSThe Licensee agrees to pay Overland the then current fees for Belt Analyst TM, and for any additional licenses required for use of Belt Analyst TM on additional computers.II. LIMITED USE LICENSEA. Overland Conveyor Co., Inc grants Licensee the right to use one copy of the enclosed Belt Analyst TM software program, which includes computer software and may include associated media, printed materials and electronic documentation on a single terminal connected to a single computer (that is, with a single CPU) or in a networked environment according to the product purchased.B. The Licensee may not:1. Network the software or otherwise use it on more than one computer terminal at the same time unless the networked version is purchased;2. Allow any third party to use Belt Analyst TM without a non-disclosure agreement approved by Overland;3. Sub-license or lease Belt Analyst TM to another party; or4. Otherwise transfer or permit use of the software in any way without prior written consent of Overland; or5. Reverse engineer, de-compile, or disassemble the software.C. Overland may at reasonable times inspect the Licensee's premises and equipment to verify that all of the terms and conditions of this Agreement are being observed.III. PROGRAM CODE & DOCUMENTATIONThe licensed products shall be provided to Licensee and used strictly in machine-readable object code format. Licensee shall have no right of access or use of the Source Code.IV. NO TRANSFER OF RIGHTSThere is no transfer to the Licensee of any title or ownership of any component of Belt Analyst TM or any patent, copyright, trade secret, trade name, trademark or other rights related to Belt Analyst TM , regardless of the form that original or other copies exist in. The Licensee shall exercise the same degree of care in protecting Overland's rights under this Agreement as the Licensee exercises in protecting its own rights involving similar material.V. COPYINGA. The Licensee may make copies of Belt Analyst TM software for nonproductive backup purposes only, provided that the Licensee reproduce and include Overland's copyright notice on each backup copy. Backup copies must be stored in a safe and secure location. The Licensee must maintain an accurate record of the location of backup copies at all times.B. Documentation that accompanies Belt Analyst TM is copyrighted and the sole property of Overland, and is provided solely to support the authorized use of Belt Analyst TM. The Licensee may not use, copy, modify or distribute such material or any copy, adaptation, transcription or merged portion thereof, except as expressly authorized by a separate written agreement with Overland.VI. COPYRIGHTSOverland represents and warrants to the Licensee that Belt AnalystTM software, names and marks and documentation are either patented, copyrighted, trademarked, or otherwise proprietary to Overland. The Licensee agrees to never remove any such copyrights, trademark notices, other notices and logos from Belt Analyst TM software and documentation.VII. TRANSFER OR ASSIGNMENTSThe Licensee may not transfer or assign this License, Belt Analyst TM object code, sample programs, or documentation to another party without written approval of Overland. No transfer will be approved unless it includes updates and all prior versions. Provided, however, nothing contained herein shall operate to prevent the Licensee from selling, assigning or transferring this License Agreement to any person or other entity that acquires ownership or management control of the Licensee. The transferee shall agree in writing, if so requested by Overland, to be bound by the duties and obligations of the transferring party (the Licensee) under this License Agreement.VIII. TERMINATIONThis License is effective until terminated. The Licensee may terminate this License Agreement by providing written notice to Overland and destroying the Belt Analyst TM software, documentation and all copies thereof. This License will terminate as provided herein if the Licensee fails to comply with any provision of this License or fails to pay license fees in the amounts and according to terms and conditions shown in Schedule A. This Agreement may be terminated by either party upon written notice should the other party fail substantially to perform in accordance with its terms through no fault of the party initiating the termination. However, prior to termination under this paragraph, the party desiring to terminate shall first provide written notice specifying the alleged nonperformance and allowing the non-performing party a reasonable time to perform. In the event of nonpayment of money by the Licensee, a reasonable time for performance shall be seven calendar days following the Licensee's receipt of a certified letter from Overland. In the event of other types of nonperformance, the non-performing party shall be allowed such time as is under the circumstances reasonably necessary to allow it to perform. Upon termination, the Licensee shall destroy all copies of Belt Analyst TM software and documentation. After termination, all provisions regarding ownership, warranty, confidentiality, indemnity, liability and limits thereon shall survive.IX. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY, AND LIMITATION OF REMEDIES AND LIABILITIES.A. Overland warrants and represents to the Licensee that:1. Overland is the owner of Belt Analyst TM or otherwise has the right to grant to the Licensee this license to use Belt Analyst TM ;2. No applicable statute or regulation has been or will be violated by the licensing of Belt Analyst TM to the Licensee under this Agreement;3. There is currently no suit by any third party based on an alleged violation of Overland's right to license Belt Analyst TM ; and4. Upon delivery by Overland and acceptance by the Licensee, Belt Analyst TM will substantially conform to the Reference Manuals provided by Overland.B. OVERLAND DOES NOT WARRANT THAT UNIT ANALYST OR ANY OTHER DELIVERABLES PROVIDED HEREUNDER WILL MEET THE LICENSEE'S REQUIREMENTS OR THAT THE OPERATION OF Belt Analyst TM WILL BE UNINTERRUPTED OR ERROR FREE. OVERLAND MAKES NO OTHER WARRANTIES, EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING WARRANTIES OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, MERCHANTABILITY, TITLE, ACCURACY, AND INTEGRATION.C. THE PARTIES ACKNOWLEDGE THAT THE FOLLOWING PROVISIONS HAVE BEEN NEGOTIATED BY THEM AND REFLECT A FAIR ALLOCATION OF RISK. THIS WARRANTY AND DISCLAIMER GIVES THE LICENSEE SPECIFIC LEGAL RIGHTS AND THE LICENSEE MAY HAVE OTHER RIGHTS THAT VARY FROM STATE TO STATE. IF Belt Analyst TM FAILS TO COMPLY WITH THE WARRANTIES SET FORTH ABOVE, OVERLAND WILL MAKE A REASONABLE EFFORT TO CORRECT PROGRAM ERRORS WITHIN A REASONABLE PERIOD OF TIME. IF OVERLAND IS UNABLE TO CORRECT THE PROGRAM ERRORS, OVERLAND WILL REFUND A FAIR PORTION OF THE SOFTWARE LICENSE FEES THE LICENSEE PAID OVERLAND WITHIN THE IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING TWELVE MONTHS. SUCH REFUND WILL FULLY SATISFY THE LICENSEE'S CLAIMS FOR SOFTWARE FAILURE. ANY REPLACEMENT SOFTWARE WILL BE WARRANTED ACCORDING TO THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT.THE REMEDY STATED HEREIN IS IN LIEU OF ALL OTHER REMEDIES.D. THIS SOFTWARE AND THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE ACCOMPANYING DATABASE HAVE BEEN PREPARED IN ACCORDANCE WITH RECOGNIZED ENGINEERING PRINCIPALS. WHILE IT IS BELIEVED TO BE ACCURATE, THIS SOFTWARE AND DATABASE INFORMATION SHOULD NOT BE USED OR RELIED UPON FOR ANY SPECIFIC APPLICATION WITHOUT COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL EXAMINATION AND VERIFICATION OF ITS ACCURACY, SUITABILITY, AND APPLICABILITY AND SAFETY BY A REPUTABLE ENGINEER. OVERLAND, FOR ITSELF AND ITS RESPECTIVE AGENTS AND EMPLOYEES, DISCLAIMS ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, WITHOUT LIMITATION, THAT THE SOFTWARE WILL PRODUCE RESULTS THAT ARE WITHOUT RISK OF INJURY ANY PERSON OR ENTITY.LICENSEE MUST INDEPENDENTLY ASSURE ITSELF THAT USE OF THE SOFTWARE PRODUCES RESULTS THAT ARE SAFE IN ACTUAL USE.E. EXCEPT FOR THE DUTY TO INDEMNIFY PROVIDED IN SECTION X, OVERLAND SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OF THE LICENSEE, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, LOSS OF DATA, REVENUE, PROFITS, CUSTOMERS, OR GOOD WILL. OVERLAND'S LIABILITY FOR A DEFAULT OF THIS AGREEMENT SHALL BE LIMITED TO THE AMOUNT OF THE FEES PAID BY THE LICENSEE TO OVERLAND WITHIN THE PAST TWELVE MONTHS.F. NO WRITTEN OR ORAL INFORMATION OR ADVICE GIVEN BY OVERLAND DEALERS, DISTRIBUTORS, AGENTS, OR EMPLOYEES WILL IN ANY WAY INCREASE OR MODIFY THE SCOPE OF THE WARRANTIES CONTAINED IN THIS AGREEMENT.X. INDEMNIFICATIONA. Overland shall indemnify, defend and hold harmless the Licensee, its shareholders, directors,officers, and employees from any and all claims for damages, losses, lawsuits, fines, penalties, costs and expenses of third parties relating to or arising out of any claim that the use of Belt Analyst TM by the Licensee under this Agreement infringes on any United States patent, copyright, trademark, orother proprietary right, provided that the Licensee gives Overland prompt written notice of such suits and permits Overland to control the defense thereof. In the event, as a result of any claim or infringement which Overland has an obligation to defend in accordance with this section, Licensee is enjoined from using Belt Analyst TM , or if Overland believes Belt Analyst TM is likely to become the subject of such a claim of infringement, Overland, at its option and expense, may procure the right for the Licensee to continue to use Belt Analyst TM or replace or modify Belt Analyst TM so as to make it non-infringing, provided that the performance thereof is not adversely affected in a material manner. If Overland, in its sole discretion, determines that neither of these options is commercially reasonable, Overland may terminate the license granted herein with respect to the affected software and, as part of its obligations pursuant to this section, refund to the Licensee upon return of the affected software, a fair portion of the license fees the Licensee paid Overland for the affected software within the past twelve months.B. The Licensee shall, at all times defend, indemnify and hold harmless Overland, its officers, directors, shareholders, employees, successors and assigns from and against any and all actions, suits, liabilities, prosecutions, penalties, fines, losses, damages, costs, charges, attorneys' fees and all other expenses relating to or arising from any and all claims which are based upon or due to: any failure by the Licensee to comply with any term or provision of this Agreement; any breach, error or inaccuracy in any representation or warranty made by the Licensee herein; any negligence or willful misconduct by the Licensee, its officers, directors or employees; or any use of the software or results or output of the software which results in injury of any kind to any person or entity.XI. INSTALLATION AND IMPLEMENTATIONA. Licensee is specifically responsible for the following administrative functions associated with the use of Belt Analyst TM :1. Computer hardware maintenance;2. Operating system maintenance;3. Administration and allocation of disk space and4. Creation and execution of a process for regular database backups;5. System security;6. All software that must interact with or interface with Belt Analyst TM.B. Any licensed product shall be deemed accepted by Licensee unless Licensee notifies Overland in writing of a material defect in the licensed product within ten (10) business days after installation of the product. The Licensee may delete the program by executing the "Delete License" command and returning the program generated code proving that such deletion has been performed to Overland within this 10 day period. Refunds after that time are given in the sole discretion of Overland. If material defects are discovered during this time, Licensee shall provide a written "punchlist" identifying the specification at issue and explaining why the Licensed Product does not meet the specification. Overland shall have a reasonable opportunity to correct, replace or provide functional "workarounds" for all punchlist items or to commence corrective action reasonably acceptable to Licensee and proceed with reasonable diligence to completion. Upon notice of correction, the 10 day test period shall be repeated. If Licensee makes substantial beneficial use of the Licensed Product at any time, it shall conclusively be deemed accepted and any outstanding punchlist items shall beaddressed to the extent provided under Section IX ("Warranties") or separate maintenance agreement.C. During the term of this Agreement, Overland shall provide telephone assistance only regarding the use and operation of the then current version of Belt Analyst TM to the Licensee's Belt Analyst TM system manager and one other user designated in writing by the Licensee from Monday through Friday, from 9 AM to 5 PM Mountain Time, except national holidays. 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北京理工大学 人工智能导论 刘峡壁 1.Introduction
How to measure Machine Intelligence?
Two views
Behavior/action (weak AI )
• Can the machine act intelligently? • Turing test.
1. Learning Approach
John McCarthy:
Q. What about making a ``child machine'' that could improve by reading and by learning from experience? A. This idea has been proposed many times, starting in the 1940s. Eventually, it will be made to work. However, AI programs haven't yet reached the level of being able to learn much of what a child learns from physical experience. Nor do present programs understand language well enough to learn much by reading.
Exploration, modification, and extension of domains by manipulation of domain-specific constraints, or by other means.
AI:Introduction 14
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1.4 Elements of a BA Thesis
1.4.2 Body of the Paper
1. Introduction 1.1 Literature Review 1.2 Aims of the Present Study 2. Comparison Between Chinese and English Kinship Terms 2.1 Similarities 2.2 Differences 3. A case Stud of Translation of Kinship Terms in A dream of Red Mansions 3.1 Source of data 3.2 Research methods 4. Analysis of Translation of Kinship Terms in A dream of Red Mansions 4.1 Transliteration 4.2 Free Translation 5. Conclusion
Fiction vs. non-fiction Writing of poem, essay, drama, novel Popular writing vs. professional writing Technical writing vs. academic writing Literary writing vs. non-literary writing (scientific writing) Speculative writing vs. experimental writing
Original theories or ideas Original research methodologies Original perspectives Original dms of Writing a BA Thesis
1.3.1 Significance
1.7 Reading List
Reference books: Chen, Aimin and Qi, Shouhua. Effective Academic Writing in English: An Essential Guide [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2005. Delvin, Brain. International Standards for Students’ Writing [M]. Beijing: Tsinghua University, 2004. Huang, Guowen & M. Ghadessy. How to Write a Dissertation in English [Z]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2008. Slade, Carole. Form and Style: Research Papers, Reports and Theses (the 10th edition) [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005. 蔡昌卓、刘振聪. 英语教学研究与论文写作[Z]. 桂林 广西师范大学 桂林: 蔡昌卓、刘振聪 英语教学研究与论文写作 出版社， 出版社，2002. 穆诗雄, 英语专业毕业论文写作[Z]. 北京 外语教学与研究出 北京: 穆诗雄 et al. 英语专业毕业论文写作 版社， 版社，2003. Journals： ： 外语教学与研究，中国翻译，外国文学评论（外国文学研究） 外语教学与研究，中国翻译，外国文学评论（外国文学研究）
1.1 Basic Writing & Academic Writing (Chapter 2, PP9-14)
1.1.1 Basic Writing
Definition: everyday writing on how to organize one’s ideas/thoughts and express them correctly, effectively and efficiently Focus: general writing skills and strategies
Guide to BA Thesis Writing
by Victor Yu School of Foreign Languages, SCUN August 2010
1. Introduction
1.1 Basic Writing & Academic Writing 1.2 Several Terms Concerning Chinese “lunwen” 1.3 Significance and Aims of Writing a BA Thesis 1.4 Elements of a BA Thesis 1.5 Major Contents of the Course 1.6 Teaching Methodology 1.7 Reading List 1.8 Assessment 1.9 Basic Requirements
1.2 Several Terms Concerning Chinese “lunwen”
1.2.1 Definition of “article, essay, paper, thesis, dissertation”
Article: a piece of writing, complete in itself, in a newspaper or other periodicals Essay: a piece of writing, usu. short and in prose, on any one subject Paper: an essay, esp. one to be read to a learned society, e.g. a research paper, a term paper, a course paper Thesis: a statement or theory put forward and supported by arguments, esp. a lengthy written essay submitted as part of the requirements for a university degree, e.g. a BA thesis, a MA thesis (see P2) Dissertation: a long written or spoken account (e.g. as submitted for a higher university degree), e.g. a PhD dissertation
1.2 Several Terms Concerning Chinese “lunwen”
1.2.2 Similarities and Dissimilarities Similarities: macrostructures, ways of writing, ways of doing research, process of writing Dissimilarities: level of originality
1.4 Elements of a BA Thesis
1.4.1 BA Thesis
Front cover (in Chinese) Copyright page Writing Task (in English) Claiming the originality of the thesis Acknowledgements Abstract (in English) Abstract (in Chinese) Table of Contents Body of the Paper (subdivided) Appendix (optional) Bibliography Back Cover
an integral part of a four-year undergraduate study an unavoidable procedure of teaching practice for talent education an important criteria for granting a bachelor’s degree
1.4 Elements of a BA Thesis
1.4.3 Supplementary Materials
01 开题报告 02 指导教师评语表 03 答辩情况记载表 04 论文成绩评定表 05 论文指导记录
1.5 Major Contents of the Course
1. Introduction (2 periods) 2. Process of Writing a BA Thesis (2 periods) 3. Writing the Section of Abstract (2 periods) 4. Wring the Section of Introduction and/or Literature (2 periods) 5. Writing the Section of Methods and Data (2 periods) 6. Writing the Section of Results and Discussion (2 periods) 7. Writing the Section of Conclusion (2 periods) 8. Writing the Section of Bibliography/References and Appendixes(2 periods) 9. Thesis Formats for Literary and Non-literary Studies(2 periods)
1.1 Basic Writing & Academic Writing (Chapter 2, PP9-14)