Unit 7 Energy and temperature

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热能与动力工程专业英语重点原版

1.开口系统：与外界既有物质交换又有能量交换，把研究对象控制在某个空间。

---定容积系统 An Open system (or a control volume 控制体积）is a properly selected region in space. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.such as, A Water heater, a turbine and a compressor, etc2.闭口系统：系统与外界只有能量（功量、热量）的交换而无质量交换。

——定质量系统A Closed system (a control mass 控制质量) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass enters or leave a closed system.such as, Piston-cylinder device (汽缸-活塞装置）3.绝热系统：系统与外界只有功量和质量的交换，而无热量的交换。

Adiabatic system is that no heat cross the boundary or heat is negligible compared with work cross the boundary4.孤立系统：系统与外界既无能量交换又无质量交换，即系统与环境不发生任何作用。

Isolated system is a special case that no mass and energy cross the boundary.5.热力学第一定律：自然界一切物体都具有能量，能量有各种不同形式，它能从一种形式转化为另一种形式，从一个物体传递给另一个物体，在转化和传递过程中能量的总和不变。

chapter- 7 Heat transfer

Heat transfer by conduction
Fourier’s First Law of Heat Transfer
q dT = −k A dx
q is the rate of heat flow, A is the area through which heat is transferred. The expression q/A, the rate of heat transfer per unit areas, is called the heat flux. The derivative dT/dx is the temperature gradient. K is thermal conductivity.
Conduction: Heat will be transferred between adjacent molecules. Convection: Heat is transferred when molecules move from one point to another and exchanges energy with another molecule in the other location. Radiation: the phenomenon of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.
If the wall of the cylinder consists of layers having different thermal conductivities. T1 and T2 must transect a layer bounded by r1 and r2, which has a uniform thermal conductivity k1. Similarly, the layer bounded by r and r where the temperatures are T and T must also have a uniform thermal conductivity, k2.

视听说听力原文

UNIT1Task 1: EnrollingGood morning, everyone. I’d like to welcome you to City University. I’m Betty Russell and I work in the International Students’ Office. I have some important for you. First, you must enroll by August 28th. Pick up your ID card at our office. Them, you’ll need to pick up a library card so that you can borrow books from the library. Show them your ID card in the library and they will do it for you. You may be thinking about the sports facilities at our school. There’s no charge for student use, but of course you’ll have to show your ID card. Concerning the medical assistance, the University has its own health center, and all services are free for enrolled students.1.B2.D3.B4.C5.ATask 1: University LifeUniversity life is a new and different experience for me. First of all, living at the university gives me a sense of responsibility, of being on my own. My parents aren’t around to say, “No, you’re not going out tonight.”I decide everything for myself. Being around lots of friendly people is another aspect I like about university life. On my first say, when I arrived on campus, I was a bit confused about where I was going. An upperclassman noticed out I was looking for my dorm, he said, “Oh, just follow me; that’s where I’m going.” Now, I can really say that I feel comfortable in the dorm because there are so many friendly people around to talk with. Finally, I LOVE HA VING Fridays off; I would not be able to deal with five days of classes in a row. How did I do it in high school? I love sleeping in on Fridays. I guess I’m sort of a party animal, but it seems like I go out every Thursday night. It also seems like I don’t get home until early the next day1 My head hits the pillow and I don’t move until Friday afternoon.1.new and different2.on his own3. a bit confused4.talk with5.sleep inUNIT3Task 1: A PictureI have a picture that sits on my desk in my bedroom. When I have trouble studying, or I’m worried about an exam, I just take a look at it. It is a picture of my best friends taken years ago when we were in high school. It reminds me of the good time we’ve shared and the support their friendship still gives me today. Even though our lives have gone in different directions, the bond we created has kept us close. Every week I get a message on my answering machine from one of them, or a letter in the mail with the latest news or vacation photos. I often get e-mail with a joke for the day,or words of comfort about some problems in my life. My friends have shown up for surprise birthday parties, and one of them even traveled two hours from the other end of town just to watch my first English speech contest. Our friendship has carried me through a lot of difficult experiences, and has enriched the good ones. It is the kind of friendship that outlasts disagreements, changes, and separation.1.C2.A3.D4.B5.BTask 2: Problem of Meeting PeopleAs a foreign student, I have a number of problems, both academically and socially. The biggest one is meeting people. I feel confident about my ability to cope with problems from my studies, but I’m not comfortable making friends with other students, especially local ones. Perhaps I’m worrying unnecessarily, but I find it difficult to talk to them and to make friends. The primary reasons is the language barrier. My English is quite standard and forma, and although that helps me with my academic work, I have trouble understanding other students when they are just talking. It seems to me that in order to meet with other students I really need informal, colloquial English. Besides, there’s the cultural gap. That’s why it’s so difficult for overseas students and native English speaking students to really get to know each other. I really want to overcome this difficulty. I guess the best way to begin is to start talking about course work that we share; and then I could suggest going for a cup of tea or coffee. Over coffee we could get to know each other. Another way would be to join a club, like a tennis club or a photo club, because that immediately gives you something in common with other people there. It gives you a starting point to build on.1.He has both academic and social problems.2.He fells confident about his ability to cope with his studies.3.The language barrier is the main reason why he finds it hard to make friends with localstudents.4.It is difficult for overseas students and native English speaking students to really get to knoweach other because there is the cultural gap.5.Te best way for the overseas students to actually overcome the difficulty of making friendswith native English speaking students is to start talking about course work.Task 2: How to build lifelong friendship?You may have a lot of friends and expect your friendships to last a lifetime. However, lifelong friendships are not always what everybody can get. Friends sometimes misunderstand each other. For one thing, you may want your friends to be near at hand, but also you need your independence and privacy. For example, when one of your friends comes asking if it is all right to spend the evening in your house, sometimes you just say “no” to hi or her because it is nor convenient for you. Unfortunately, not all your friends understand this type of independence. They believe that friends can ask for any favor and the answer should always be “yes”. Also, misunderstanding sometimes occurs when you ask for help. You expect your friends to help you mo matter what the circumstances are. But the fact is, your friends may not always drop everything to satisfy each of your needs. This may make you angry with them and your friendship could fade. The most important thing for you and your friends to do is to always show understanding and respect for each other.1.T2.F3.F4.T5.TUNIT4Task 1: Weather ForecastingWe all know that it’s not possible for man to control the weather. But we can tell what important changes there will be in the weather in the short term. This is called weather forecasting. Many people rely on the weatherman to provide that information, but one method of weather forecasting is simply to use your eyes and brains. For example, if you see a rainbow in rainy weather in the evening, this is a sign that the weather will soon be clear and fine. Sometimes distant objects such as hills and tall trees seem to be very clear and near; this is a sign of much water vapor in the air, and then rain will probably come. If a fog appears just about sunrise in the morning, then the day will be arm. If the sunset is mostly red in color, then the following day will be fine. If the stars twinkle at night, then fine weather will come the next day.1.B2.D3.C4.A5.DTask 1: Mental Energy and SeasonYou may not believe that our mental energy varies from season to season. But some people think that it does. Research has shown that climate and temperature have a definite effect on our mental abilities. Scientists have discovered that cool weather is much more favorable for creative thinking than is summer heat. Spring spears to be the best period of the year for thinking. People seem to be a lot sharper in spring than they are in any other season. One reason may be that in spring people’s mental abilities are affected by the same factors that bring about great changes in nature. Fall is the next-best season, then sinter. Summer seems to be the best time to take a long vacation from thinking. This does not mean that all people are less intelligent in summer than they are during the rest of the year. It does mean, however, that the mental abilities of most people tend to be lowest in summer. Be aware of these facts, and you will bring your talent into full playUNIT5Task 1: American Eating HabitsEating habits in America really get a lot of criticism. But the truth is, it matters much where in America you look. In big cities, people are becoming more health-conscious every day. This is shown by what foods they choose to buy in supermarkets, and what restaurants they eat in. There is now a big push for “green” foods that are grown naturally. In cities like New York and Chicago, restaurants offer new and healthy styles to stay ahead of the competition. However, these habits contrast with those in America’s heartland. Here, people tend to eat more traditional and higher fat foods, such as breakfasts of eggs, bacon, sausages, toast and other greasy, but delicious foods. Fast food chain restaurants such as McDonald’s and the Olive Garden, which serve cheaper food, drawTask 1: Foods in the WorldFood is national and international. Many people like their own national dishes and a variety of foreign ones. You can find European and Oriental restaurants on most large cities. You can findItalian, French, Chinese, and Mexican restaurants in New York, Washington, San Francisco, and many other cities in the United States. As well, you might also find Greek and Middle Eastern restaurants in some cities in the US. American hamburgers and hot dogs are popular in Tokyo and Paris. In almost every country you will find rice, potatoes, eggs, bread, soup, meat, vegetables, milk, fruit, and other basic foods. People all over cook them differently in different countries. People all over the world also prefer different things to drink. The English drink a lot of tea, and the French a lot of wine. Americans prefer coffee, milk or pop. German beer is now completely international. Children are often very conservative about new foods. In the United States they often prefer to eat the same three or four favorite dishes: hamburgers and French fires, hot dogs, fried chicken, and ice cream.1. national international2. national dishes foreign ones.3. hamburgers hotdogs Paris4. tea coffee milk pop5. children three or four hamburgers fried chickenUNIT7II. Listening Skills Identifying Prices1.M: I want two correction pens and a notebook. How much are they?W: $ 1.95 for each correction pen. $ 5.00 for the notebook.Q: How much does the man have to pay?2.W: Ooh, it’s only $9.8. I bet Jane would love this blue vase. Flowers are really her thing.M: The salesgirl said it is 30% off today, and it will be the normal price tomorrow.Q: How much will the vase cost tomorrow?3.W: Wow, what a wonderful yard sale. Did you see the sofa? It’s in good shape, and he’sselling it for just $100.M:Yeah. And that computer, just $150. What a steal! The one we saw last Saturday was three times as expensive as it.Q: How much was the computer they saw last week?4. M: Hi. I’d like to book two tickets for this weekend’s concert. How much for generaladmission?W: General admission is $25 per ticket and is standing room only. Seat tickets range from $35 to $50, depending on the section you want.Q: How much are two seat tickets?5. W: Hey, Nancy. I’ve got this coupon that says if I buy three cans of Coke, I get a free bag ofchips.M: You’d better look at it more carefully. It says three bottles of Coke. The bottles are over there. $1.30 for each.Q: How much will the man pay to get three cans of Coke and a bag of chips?1.D2.B3.C4.B5.DTask 1: Malls in the U.S.Malls are popular places for Americans to go. People like malls for many reasons. They feel safe because malls have private security guards and sometimes even police stations. Parking is usually free, and the weather inside is always fine. The newest malls have beautiful rest areas with waterfalls and large green trees. The largest mall in the United States is the Mal of America in Minnesota. It covers 4.2 million square feet. It has 350 stores, eight nightclubs, and a seven-acre park! There are parking spaces for 12,750 cars. About 750,000 people shop there every week. The first indoor mall in the United States was built in 1965 in Minnesota, but now malls are like town centers where people come to do many things. They shop, eat foods from all over the world, and see movies at theaters. Some people even get their daily exercise from the new sport of “mall walking.” Others go to malls to meet friends. In some malls, people can see a doctor or a dentist and even attend church. In a word, people can do just about everything in malls.1.A2.C3.B4.D5.DTask 1: Does complaining work?Many people tolerate bad service or inferior products rather than make a complaint. They feel that complaining won’t do any good. In fact, they’re wrong: complaining works because companies don’t want dissatisfied customers. If you have a complaint, do something about it right away. The longer you wait, the harder it will be to get your complaint settled. First, you can complain to one of the clerks. If they cannot help you, then ask politely to speak to a manager. Also, many stores have Customer Service representatives whose job is to solve problems in customer relations. These people are eager to assist because companies realize that dissatisfied customers can damage their reputations. You should always insist on your own rights as a customer. You have the right to receive a product you ordered in timely manner and in good condition. With airlines, you have the right to be on the flight you’ve booked. You can also expect a discount if you receive less than you have agreed upon—a hotel room with a view of a brick wall instead of an ocean view, for example.1. tolerate complaint2. do any good dissatisfied customers3. longer harder settled4. Customer Service solve problems5. the right in a timely mannerUnit9Making Calculations1.W: It sounds expensive. Why did they charge you so much for repairing the computer?M：Well, it’s $25 for labor to start with. A new modern cost another 50 bucks. On top of that I needed a new battery, and it cost $17.Q: How much did the man spend altogether fixing his computer?2.W: How long are you on the Internet every day?M：About three hours a day. I promised Dad to cut that in half, but the Internet is so slow.Q: How much time has the man promised to spend on the Net every day.3.W: Where did you get all these e-mails?M：I got ten messages from classmates, one about an assignment and one from my brother.Five were spam, the annoying stuff that comes at all times.Q: How many e-mail messages did the woman get altogether?4.W: It takes twice as long to open my Hotmail now. I need over a minute to see my mail. Is theproblem Hotmail or the ISP?M：Forget Hotmail. I get e-mail through a local provider in ten seconds. Try it.Q: How long did it use to take the man to get his mail?5.W: Talking about computer, what’s the meaning of Pentium 4 and clock speed?M：Imagine the processor of a computer as a bus. The higher the Pentium number, the larger the the bus and the more information it can carry. Clock speed tells how fast data are processed. A clock speed of 100 is half as fast as a speed of 200.Q: How much faster is a clock speed of 200 than a clock speed of 100?1.D2. C3.A4.B5.CTask 1: The Internet on CampusThe Internet, a worldwide information network, is used at universities mainly as an information supply source. Staff supply information via the Internet and students may access it or any other publicly available information. The Internet is also useful for students to communicate with staff. Teachers may present lecture materials in lecture halls, and at the same time, they can distribute the materials for students to access from any location at any time via their computer. Such materials are preesented mainly in the form of text, still pictures and hypertext links. Students find this valuable and relevant to their needs. If they must miss a lecture, students can still keep up to date. Staff users may put up notices of conferences, maintain professional contacts, and communicate and conduct discussions with their colleagues or students. Students, on the other hand, are taught haow to use the Internet as an individual productivity tool in several courses.1. A2. D3. A4. A5. CU nit10Task 3: HalloweenSome people really enjoy Christmas, or Valentine’s Day, or Easter, or have a huge family reunion or barbecue on the Fourth of July. Some people look forward to stuffing themselves with turkey every year on Thanksgiving. Great as those are, they don’t compare with my favorite. I LOVE Halloween! Why Halloween? Well, Halloween is the night of the year when we can all get dressedup as someone else, pretend and let our imaginations run wild. Even adults get a free pass to go back to their childhood and become that kid still inside all of us. It’s also the one night of the year when we get to shine light on the dark, and confront monsters, ghosts, witches, and all things dead. We get to confront our biggest fears, as both children and adults, and reassure ourselves that there’s really no reason to be afraid of things we see at night.Task 1: Valentine’s DayValentine’s Day started when the Emperor Claudius II ruled Rome. Claudius punished Rome into so many wars that he had a hard time finding soldiers for his army. He thought the reason was that Roman men did not want to leave their families and lovers. To solve that problem, he cancelled marriages and engagements. But a Christian priest named Valentine who believed in love and marriage secretly married couples When the emperor learned about these marriages, he sent Valentine to prison. The priest died in prison on February 14,270. Not until a few hundred years later did Saint Valentine’s Day take its present form. Today we still honor Saint Valentine. Theold ideas of love, marriage and fertility have lasted and taken on modern meanings.1. wars finding soldiers2. families and lovers3. love and marriage4. prison February 145. fertility modern meaningsTask 2: Holiday bluesWhile for many people the holiday season is joyous and hopeful, others may find it just as stressful as interviewing for a new job. Many factors can contribute to the holiday blues. To begin with, there are more parties to attend and more shopping trips to make. But this doesn’t mean we work fewer hours or get a break from household duties—we just try to do more things in a single day. Then there are the financial burdens. The rewards of being generous to close friends and family may outweigh the price tag—and what about extended family, old friends from school, and co-workers? Don’t they deserve gifts? And finally, the holidays can be truly painful when we recall the loss of those who are no longer celebrating with us because of death, distance or divorce. However, the good news is that it’s usually possible to prevent the holiday blues by diversifying your holiday plans.T F F T T。

八年级英语书7单元笔记

八年级英语书7单元笔记Unit 7: Saving the Earth。

Introduction:In Unit 7, we will learn about the importance of saving the Earth and how we can contribute to protecting our planet. This unit focuses on environmental issues, such as pollution, deforestation, and climate change. By understanding these problems, we can take action and make a difference in preserving the Earth for future generations.1. Environmental Issues:1.1 Pollution:Pollution is a major concern for our planet. It includes air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution. The release of harmful substances into the environment has detrimental effects on human health and ecosystems. To combat pollution, we need to reduce our carbon footprint by using renewable energy sources and practicing waste management.1.2 Deforestation:Deforestation is the clearing of forests for various purposes, such as agriculture, logging, and urbanization. This leads to habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, and contributes to climate change. To address deforestation, we should support sustainable forestry practices, promote reforestation, and raise awareness about the importance of preserving our forests.1.3 Climate Change:Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns caused by human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases. It leads to rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and the loss of natural habitats. To mitigate climatechange, we must reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, promote renewable energy, and advocate for international cooperation in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.2. Individual Actions:2.1 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle:One of the most effective ways individuals can contribute to saving the Earth is by practicing the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse, and recycle. By reducing our consumption, reusing items, and recycling waste, we can minimize the amount of waste sent to landfills and conserve resources.2.2 Conserve Energy:Conserving energy is another crucial step in saving the Earth. We can do this by turning off lights and appliances when not in use, using energy-efficient devices, and choosing renewable energy sources whenever possible. Small changes in our daily habits can make a significant impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.2.3 Plant Trees:Planting trees is a simple yet effective way to combat deforestation and climate change. Trees absorb carbon dioxide, release oxygen, and provide habitat for various species. Individuals can participate in tree-planting initiatives in their communities or support organizations dedicated to reforestation efforts.3. Collective Efforts:3.1 Environmental Education:Educating ourselves and others about environmental issues is crucial for creating a sustainable future. Schools, communities, and governments should prioritize environmental education to raise awareness and inspire action. By understanding the interconnectedness of our actions and the environment, we can make informed decisions and drive positive change.3.2 Advocacy and Policy Change:Advocating for environmental protection and pushing for policy changes is essential in saving the Earth. Individuals and organizations can lobby for stricter regulations on pollution, support renewable energy initiatives, and promote sustainable practices. By voicing our concerns and demanding action, we can influence policymakers and drive systemic change.Conclusion:Unit 7 has provided us with a comprehensive understanding of the environmental challenges our planet faces and the actions we can take to save the Earth. By addressing issues such as pollution, deforestation, and climate change, and implementing individual and collective efforts, we can contribute to a sustainable future for ourselves and generations to come. Let us all join hands in protecting and preserving our beautiful planet.。

FLUENT实例教程-berl-flamelet

Tutorial:3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet ModelIntroductionThe purpose of this tutorial is to provide guidelines and recommendations for setting up and solving a natural gas combustion using the multiple laminarﬂamelet model.PrerequisitesThis tutorial assumes that you are familiar with the FLUENT interface,and have a good un-derstanding of basic setup and solution procedures.This tutorial uses equilibrium mixture fraction/pdf model and laminarﬂamelet mixture fraction/pdf model,with the k- realizable turbulence model and DO radiation model.If you have not used these models before,it would be helpful toﬁrst refer to FLUENT6.3 User’s Guide and FLUENT6.3Tutorial Guide.Problem DescriptionThe problem was modeled after the experiments carried out at the Burner Engineering Re-search Laboratory(BERL).This study involves an unstaged natural gasﬂame in a300KW industrial burner.The geometry and a close-up of the inlet is shown in Figure1and Figure2 respectively.Figure1:15◦Section of the BERL Combustor3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet ModelFigure2:Inlet of the BERL CombustorPreparation1.Copy the meshﬁle,berl.msh.gz and proﬁleﬁle,berl.prof to the working folder.2.Copy the CHEMKIN mechanismﬁle,smooke46.che and thermodynamic databaseﬁle,THERMO.DB to the working folder.3.Start the3DDP(3ddp)version of FLUENT.Setup and SolutionStep1:Grid1.Read the meshﬁle,berl.msh.gz.2.Check the grid.Grid−→Check3.Display the grid(Figure3).Display−→Grid...3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet ModelFigure3:Grid DisplayStep2:Models1.Retain the default Pressure Based solver and Steady time condition.Deﬁne−→Models−→Solver...2.Enable the Energy Equation.Deﬁne−→Models−→Energy...3.Select the k-epsilon viscous model.Deﬁne−→Models−→Viscous...(a)Select Realizable from the k-epsilon Model list.(b)Select Standard Wall Functions from the Near-Wall Treatment list.(c)Click OK to close the Viscous Model panel.4.Select the DO radiation model.Deﬁne−→Models−→Radiation...(a)Select Discrete Ordinates(DO)from the Model list.(b)Enter4for both Theta Divisions and Phi Divisions.(c)Enter3for both Theta Pixels and Phi Pixels.These values are recommended for the DO radiation model with periodic bound-aries.Please refer to the Section13.3.6:Discrete Ordinates(DO)RadiationModel Theory in the FLUENT6.3User’s Guide for further details.(d)Enter1for Flow Iterations per Radiation Iteration.(e)Retain the default values for the other parameters.3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet Model(f)Click OK to close the Radiation Model panel.5.Select Non-Premixed Combustion species model.Deﬁne−→Models−→Species−→Transport&Reaction...(a)Enable Create Table option.Step3:Pdf Table1.Create an equilibrium pdf table.(a)Click the Chemistry tab and set the following parameters:i.Select Equilibrium and Non-Adiabatic.ii.Enter0.064for Fuel Stream in the Rich Flammability Limit group box.(b)Click the Boundary tab and set the following parameters:i.Enter315K for both Fuel and Oxid in the Temperature group box.ii.Select Mole Fraction from the Species Units group box.iii.Enter co2in the Boundary Species entry box and click the Add button to add co2in the Species list.iv.Set the composition of Fuel and Oxid for the Species as shown in the following table:Species Fuel Oxidch40.9840n20.0130.79o200.21co20.0030(c)Click the Table tab and enter40for Number of Mean Mixture Fraction Points.(d)Enter310K for Minimum Temperature and click the Calculate PDF Table button.(e)Display the pdf table.Display−→PDF Tables/Curves...(f)Write the pdfﬁle,equil.pdf.gz.File−→Write−→PDF...2.Create a multipleﬂamelet pdf table.(a)Click the Chemistry tab and set the following parameters:i.Select Steady Flamelet.ii.Click the Import CHEMKIN Mechanism...button to open the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel.iii.Select smooke46.che for Gas Phase CHEMKIN Mechanism File.3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet Modeliv.Select THERMO.DB for Gas Phase Thermodynamic Database File.v.Click Import and close the CHEMKIN Mechanism Import panel.(b)Click the Flamelet tab and enter20for Maximum Number of Flamelets,5forScalar Dissipation Step and click the Calculate Flamelets button.After calculatingﬂamelets,FLUENT will display a Question dialog box asking youwhether to discard the data.Click No and save the data in aﬁle,berl.fla.gz.(c)Click the Table tab and enter298K for Minimum Temperature and click theCalculate PDF Table button.(d)Display pdf table.Display−→PDF Tables/Curves...(e)Write the pdfﬁle,berl.pdf.gz.File−→Write−→PDF...3.Click OK to close the Species Model panel.Step5:Operating Conditions1.Retain the default operating conditions.Step6:Boundary Conditions1.Read the proﬁleﬁle,berl.prof.File−→Read−→Proﬁle...2.Set the boundary conditions.Deﬁne−→Boundary Conditions...3.Set the boundary conditions for the air-inlet zone.(a)Select Components and Cylindrical from the Velocity Speciﬁcation Method and theCoordinate System drop-down lists.(b)Select vel-prof w and vel-prof u from the Tangential-Velocity and Axial-Velocitydrop-down lists.(c)Select Intensity and Length Scale from the Speciﬁcation Method drop-down list inthe Turbulence group box.(d)Enter17%for Turbulence Intensity and0.0076m for Turbulence Length Scale.(e)Click the Thermal tab and enter312K for Temperature.(f)Click OK to close the Velocity Inlet panel.4.Set the boundary conditions for the fuel-inlet.(a)Select mass-ﬂow-inlet from the Type selection list and click the Set...button toopen the Mass-Flow Inlet panel.3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet Model(b)Enter0.0002627kg/s for Mass Flow-Rate.(c)Select Normal to Boundary from the Direction Speciﬁcation Method drop-downlist.(d)Select Intensity and Length Scale from the Speciﬁcation Method drop-down list inthe Turbulence group box.(e)Enter7%for Turbulence Intensity and0.008m for Turbulence Length Scale.(f)Click the Thermal tab and enter312K for Total Temperature.(g)Click the Species tab and enter1for Mean Mixture Fraction.(h)Click OK to close the Mass-Flow Inlet panel.5.Set the boundary conditions for the outlet zone.(a)Select Intensity and Hydraulic Diameter from the Speciﬁcation Method drop-downlist in the Turbulence group box.(b)Enter10%for Backﬂow Turbulence Intensity and0.3m for Backﬂow HydraulicDiameter.(c)Click the Thermal tab and enter1300K for Backﬂow Outlet Temperature.(d)Click OK to close the Pressure Outlet panel.6.Set the boundary condition for the periodic-1zone to Rotational.(a)Select Rotational from the Periodic Type group box.(b)Click OK to close the Periodic panel.7.Set the boundary conditions for the wall zones.Zone Name Temperature InternalEmissivitywall03120.6wall13120.6wall511000.5wall611000.5wall7temp-prof t0.6wall813050.58.Set wall2,wall3,and wall4to adiabatic.(a)Select Heat Flux from the Thermal Conditions list.(b)Enter0for Heat Flux and0.6for Internal Emissivity.(c)Click OK to close the Wall panel.9.Close the Boundary Conditions panel.3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet Model Step7:Initial Solution with the Equilibrium PDFﬁle1.Read the equilibrium pdfﬁle,equil.pdf.gz.File−→Read−→PDF...2.Select wsggm-domain based from the Absorption coeﬃcient drop-down list.Deﬁne−→Materials...3.Set the solution parameters.Solve−→Controls−→Solution...(a)Deselect DO from the Equations selection list.It is acceptable to start the solution directly with the reaction enabled and thereis no need to solve for coldﬂow.However,it is a good practice to enable theradiation model after some iterations as is done here,after200iterations.(b)Set the Under-Relaxation Factors as follows:Parameter URFValue Parameter URFValuePressure0.3Energy0.9Density0.75Temperature0.9Momentum0.6Turbulence Kinetic Energy0.6Turbulence Dissipation Rate0.6Turbulent Viscosity0.8Mean Mixture Fraction0.95Mixture Fraction Variance0.95(c)Click OK to close the Solution Controls panel.4.Initialize theﬂowﬁeld from all-zones.Solve−→Initialize−→Initialize...5.Enable residual plotting.Solve−→Monitors−→Residuals...6.Save the caseﬁle,berl-ini.cas.gz.7.Run the calculation for200iterations.Solve−→Iterate...8.Save the case and dataﬁles,berl-200.cas.gz and berl-200.dat.gz.9.Select DO from the Equations selection list and change the Under-Relaxation Factor forDO to1,Pressure to0.5,Momentum to0.2,Energy and Temperature to0.95.Solve−→Controls−→Solution...10.Iterate for100iterations.11.Save the case and dataﬁles,berl-300.cas.gz and berl-300.dat.gz.12.Select PRESTO!from the Pressure drop-down list.Solve−→Controls−→Solution...3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet Model13.Solve for100iterations.14.Save the case and dataﬁles,berl-400.cas.gz and berl-400.dat.gz.Step8:Final Solution with Multiple Laminar Flamelet Model1.Read the berl.pdfﬁle.2.Set Number of Flow Iterations per Property Update to1.Deﬁne−→Models−→Species−→Transport&Reaction...3.Select wsggm-domain based from the Absorption Coeﬃcient drop-down list.Deﬁne−→Materials...4.Increase the Under-Relaxation Factors for Mixture fraction to1,and for Temperatureand Energy to0.975.5.Solve for100iterations.6.Save the case and dataﬁles,berl-500.cas.gz and berl-500.dat.gz.7.Enter1for Energy and Temperature in the Under-Relaxation Factors group box.8.Iterate for2500iterations.The solution should converge in approximately2300additional iterations.9.Check the heat imbalance.At this stage,the heat balance should be good.10.Save theﬁnal case and dataﬁles,berl-converged.cas.gz and berl-converged.dat.gz.Step9:Postprocessing1.Create an iso-surface named mid-plane,at angular co-ordinate=0.Surface−→Iso-Surface...(a)Select Grid and Angular Coordinate from the Surface of Constant drop-down lists.(b)Enter mid-plane in the text-entry box for New Surface Name.(c)Retain the default value of0for Iso-Values.(d)Click Create and close the Iso-Surface panel.2.Plot the contours of velocity on the mid-plane in the domain(Figure4).Display−→Contours...3.Plot the contours of Temperature on the mid-plane in the domain(Figure5).4.Plot the contours of O2mass fraction on the mid-plane(Figure6).Note:For accurate results and for comparison with experimental data,it is recom-mended to have a complete second order solution.3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet ModelFigure4:Contours of Velocity Magnitude on the mid-planeFigure5:Contours of Temperature on the mid-plane3D Simulation of a300KW BERL Combustor Using the Laminar Flamelet ModelFigure6:Contours of O2mass fraction on the mid-plane。

汽车专业英语课后练习答案

ReviewsExercisesI．Translate the following into Chinese．(85)1front-mounted engine2rechargeable battery3drive shaft4torque converter5compression ignition engine6hydraulic control system7spark—ignition engine8performance parameter9compression stroke10compression chamber volume11theoretical power12electricity—powered vehicles13gasoline—powered vehicles14bore and stroke15driving road wheels16four stroke cycle17intake stroke18combustion stroke19internal combustion engine20top dead center21air—fuel mixture22V—type engine23cylinder block24intake valve25flywheel26valve lash27water pump28oil filter29clutch fork30propeller shaft31up and down movement32unsprung weight33steering system34shock absorber35occupant space36energy absorbing steering column 37ignition system38air conditioning system39MPV40SUV 1前置发动机2可再充电池3驱动轴4变矩器5压缩点火发动机6液压控制系统7火花塞点火发动机8性能参数9压缩行程10压缩腔体积11理论动力功率12电力车辆13汽油动力车辆14缸径与行程15路面驱动轮16四冲程周期17进气行程18压缩行程19内燃机20上止位21空燃混合物22V型发动机23缸体24进气阀25飞轮26阀门隙27水泵28机油过滤器29离合叉30推动轴31上下颠簸32非弹簧承载质量33转向系统34减震器35乘员空间36吸能转向柱37点火系统38空调系统39多用途车辆40运动通用车辆41mass flow meter42injection duration43electronic fuel injection44vapor lock45pressure regulator46pulsation damper47transaxle48modulator49torque converter50one-way clutch51solenoid valve52planetary gear set53valve body54brake fluid55EBCM56wheel speed sensor57hydraulic pressure58MPH59pulse frequency60dynamic test61rotating speed62in series63optional vacuum64Jack stands65speed up66accessory drive belt inspection 67vehicle lifting platform68engine air cleaner filter69diagnostic tree70ABS71ignition triggering sign72digital multimeter73engine cooling system74automotive diagnostic scanner 75CMPS76daily maintenance77repair manuals78dynamic data stream79safety belts80trouble code81Toyota82windshield washer83air cleaner filter84fuel pressure regulator 41质量流量计42喷油持续时间43电子燃油喷射44气阻45压力调节器46脉动阻尼器47变速轴48调节器49变矩器50单向离合器51电动阀52行星齿轮组53阀门体54制动油55电子制动控制模块56轮速传感器57液压58英里/小时59脉动频率60动力学试验61转速62串联63可选性真空64千斤顶座65提速66辅助驱动皮带检查67车辆升降台68发动机空气滤清器69诊断树70防抱死制动系统71点火触发信号72数字万用表73发动机冷却系统74汽车诊断扫描仪75凸轮轴位置传感器76每日维护77维修手册78动力学数据流79安全皮带80故障代码81丰田82挡风玻璃洗涤器83空气滤清器84燃油压力调节器85Audi85奥迪Ⅱ．Translate the following into English．(85)1火花塞2燃烧室温度3传动轴4离台器总成5汽车防抱死制动系统6传动比7转向系统8底盘参数9水泵10后差速器11有效功率l2整备质量13蒸汽汽车14出行方式15最小离地间隙16奥托循环发动机17燃烧室18压缩行程19排气行程20气缸盖21曲柄连杆机构22排气门23润滑系统24冷却系统25节温器26机油泵27离合器压盘28差速器29弹簧承载质量30转向系统31齿轮齿条式转向器32制动系统33制动主缸34四轮驱动35皮卡汽车36起动机37交流发电机38分电器39点火线圈40制动灯41电子控制系统1spark plug2combustion chamber temperature 3drive shaft4clutch assembly5anti-lock brake system6gear ratio7steering system8chassis parameter9water pump10rear differential11effective power12curb weight13steam-powered vehicle14transportation mode15minimum clearance16Otto cycle engine17combustion chamber18compression stroke19exhaust stroke20cylinder cover21crankshaft connecting mechanism 22exhaust valve23lubricating system24cooling system25thermostat26oil pump27clutch pressing plate28differential29sprung weight30steering system31rank and pinion steering system 32brake system33braking master cylinder34four wheel drive35pickup car36starter37alternator38distributor39ignition coil40braking lamp41electronic control system42废气再循环43燃油供给系统44燃油滤清器45电子控制燃油喷射系统46多点燃油喷射47空气进气系统48前轮驱动49驱动轮50空挡51自动变速器52制动带53液力变矩器54防抱死制动系统55报警指示器56回流泵57制动踏板58电磁阀59仪表板60主缸61轮缸62巡航控制系统63数字信号64加速踏板65变速杆66维修手册67故障码68曲轴位置传感器69诊断70征兆71点火线圈72真空表73路试74滤网75抛锚76底盘77排气系统78自动变速器79轮胎气压表80短途81点火反馈信号82电控单元83螺钉旋具84扳手85二极管42exhaust gas recirculation43fuel delivery system44fuel filter45electronic control fuel injection system 46multiple point fuel injection47air intake system48front wheel drive49driving wheel50neutral shift51automatic transmission52braking belt53hydraulic torque converter54anti-lock brake system55warning indicator56return flow pump57brake pedal58solenoid valve59instrumentation/dash/penal60master cylinder61wheel cylinder62cruise control system63digital signal64acceleration pedal65shift level66repair manual67trouble code68CKPS/crankshaft position sensor69diagnosis70symptom71ignition coil72vacuum gauge73road test74screen75breakdown76chassis77exhaust system78automatic transmission79wheel inflation gauge80short distance81ignition feedback signal82electronic control unit83screwdriver84wrench/spanner85diodeIV．Review the following questions according to the texts．(29)1Who built the first gasoline powered car?Answer：In1885,Karl Benz built the first three-wheeled gasoline-powered car in Germany.In the following year,the milestone vehicle was built by Gottlieb Daimler，another German.He perfected the two-cylinder gasoline engine and attached it to the stagecoach,thereby producing the first four-wheeled motor vehicle in the world．2Why did Henry Ford produce automobiles on a moving conveyor line?Answer：In1913,Henry Ford began making automobiles on a moving conveyor line in his factories.He realized that efficient mass production could lower ear prices,making cars affordable for the average person，thus generating a huge market．This was a smashing success.By1916 annual U S auto production reached one million units,a level not reached by any other country until about40years later in England.3What's the function of engine?Answer：The engine acts as the power unit.4What's the function of ignition plug?Answer：The ignition plug supplies the electric spark to ignite the air—fuel mixture in the cylinders.5Why do we need the cooling system on engine?Answer：The cooling system removes excessive heat from the engine.The temperature in engine combustion chambers is about2,000o F(1,094℃).Since steel melts at round2,500o F(1,354℃), this heat must be carried away to prevent engine damage.Air and coolant are used to carry away the heat.6What's the function of storage battery?Answer：The battery stores electricity.It supplies electricity for the ignition,horn,lights,heat and stater.The alternator changes the engine's mechanical energy into electrical energy and recharges the battery.7What do dimensions of all automobile include?Answer：The dimensions of an automobile can make you know the appearance of it．They contain the wheelbase,the track front and rear,the overall length,the overall width,he overall height，overhang front,overhang real,the angle of approach,the angle of departure,interior length, interior width，interior height，the ground clearance，curb weight，gross vehicle weight，number of the doors，seating capacity and trunk or cargo space．8Describe the definition of compression ratio.Answer：Compression ratio are frequently used engine pression ratio compares the total cylinder volume to compression chamber volume.9Please list the name of the four strokes，and explain the working principle of the four strokecycle.Answer：The four strokes refer to intake，compression，combustion(power)and exhaust strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the gasoline engine and diesel engine.The cycle begins at top dead center(TDC)，when the piston is farthest away from the axis of the crankshaft On the intake stroke of the piston，the piston descends from the top of the cylinder，reducing the pressure inside the cylinder．A mixture of fuel and air is forced(by atmospheric or greater pressure)into the cylinder through the intake(inlet)port.The intake(inlet) valve(or valves)then close(s)，and the compression stroke compresses the fuel-air mixture.The air-fuel mixture is then ignited near the end of the compression stroke，usually by a spark plug(for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine)or by the heat and pressure of compression(for a Diesel cycle or compression ignition engine)The resulting pressure of burning fuel gas pushes the piston through the power stroke In the exhaust stroke,the piston pushes the products of combustion from the cylinder through an exhaust valve or valves.10How many parts does the chassis consist of?Answer：In the case of a vehicle，the chassis includes four parts：transmission system，driving system，steering system and braking system.11Please write down every part function of the chassis.Answer：The function of the transmission is to transmit the power and torque from the engine to the wheels.The driving system carries the power from the transmission to the differential at the real-wheel axles，causing the rear wheels to rotate.The purpose of the steering system is guiding the car where me driver wants it to go.As we know,the brake system is used to slow down and stop a vehicle.12Please give examples of several forms and features of body.Answer：(1)4x4or4WD(“four by four”or“four wheel drive”)Vehicle：A four-wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive power from the engine simultaneously The terms are usually(but not exclusively)used in Europe to describe what is referred to in North America as a sport utility vehicle or SUV f see below).(2)Convertible Vehicle:A body style with a flexible textile folding roof or rigid retracting roof of highly variable design detail to allow driving in open or enclosed modes.(3)Crossover(or CUV)Vehicle:A loose marketing term to describe a vehicle that blends features of a SUV with features of a car especially forgoing the body on frame construction of the SUV in favor of the car’s unibody or monocoque construction.(4) MPV:Multi-purpose vehicle a large car or small bus is designed to be used on and off road and easily convertible to facilitate loading of goods from facilitating carrying people.(5)Pickup Truck:A small，medium，or large-sized truck，though smaller in every case than a Semi tractor truck.The passenger cabin is wholly separated from the cargo bed.(6)Roadster:Originally a two-seat open car with minimal weather protection——without top or side glass though possibly with optional hard or soft top and side curtains(i.e.，without roll—up glass windows).In modem usage，the term means simply a two—seat sports calf convertible，a variation of spyder.13Please write the types of car lights and the roles of the lights.Answer：The lighting system in a typical automobile includes the headlights，parking lights，direction signal lights，side marker lights，stoplights，backup lights，tail lights and the interior lights The interior lights include instrument-panel lights，various warning，indicator and courtesy lights which turn on when a car-door is opened.When the light switch is pulled out,the circuit from the battery to the headlights is completed.This switch has two positions,low beam anddriving beam.These are also called passing beam and high beam.The backup lights come on when the driver shifts into reverse.This closes a switch linked to the selector lever which connects the backup lights to the battery.Blinker lights are installed on many cars to provide a means of signaling when a car is smiled on the highway or has pulled off to the side.The blinking is much mom noticeable than a steady light and provides a warning to approaching ears.14Please list the main categories of the sensors used in the engine electronic control system. Answer：The main categories of the sensors used in the engine electronic control system include AFM，CTS，CMPS，CKPS，TPS，O2S，A／F ratio sensor and KS.15How to operate the EFI system?Answer：The EFI system uses various sensors to detect the engine conditions and automobile running conditions.And the engine ECU calculates the optimum fuel injection volume,and causes the injectors to inject the fuel.16Please list the basic types of automatic transmissions.Answer：There are two basic types of automatic transmissions based on whether the vehicle is rear wheel drive or front wheel drive.On a rear wheel drive car,the transmission is usually mounted to the back of the engine.A drive shaft connects the rear of the transmission to the final drive．which is located in the rear axle and is used to send power to the rear wheels.On a front wheel drive car, the transmission is usually combined with the final drive to from what is called a transaxle.17What are the main components that make up an automatic transmission?Answer：The main components that make up an automatic transmission1nclude:(1)Planetary gear sets which are the mechanical system provide the various forward gear ratios as well as reverse.(2)The hydraulic system uses a special transmission fluid sent under pressure by an oil Dump through the vane body to control the clutches and the bands in order to control the planetary gear sets.(3)Seals and gaskets an used to keep the oil where it is supposed to be and prevent it from leaking out．(4)The torque convener acts like a clutch to allow the vehicle to come to a stop in gear while the engine is soil running.(5)The governor and the modulator or throttle cable monitor speed and throttle position in order to determine when to shift.(6)On newer vehicles．shift points are controlled by computer which directs electrical solenoids to shift oil flow to the appropriate component at the right instant.18Please list the four steps of ABS control cycle.Answer：The four steps of ABS control cycle：(1)EBCM monitoring the wheel speed.(2)Isolating the wheel circuit if the wheel is decelerating too fast(pressure maintain).(3)Reducing wheel circuit pressure if the wheel continues to decelerate too fast.(4)Increasing the wheel circuit pressure when wheel acceleration reaches a preset level.19What is the function of ABS?Answer：An anti-lock brake system(ABS)is a computer-controlled brake system that helps prevent wheels lockup during braking.ABS can maintain control of the vehicle to stop vehicle in the shortest possible distance and in as straight a line as possible，the wheels must be prevented from locking.20Please list the functions of the cruise system.Answer：The cruise control system(CCS)allows you to maintain a set speed above40km/h without keeping your foot off the accelerator pedal.21What is ACC?Answer：Adaptive cruise control(ACC)is an automotive feature that allows a vehicle’s cruisecontrol system to adapt the vehicle's speed to the traffic environment.22Why does the automobile require regular attention and preventive maintenance?Answer：Most of the major parts and systems of the chassis body and engine have predictable use. These parts and systems require regular attention and preventive maintenance.Regular,scheduled maintenance can prevent most common problems and as sure that your car take corrective action. Preventive maintenance will reduce the chance of breakdowns and lower your overall costs.23If a Toyota saloon car’s accelerating capability at high vehicle speed was poor，what will you do?Answer：If a Toyota saloon car’s accelerating capability at high vehicle speed was poor，I shall do as follows:(1)Checking the symptom：(for example)There was a Toyota saloon car，its engine type was2JZ —GE Its accelerating capability at high vehicle speed was poor.(2)Reporting undergoing:(for example)According to what the driver said,firstly gave a drive test which confirmed the driver's description that during acceleration,the output power of the engine is insufficient，likely caused by poor fuel supply So we had a fuel pressure test for the still vehicle The pressure at idle speed was25kg／cm2，and35kg／cm2at acceleration.That was normal Then we checked the sparking timing The result was ing the hand—held tester specifically for Toyota to read trouble codes，we found no trouble codes At last we checked the dynamic data steam.The result was within the accepted range At this time．a11of us were confused，but after consulting with other staff，we were still suspicious of the fuel supply So we linked a fuel-pressure gauge to the fuel rail again and drove the car to have a road test During acceleration，we found that the gauge arm dropped a little.After coming back，we disassembled the fuel pump from the fuel tank and found that the screen was seriously clogged At last，we talked with the driver knowing that his car has run for more than200,000km without any services for the fuel tank.(3)Trouble Solving：(for example)Cleaned the screen and changed the fuel filter The vehicle’s acceleration became satisfied.24What can the screwdriver do?Answer：The screwdriver is a device specifically designed to insert and tighten，or to loosen and remove screws The screwdriver is made up of a head or tip,which engages with a screw,a mechanism to apply torque by rotating the tip,and some way to position and support the screwdriver.25For testing the mechanical side of the engine，you will need some more specialized equipment. Please take some examplesAnswer：For testing the mechanical side of the engine,we need some more specialized equipment.A vacuum gauge with several adapters can be used to test manifold vacuum and test vacuum operated circuits.A vacuum pump is handy for testing vacuum operated components such as EGR valves and heating and air conditioning systems.26How to do the effective diagnosis and troubleshooting when the car breakdown?Answer：The secret of effective diagnosis and troubleshooting is to have a logical well-ordered procedure.Following a logical step-by-step procedure will get you to the root cause of a problem quickly and efficiently.27What can the wrench do?Answer：A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide a mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn bolts,nuts or other items designed to interface with a wrench.At present，we can see thosetools，like box wrench，electronic torque wrench，combination wrench，adjustable wrench，speed handle and ratchet handle.28What can the diagnostic tree do?Answer：The diagnostic tree goes in a logical progression.It will ask a question，usually yes or no，and depending on the answer will branch off in two or more directions.The last box in the tree will have the problem and how to correct it.A more complicated procedure will have branches going into specific tests and then have two or more branches from there depending on test results. 29How to check the engine oil level?Answer：Check the oil gauge.If under the low level,add the proper oil in the engine.Or dim the dim-stick through the hole in the engine,check the dimmed line.If need,add the proper oil.。

职称英语考试（理工B）完整版真题及答案

职称英语考试（理工B）完整版真题及答案2016年职称英语考试(理工B)完整版真题及答案试卷是纸张答题,在纸张有考试组织者检测考试者学习情况而设定在规定时间内完成的试题。

也可以是资格考试中用以检验考生有关知识能力而进行人才筛选的工具。

下面，店铺为大家分享2016年职称英语考试(理工B)完整版真题及答案，希望对大家有所帮助！第1部分：词汇选项(第1——15题，每题1分，共15分)下面每个句子中均有1个词或者短语划有底横线，请为每处划线部分确定1个意义最为接近的选项。

1. The revelationof his past led to his resignation.A. imaginationB. disclosureC. confirmationD.recall答案为B. revelation(揭露) – disclosure(揭露)2. Jensenis a dangerous man, and can be very brutal.A. carelessB. cruelC. strongD.hard答案为B. brutal(残忍的) – cruel3. You’llhave to sprint if you want to catch the train.A. jumpB.escapeC. runD.prepare答案为C. sprint (快速奔跑) – run(奔跑)4. We areworried about this fluid situation full with uncertainty.A. changeableB. stableC. suitableD.adaptable答案为A. fluid(不稳定的) – changeable (易变的)5. Thenew garment fits her perfectly.A. haircutB.purseC. clothesD.necklace答案为C. garment(衣服) – clothes(衣服)6. Thephobia may have its root in a childhood trauma.A. fearB.joyC. hurtD.memory答案为C. trauma(精神上的创伤) – hurt (感情上的伤心或痛苦)7. Theyhave to build canals to irrigate the desert.A. decorateB. waterC. changeD.visit答案为B. irrigate(灌溉) – water(给…浇水)8. Heroverall language proficiency remains that of a toddler.A. disabledB.pupilC. teenagerD. baby答案为D. toddler(学步的儿童) – baby (婴儿)9. Thecoastal area has very mild winter, but the central plains remainextremely cold.A. warmB.severeC. hardD.dry答案为A. mild(温暖的) – warm(温暖的)10. Thedetails of the costume were totally authentic.A. realB. outstandingC. creativeD. false答案为A. authentic(逼真的) – real (逼真的)11. Weare aware of the potential problems.A. globalB. possibleC. ongoingD.central答案为B. potential(可能的)- possible(可能的)12. Theidea was quite brilliant.A. positiveB. cleverC. keyD. original答案为B. brilliant(绝妙的) – clever (聪明的)13. Stockmarket price tumbled after rumor of a rise in interest rate.A. regulatedB. increasedC. maintainedD. fell答案为C. tumbled(暴跌) –fell(下降)14. Thecourse gives you basic instructions in car maintenance.A. coachingB. ideaC. termD. aspect答案为A. instructions (指导说明)—coaching(教导)15. Allhouses within 100 metres of the seas at risk of flooding.A. in dangerB. out of controlC. between equalsD. in particular答案为A indanger of (处于危险中)— at risk of (处于风险中)第2部分：阅读判断(第16——22题，每题1分，共7分)下面的短文后列出了7个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子做出判断;如果该句提供的是正确信息，请选择A;如果该句提供的是错误信息，请选择B;如果该句的信息文中没有提及，请选择C。

热和热能的区别英语作文

热和热能的区别英语作文Title: Understanding the Distinction Between Heat and Thermal Energy。

Heat and thermal energy are often used interchangeably in everyday language, but in the realm of physics, they represent distinct concepts. This essay aims to elucidate the disparities between heat and thermal energy, shedding light on their definitions, properties, and applications.1. Definition and Nature:Heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy between objects due to a temperature difference. It flows from hotter regions to cooler ones until thermal equilibrium is achieved. The unit of heat is the joule (J) in the International System of Units (SI).Thermal energy, on the other hand, is the internal energy present in a system due to the motion andinteractions of its particles. It is a form of kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules within a substance. Thermal energy is also measured in joules (J) and is directly proportional to the temperature of the system.2. Characteristics:Heat is a transient phenomenon, dependent on the temperature gradient between two bodies and the thermal conductivity of the material through which it flows. It ceases to exist once thermal equilibrium is attained.Thermal energy, however, is an intrinsic property of matter and persists as long as the substance remains at a nonzero temperature. It represents the total kinetic energy of the particles within a system.3. Transfer Mechanisms:Heat transfer can occur through three primary mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation.Conduction involves the direct transfer of heat through physical contact between materials. Convection entails the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). Radiation involves the emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation.Thermal energy transfer is fundamentally associatedwith the motion of particles within a substance. It occurs through collisions between particles at the microscopic level, leading to the transfer of kinetic energy fromhigher-energy particles to lower-energy ones.4. Measurement:Heat transfer is quantified based on the amount of energy transferred between two objects or systems. This is typically measured using calorimetry, which involves monitoring temperature changes resulting from heat exchange.Thermal energy, on the other hand, is measured based on the internal energy content of a system. This can be determined using various techniques, including calorimetry,thermodynamic analysis, and specific heat capacity measurements.5. Applications:Understanding the distinction between heat and thermal energy is crucial in various practical applications:Heat plays a vital role in processes such as cooking, heating, and refrigeration. It is harnessed in various industries, including manufacturing, energy production, and climate control.Thermal energy is central to the functioning of thermal power plants, where it is converted into mechanical energy to generate electricity. It is also utilized in heating systems, solar energy technologies, and thermal insulation materials.6. Conclusion:In conclusion, while heat and thermal energy areclosely related concepts, they represent distinct aspects of thermodynamics. Heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy between objects, driven by temperature differences, whereas thermal energy embodies the internal kinetic energy of particles within a system. Recognizing their disparities is essential for comprehending various natural phenomena and engineering applications.。

temperature用法 -回复

temperature用法-回复Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object or environment. It is an essential parameter widely used in various fields, including weather forecasting, industrial processes, medical research, and everyday life. In this article, we will delve into the different aspects of temperature and explore its significance and applications.To begin with, temperature is often measured in Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F), or Kelvin (K). Celsius is the most commonly used unit worldwide, whereas Fahrenheit is mainly used in the United States. Kelvin, on the other hand, is the primary unit of measurement in scientific research. It is important to note that these three scales are interrelated using specific conversion formulas.Temperature is typically measured using various instruments, such as thermometers, infrared (IR) sensors, and pyrometers. A thermometer consists of a sealed glass tube filled with a liquid (usually mercury or alcohol) that expands or contracts based on the surrounding temperature. As the liquid level rises or falls, a calibrated scale on the tube indicates the corresponding temperature.Infrared sensors, commonly found in household devices like thermometers or ear thermometers, detect the infrared radiation emitted by the object being measured. The amount of radiation detected is converted into a temperature reading. Pyrometers, on the other hand, are used to measure extremely high temperatures, such as those found in industrial furnaces or combustion processes. They employ a non-contact method, using the thermal radiation emitted by the object to calculate its temperature.Temperature plays a crucial role in weather forecasting. Meteorologists use temperature data from weather stations located worldwide to predict and analyze weather patterns. By combining temperature with other factors like humidity, wind speed, and air pressure, meteorologists can accurately forecast the weather, issue warnings, and make predictions about long-term climate trends.In addition to weather forecasting, temperature is also fundamental in industrial processes. Many manufacturing industries, including pharmaceuticals, food, and chemicals, rely heavily on precise temperature control. Maintaining the correcttemperature during production ensures the quality, safety, and efficiency of the final product. For instance, pharmaceutical companies must control temperature during drug formulation and storage to ensure the potency and stability of medications.Medical research also heavily utilizes temperature as a critical parameter. In clinical settings, body temperature is often measured to monitor general health and to detect potential signs of illness. Abnormal body temperatures, such as fever, can indicate underlying infections or other medical conditions. Temperature is also crucial in medical research laboratories, where precise control of experimental conditions is essential for accurate results. Maintaining a specific temperature range allows researchers to investigate the effects of temperature on various biological processes.Another important application of temperature is in energy production and consumption. Temperature affects the efficiency of energy conversion processes. By monitoring and controlling temperature, energy producers can optimize operations and minimize energy wastage. This is particularly pertinent in power plants, where maintaining the correct operating temperature isessential for efficient electricity generation.Temperature also directly affects our daily lives. We use temperature measurements to determine clothing choices, adjust indoor climates, and even cook our food. It is through temperature measurements that we can gauge the comfort or discomfort of our surroundings. Additionally, temperature measurements are crucial in our understanding of climate change and its impact on the environment.In conclusion, temperature is an indispensable parameter used across numerous fields, ranging from weather forecasting and industrial processes to medical research and everyday life. Whether it is for predicting the weather, controlling manufacturing processes, or understanding the human body, temperature measurements play a fundamental role. With advancements in technology, measuring temperature accurately and reliably has become increasingly convenient and accessible. As our understanding of temperature continues to evolve, so will its applications and significance in various aspects of our lives.。

张敏版科技英语阅读教程英译汉中文翻译

Unlocking the Climate Puzzle解开气候之谜(1)Life has prospered on this planet for nearly four billion years. In that time, climate had fluctuated drastically, from ice ages lasting tens of thousands of years to epochsof steamy heat. With each change, sundry species have benefited and flourished. Others adapted, faltered, or died. Now, many experts believe, humans are imperiling their own ecological niche with the threat of global warming. The vaporousby-products of civilization, in the form of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (C0₂), have trapped enough heat in the atmosphere to raise Earth's average surface air temperature a half degree Celsius (one degree Fahrenheit) during this century. If the trend continues, it could alter climate patterns worldwide-thawing glaciers, boosting sea level, scorching plains into deserts, and shifting vegetation zones.（1）生命在这个星球上已经发展了近四十亿年。

工热名词-英语

重要热力学概念及定理英文表述（Key thermodynamic Concepts and Laws）•Energy and Specific Energy 能量和比能量•Energy Transfer Rate(1W=1J/s, kW)功率•Thermodynamics 热力学•Mass and Density 质量和密度•Length 长度•Velocity 速度•Volume (Specific Volume) 体积（比体积）•Force 力•Pressure 压强•Specific Heat 比热•Universal Gas Constant(8.314 kJ/kmol∙K) 通用气体常数•Temperature 温度•System, Surroundings, Boundary 热力系，外界，界面•Closed System, Isolated System, Control Volume 闭口系，孤立系，控制体积•Property, State, Process, Steady state, Extensive property, Intensive property 状态参数，状态，过程，稳态，广延量，强度量•Equilibrium, Equilibrium state 平衡，平衡状态•Base unit/mass, time, length, force 基本单位/质量，时间，长度，力•Specific volume 比容•Molar basis 基于摩尔的•Pressure/Absolute pressure, Gage pressure, Vacuum pressure压力/绝对压力，表压力，真空度•Temperature/Thermal(heat) interaction, Thermal equilibrium温度热交换热平衡•Zeroth law of thermodynamics 热力学第零定律•Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale, Triple point开尔文温度，摄氏度，华氏温标，三相点•Thermometers 温度计•Work, kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy 功，动能，重力势能•Thermodynamic definition of work, sign convention for work功的热力学定义，•W > 0: work done by the system 热力系对外界做功•W < 0: work done on the system 外界对热力系做功•Work is not a property 功不是状态参数•Power(the rate of energy transfer), units for power(J/s)功率（能量转换率）•Expansion or Compression Work δW = pAdx=pdV 膨胀功，压缩功•Quasi-equilibrium process 准平衡态过程•Energy transfer by heat, Sign convention for heat transfer•Q > 0, heat transfer to the system热量传递给热力系•Q < 0, heat transfer from the system热力系放出热量•Heat is not a property 热量不是状态参数•First Law of Thermodynamics 热力学第一定律•Energy balance 能量守恒•Internal energy 内能•Thermodynamic cycle 热力学循环•Power cycle 动力循环•Thermal efficiency 热效率•Refrigeration and heat pump cycle 制冷和热泵循环•coefficient of performance for refrigeration and heat pump 制冷系数，供热系数•Phase 相•State principle•Simple compressible systems 简单可压缩系统•p-v-T surface p-v-T面•Two-phase regions两相区•Saturation state 饱和状态•Saturation temperature饱和温度•Saturation pressure饱和压力•Critical point 临界点•p-v diagram P-V图•T-s diagram T-S图•Subcooled liquid, compressed liquid 过冷液体•Two-phase liquid-vapor mixture 气液两相混合•Quality x 干度•Superheated vapor 过热蒸汽•Enthalpy焓•Reference state 对应状态•Reference values 对应状态值•Ideal gas model 理想气体模型•Specific heat 比热•Compressibility factor (Z) 压缩因子•Reduced pressure (p r=p/p c) 相对压力•Reduced temperature (T r=T/T c) 相对温度•Generalized Compressibility Chart [Z=f(p r, T r)] 通用压缩因子图•Ideal gas equation of state 理想气体状态方程•Polytropic process 多变过程•Conservation of mass 质量守恒•Mass flow rate 质量流量•Mass rate balance 稳流•Volumetric flow rate 体积流量•Flow work 流动功•One-dimensional flow 一元流动•Time-dependent (transient) state和时间相关的状态•Energy rate balance•Nozzle 喷管•Diffuser 扩压管•Compressor 压缩机•Pump 泵•Throttling process 节流过程•Turbine 汽轮机•Heat exchanger换热器•Second law of thermodynamics 热力学第二定律•Clausius statement 克劳修斯表述•Kelvin-Plank statement 开尔文-普朗克表述•Thermal reservoir 热库•Entropy statement of the second law 第二定律熵的表述•Irreversible process 不可逆过程•Reversible process 可逆过程•Internal and external irreversibility 内部不可逆外部不可逆•Irreversibility 不可逆性•Carnot corollaries 卡诺定理•Carnot cycle(Carnot power cycle, Carnot refrigeration and heat pump cycle)卡诺循环（卡诺动力循环，卡诺制冷和热泵循环）•Clausius inequality 克劳修斯不等式•Entropy change 熵变•First TdS equation (TdS=dU+pdV) 第一熵变方程•Second TdS equation (TdS=dH-Vdp) 第二熵变方程•Entropy production 熵产•Entropy transfer accompanying heat transfer热产引起熵产•Entropy/ Entropy rate balance熵平衡•Increase of entropy principle 熵增原理•Isentropic process 等熵过程•Exergy ( Exergy is the maximum theoretical work obtainable from a overall system consisting of a system and the environment as the system comes into equilibrium with the environment, or passes to the dead state)火用•Environment 外界•Dead state 死态•Specific exergy 比火用•Exergy transfer 火用传递•Exergy destruction 火用损•Exergy rate balance 火用平衡•Rankine cycle 郎肯循环•Boiler, condenser 锅炉，冷凝器•Superheat and reheat 过热回热•Gas power cycle(system)气体动力循环•Spark-ignition, compression-ignition 点燃式，压燃式•Compression ratio 压缩比•Internal combustion engine 内燃机•Air-standard analysis 空气标准分析•Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle 奥托循环，狄塞尔循环，混合循环•Gas turbine, Brayton Cycle, reheat 燃气轮机，布雷顿循环，回热•Velocity of Sound 声速•Mach number 马赫数•Momentum equation 动量方程•Throat 喉部•Converging nozzle 渐缩喷管•Converging-diverging nozzle 缩放喷管•Diverging nozzle渐放喷管•Back pressure 背压•Compressible flow 可压缩流动•Subsonic and supersonic flow 亚音速流动超音速流动•Stagnation state 停滞状态•Normal shock 激波•Refrigeration and heat pump systems 制冷系统热泵系统•Vapor refrigeration system 蒸汽制冷系统•Vapor-Compression refrigeration蒸气压缩式制冷•Ideal vapor-compression cycle理想蒸汽压缩循环•Refrigerant制冷剂•Gas refrigeration cycle气体制冷循环•Equations of state 状态方程•Virial equation 维里方程•Van der Waals equation范德瓦尔斯方程•Helmholtz function f=u-Ts亥姆霍兹函数•Gibbs function g=h-Ts吉布斯函数•Maxwell relations麦克斯韦关系•Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T remains constant.等温过程：过程中，温度保持不变。

蒸汽和热量计算机说明书

Steam and Heat Computer for Industrial Energy Calculation of Steam and WaterApplication •Energy management •Chemical industry•Heating and air conditioning •Pharmaceutical industry •Food and beverage•Plant and panel manufactureYour benefits•Calculation of the following applications:Steam mass, steam heat quantity, net steam quantity, steam-heat differential,water heat quantity, waterheat differential•Simultaneous calculation of up to three applications per device •Real time clock•Log book function for error messages and parameter changes with date and time •Presettable allocation of the inputs/outputs to each application•Configuration and operation using a serial interface and ReadWin 2000 PC software•Modular expansion using plug-in cards•Large back-lit LC display with color change in the event of an error•Quick and safe configuration with application-guided operation (Quick Setup)•Online help function on all parameters optional •Calculation as per IAPWS-IF 97•Meets standards EN 1434-1, 2, 5 and 6 and OIML R75•Bi-directional flow applications or energy measurement is possible •Split-range flow measurements •Averaging of several input signals•Flow compensation due to improved differential pressure procedure •UL recognized component to UL 3111-1Products Solutions ServicesTechnical Information RMS621Energy managerTI00092R/09/EN/14.1671355039RMS6212Endress+HauserFunction and system designMeasuring principleUp to three different applications per device can be processed simultaneously. Two separate counters are available for each application, each of them is resettable.Connection of measured variables 0/4 to 20 mA, PFM or pulse for sensors such as flow (differential pressure probes, vortex, turbine, orifice plate, among others) or pressure. When measuringtemperatures, Pt100, Pt500 and Pt1000 in a 3- or 4-wire system can be connected directly or as a 4 to 20 mA signal using temperature transmitters (e.g. TMT181). A separate transmitter power supply is installed for each analog or pulse input. The available outputs are signal types 0/4 to 20 mA, pulse, digital and relay. The number of inputs, outputs, relays and transmitter powersupplies contained in the basic device can be individually extended over a maximum of three plug-in cards.In applications with overheated steam, the process is monitored for saturated steam or wet steam. If the saturated steam curve is reached, this can be output as an alarm value. The summation of the calculated values is not interrupted when process limits (e.g. saturated steam curve) are exceeded or below set values. The most recently valid values are registered in the event memory when they leave or return to the valid process limits.ApplicationsSteam massCalculation of the mass flow in a steam line from the process variables for flow, pressure and temperature. In saturated steam operation, the mass flow is calculated from two input variables (pressurecompensated or temperature-compensated).Steam heat quantityCalculation of the mass flow and its quantity of heat (energy) in a steam line from the processvariables for flow, pressure and temperature. Saturated steam operation is possible, calculation is the same as for steam mass.p 1Calculation of the steam mass flow and steam heat quantity from the input variables for flow (Q), pressure (p) and temperature (T)Steam - heat - differentialCalculation of the quantity of heat emitted or absorbed in a steam application using temperature differential measurement from the process variables for flow, pressure and two temperature values.Balancing a steam generation process (phase transition: water → steam) or a steam heating process (phase transition: steam → water) is steam quantityCalculation of the quantity of heat that can be extracted from a steam mass flow until it condenses to water. Process variables: flow, pressure, temperature. For saturated steam, the calculation is made from two input variables.RMS621Endress+Hauser 3p 2Calculation of the steam-heat differential and net steam quantity from the input variables for flow(Q),pressure (p) and the temperature differential (T1 - T2)Water heat quantityCalculation of the quantity of heat in a water flow from the process variables for flow and temperature.Water-heat differentialCalculation of the quantity of heat that is emitted or absorbed by a water flow in a heating or cooling system. The quantity of heat is calculated from the process variable for flow and the differential from the feed and return temperature. Bidirectional energy calculations, such as the calculating systemswith changing flow direction (charging/discharging the heat accumulator) are also possible.3Calculation of the water heat quantity and water-heat differential from the input variables for flow (Q)and the temperature differential (T1 - T2)Measuring systemThe analog input variables are digitized, the pulse and PFM signals recorded using period length/frequency measurement and processed further in the arithmetic unit controlled by themicrocontroller. The energy values are calculated in accordance with the highly precise equations of the international industry standard IAPWS-IF97, which makes the calculation quicker and more precise. This guarantees maximum precision and high calculating speed in all temperature ranges.The internal real time clock with power reserve is used to integrate the flow values. Both the input variables and the results can be transferred via the outputs.When a differential pressure signal is used, the sensor data is recalculated over the entire working range of the flow sensors.Configuration of the inputs, outputs, alarm values, the display as well as commissioning andmaintenance of the device can be performed via 8 soft keys with the back-lit dot matrix display, or using the RS232 interface with the ReadWin 2000 PC software or using an external display and operating unit.RMS6214Endress+HauserA menu-guided quick setup is available on request for the initial start-up. Online help makes on-site operation easier. The color change of the background lighting visualizes alarm value violations or faults. A function expansion of the device by means of expansion cards can be made at any time.Arithmetic unitRMS621Endress+Hauser 5InputMeasured variable Current, PFM, pulse, temperatureInput signal Flow, differential pressure, pressure, temperatureNumber:•2 x 0/4 to 20 mA/PFM/pulse•2 x Pt100/500/1000 (in basic device)Maximum number:10 (depends on the number and type of expansion cards)Galvanic isolationThe inputs are galvanically isolated between the individual expansion cards and the basic device (see also ’Galvanic isolation’ under Output).RMS6216Endress+HauserOuputOutput signal Current, pulse, transmitter power supply (TPS) and switching output Galvanic isolationBasic device:The specified insulation voltage is the AC testing voltage U eff , which is applied between the connections.Basis for assessment: IEC 61010-1 (EN 61010-1), protection class II, overvoltage category II.Current - pulse output variableCurrent •0/4 to 20 mA +10% overrange, invertible•maximum loop current 22 mA (short-circuit current)•Load maximum 750 Ω at 20 mA •Accuracy 0.1% of full scale value•Temperature drift: 0.1% / 10 K (18 °F) ambient temperature change •Output Ripple < 10 mV at 500 Ω for frequencies < 50 kHz •Resolution 13 Bit•Error signals 3.6 mA and 21 mA limits as per NAMUR NE43 adjustablePulseBasic device:•Frequency range to 2 kHz•Voltage level 0 to 1 V low, 24 V high ±15%•Load minimum 1 kΩ•Pulse width 0.25 to 1 000 msExpansion cards (digital passive, open collector):•Frequency range to 2 kHz •I max = 200 mA •U max = 24 V ±15%•U low/max = 1.3 V bei 200 mA •Pulse width 0.25 to 1 000 ms NumberNumber:2 x 0/4 to 20 mA/pulse (in basic device)RMS621Endress+Hauser 7maximum number•8 x 0/4 to 20 mA/pulse (depends on the number of expansion cards)•6 x digital passive (depends on the number of expansion cards)Signal sourcesAll available multifunctional inputs (current, PFM or pulse inputs) and results can be freely allocated to the outputs.Switching outputFunctionLimit relay switches in these operating modes: minimum, maximum safety, gradient, alarm,saturated steam alarm, frequency/pulse, device error Switch behaviorBinary, switches when the alarm value is reached (potential-free NO contact)Relay switching capacitymaximum 250 V AC , 3 A / 30 V DC, 3 AWhen using relays on expansion cards, a mixture of low voltage and extra-low voltage is not permitted.Switching frequency maximum 5 Hz Switching thresholdProgrammable (wet steam alarm is preset at 2 °C (3.6 °F) at the factory)Hysteresis 0 to 99%Signal sourceAll available inputs and calculated variables can be allocated freely to the switching outputs.Number•1 (in basic device)•Maximum number: 7 (depends on the number and type of expansion cards)Number of output states 100 000Scan rate 500 msTransmitter power supply and external power supply•Transmitter power supply unit, terminals 81/82 or 81/83 (optional universal expansion cards 181/182 or 181/183):–Maximum supply voltage 24 V DC ±15%–Impedance < 345 Ω–Maximum output current 22 mA (for U out > 16 V)–HART® communication is not impaired –Number: 2 (in basic device)–maximum number: 5 (depending on the number and type of expansion cards)•Additional power supply (e.g. external display), terminals 91/92:–Supply voltage 24 V DC ±5%–Maximum current 80 mA, short-circuit proof –Number: 1–Source resistance < 10 ΩRMS6218Endress+HauserPower supply4Power supply; 90 to 250 V AC 50/60 Hz, 20 to 36 V DC , 20 to 28 V AC 50/60 HzThe terminals are bridged internally and can be used as support points for series wiring.5PFM, current and pulse inputs of the energy managerRMS621Endress+Hauser9 6Temperature inputs of the energy manager; terminals 1, 2, 5, 6: input 1; terminals 3, 4, 7, 8: input 2*Optional: Terminal assignment temperature expansion cardThe terminals 1 and 5 or 3 and 7 respectively must be bridged for 3-wire connection.7Outputs of the energy managers1Relay 1; terminal 142, 143 (relay 1) and 152, 153 (relay 2) as an option in expansion card2Pulse and current outputs3Pulse outputs (Open Collector) as an option in expansion card8Transmitter power supplyRMS62110Endress+Hauser 9Interfaces RS48510Connection of remote display and operating unit (option)1Energy manager2Display and operating unitSupply voltage•Low voltage power unit: 90 to 250 V AC 50/60 Hz•Extra-low voltage power unit: 20 to 36 V DC, 20 to 28 V AC 50/60 HzPower consumption8 to 26 VA (in Abhängigkeit der Ausbaustufe)Connection data interface RS232•Connection: 3.5 mm jack plug on front panel•Transmission protocol: ReadWin 2000•Transmission rate: maximum 57600 BaudRS485•Connection: plug-in terminals 101/102 (in basic device)•Transmission protocol: (serial: ReadWin 2000; parallel: open standard)•Transmission rate: maximum 57600 BaudOptional: additional RS485 interface•Connection: plug-in terminals 103/104•Transmission protocol and transmission rate same as standard RS485 interfaceRMS621Endress+Hauser 11Performance characteristicsReference operating conditions •Power supply 230 V AC ±10%; 50 Hz ±0.5 Hz •Warm-up period > 30 min •Ambient temperature range 25 °C (77 °F) ±5 K (±9 °F)•Air humidity 39% ± 10% relative humidityMaximum measured error •Current: 0.1% of full scale value •PFM: 0.01% of full scale value •Temperature (4-wire connection):–Pt100: 0.03% of full scale value –Pt500: 0.1% of full scale value –Pt1000: 0.08% of full scale valueResolution •Current: 13 Bit •Temperature: 16 BitInfluence of ambient temperature•Current: 0.4% / 10 K (18 °F) ambient temperature change •PFM: 0.1% / 10 K (18 °F) ambient temperature change •Temperature: 0.01%/ 10 K (18 °F) ambient temperature change InstallationMounting location In the cabinet on DIN rail according to IEC 60715 TH 35Device overheating when using expansion cards ‣When using extension cards, venting with an air current of at least 0.5 m/s is necessary.Orientation No restrictions.RMS62112Endress+HauserEnvironmentAmbient temperature range –20 to 60 °C (–4 to 140 °F)Storage temperature –30 to 70 °C (–22 to 158 °F)Climate class As per IEC 60 654-1 Class B2 / EN 1434 Klasse ’C’ (no condensation permitted)Electrical safetyAs per IEC 61010-1: ambient < 2 000 m (6 560 ft) above sea level Degree of protection •Basic device: IP 20•External display: IP 65Electromagnetic compatibility•Interference emission:IEC 61326 Class A •Interference immunity:–Power failure: 20 ms, no influence –Starting current limitation: I max /I n ≤ 50% (T50% ≤ 50 ms)–Electromagnetic fields: 10 V/m as per IEC 61000-4-3–Conducted HF: 0.15 to 80 MHz, 10 V as per IEC 61000-4-3–Electrostatic discharge: 6 000 V contact, indirect as per IEC 61000-4-2–Burst (power supply): 2 000 V as per IEC 61000-4-4–Burst (signal): 1 000 V/2 000 V as per IEC 61000-4-4–Surge (AC power supply): 1 000 V/2 000 V as per IEC 61000-4-5–Surge (DC power supply): 1 000 V/2 000 V as per IEC 61000-4-5–Surge (signal): 500 V/1 000 V as per IEC 61000-4-5RMS621Endress+Hauser 13Mechanical construction11Housing for DIN rail as per IEC 60751 TH35; dimensions in mm (in) 12Display and operating unit for panel mounting (available as an option or as an accessory); dimensions in mm (in)A B C D EA0032351 13Unit upgrade with expansion cards (optional or available as accessories)A, E Slots A and E equipped in the basic deviceB, C,DSlots B, C and D can be upgraded with expansion cardsWeight •Basic device: 500 g (17.6 oz) (in maximum configuration with expansion cards)•Remote control unit: 300 g (10.6 oz)RMS62114Endress+HauserMaterial Housing: polycarbonate plastic, UL 94V0Terminals Coded, pluggable screw terminals; Clamping area 1.5 mm 2 (16 AWG) solid, 1.0 mm 2 (18 AWG)flexible with wire end ferrule (applies to all connections).OperabilityOperating concept •Display (optional):160 x 80 Dot-matrix LCD with blue background lighting Color changes to red in the event of an error (adjustable)•LED status display:Operation: 1 x green Fault message: 1 x red •External display and operating unit (optional or as accessory):A display and operating unit can also be connected to the energy manager in the panel mounted housing, dimensions (WxHxT) 144 (5.67) x 72 (2.83) x 43 (1.69) mm (in))The connection to the integrated RS485 interface is made using the connecting cable (l = 3 m (9.84 ft)) which is included in the accessories set. Parallel operation of the external display unit with a device-internal displayin the RMS621 is possible.14External display and operating unit in the panel mounted housingOperating elements Eight front-panel soft keys interact with the display (function of the keys is shown in the display).Remote operation RS232 interface (3.5 mm (0.14 in)): jack plug on front panel): configuration via PC operating software.Real time clock •Deviation: 2.6 min per year •Power reserve: 14 daysMathematical functions•Flow, difference pressure calculation: EN ISO 5167•Continuous calculation of mass, density, enthalpy, heat quantity using stored algorithms and tables •Water / steam calculation as per IAPWS-IF97RMS621Endress+Hauser 15Certificates and approvalsCE mark The measuring system meets the legal requirements of the applicable EC guidelines. These are listed in the corresponding EC Declaration of Conformity together with the standards applied. The manufacturer confirms successful testing of the device by affixing to it the CE mark.UL approval UL recognized componentEAC mark The product meets the legal requirements of the EEU guidelines. The manufacturer confirms the successful testing of the product by affixing the EAC mark.Other standards and guidelines•IEC 60529:Degrees of protection by housing (IP code)•IEC 61010-1:Safety requirements for electrical measurement, control and laboratory instrumentation.•IEC 61326-Serie:Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC requirements).•NAMUR NE21, NE43:Standardization association for measurement and control in chemical and pharmaceutical industries ().•IAPWS-IF 97:International applicable and recognized calculation standard (since 1997) for steam and water.Issued by the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS).•OIML R75:International construction regulation and test specification for water energy managers from the Organisation Internationale de Métrologie Légale.•EN 1434 1, 2, 5 und 6•EN ISO 5167:Flow measurement of fluids with throttle devices.Ordering informationDetailed ordering information is available from the following sources:•In the Product Configurator on the Endress+Hauser website: -> Click "Corporate"-> Select your country -> Click "Products" -> Select the product using the filters and search field ->Open product page -> The "Configure" button to the right of the product image opens the Product Configurator.•From your Endress+Hauser Sales Center:Product Configurator - the tool for individual product configuration •Up-to-the-minute configuration data •Depending on the device: Direct input of measuring point-specific information such as measuring range or operating language •Automatic verification of exclusion criteria •Automatic creation of the order code and its breakdown in PDF or Excel output format •Ability to order directly in the Endress+Hauser Online ShopRMS62116Endress+HauserApplication packagesThe following table contains an overview of the order codes for the expansion cards with the possible applications.RMS621Endress+Hauser 17AccessoriesVarious accessories, which can be ordered with the device or subsequently from Endress+Hauser, are available for the device. Detailed information on the order code in question is available from your local Endress+Hauser sales center or on the product page of the Endress+Hauser website: .Device-specific accessories •Display and operating unit (optional or as an accessory):Remote display for panel mounting (dimensions (WxHxD) 144 (5.67) x 72 (2.83) x 43 (1.69) mm (in))•IP 66 protective housing for field mounting DIN rail instrumentationExpansion cards A function expansion of the device by means of max. 3 extension cards (universal and/or temperature cards) is possible.•Extension card temperature Inputs: 2 x Pt100/500/1000Outputs: 2 x 0/4 to 20 mA/pulse, 2 x digital, 2 x relay •Extension card universal Inputs: 2 x 0/4 to 20 mA/PFM/pulse with TPS Outputs: 2 x 0/4 to 20 mA/pulse, 2 x digital, 2 x relay •PC configuration software ReadWin 2000 and serial configuration cable with jack plug 3.5 mm (0.14 in).Communication-specific accessories PROFIBUS interfaceDocumentation•System components and data managers - Solutions for the loop: FA00016K/09•Operating instructions RMS621: BA00255R/09/。

暖通专业名词翻译

Professional EnglishHomework 1学院：环境与市政工程学院专业：建筑环境与设备工程专业班级：学号：姓名:EXE1Ⅰ. Translate Terms of Special English into English or Chinese1.LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)液化石油气2.ACGIH（American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists）美国政府工业卫生学家会议3.EIA(Electronic Industries Association)美国电子工业联合会4.NGO（Non-Governmental Organization）非政府组织；民间组织5.ASHRAE （American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineer）美国采暖、制冷与空调工程师学会6.V A V（Variable Air V olume）变风量7.HVAC&R（Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning）采暖空调8.AHU（Air Handling Unit）空气处理机组9.DDC（Defense Documentation Center ; Direct Digital Control）国防情报资料中心；直接数字控制10.EIA(Electronic Industries Association)美国电子工业联合会11.EER(Energy Efficiency Ratio)能效比12.COP（Coefficient Of Performance）性能系数13.LVG（solar heat gain factors）日照得热量因子14.ODP（Ozone depletion potential）破坏臭氧层潜值15.GWP（Global Warming Potential）全球变暖潜值16.SHGFs（solar heat gain factors）日照得热量因子17.CAD（Computer Aided Design）计算机辅助设计18.TFM（Transfer Function Method）传递函数法19.VOCs（V olatile organic compounds）挥发性有机化合物20.IAQ（Indoor Air Quality）室内空气品质21.SBS（Sick Building Syndrome）病态建筑综合症22.PM（Particulate Matter）颗粒物质23.ETS（environmental tobacco smoke）工作场所吸烟问题24.PAQ（perceived air quality）感受到的空气品质25.WHO（World Health Organization）世界卫生组织26.EPA（Environmental Protection Agency）环境保护局27.TWA（Trans world Airlines）环球航空公司28.SPF（Seasonal Performance Factor）季节性能系数29.BTU（British Thermal Unit）英国热量单位30.AHU（Air Handling Unit）空气处理机组31.PU（packaged unit）整体式空调机组32.DX coil(direct expansion coil)直接膨胀式盘管33.ISO（International Standardization Organization）国际标准化组织（write out their full name）34.open-type expansion tank开式膨胀水箱35.volumetric efficiency容积效率36.temperature-entropy coordinates温熵图37.thermal resistant热阻38.interdisciplinary science 跨学科科学39. human thermoregulation体温调节40.potential adverse health effect 潜在的健康危害41.upper respiratory tract 上呼吸道42.face velocity迎面风速43.区域供热district heating44.循环泵circulating pump45.超高效过滤器ultrahigh-efficiency filter46.舒适性空调系统comfort air-conditioning system47.工艺性空调系统processing air-conditioning system48.多级蒸气压缩式制冷multistage vapor compression refrigeration49.容积效率volumetric efficiency50.表面张力surface tension51.水力直径hydraulic diameter52.放射性污染物radioactive contaminant53.负荷计算load calculation54.工业洁净室industrial cleanroom55.干/湿球温度dry/wet-bulb temperature56.空气源热泵air-source heat pump57.水环热泵closed-loop heat pump58.四通转向阀four-way reversing value59.热舒适性thermal comfort60. 风机盘管机组fan coil unit61.全空气系统all air system62.定风量空调系统constant air volume system63.变风量末端设备variable air volume terminal unit64.最小新风量minimum fresh air requirement65.热电偶thermocouple66.垂直温度梯度perpendicular temperature gradient67.能量守恒energy balance68.地板采暖floor heating69.易燃粉尘combustible dust70.夜间蓄能系统night energy storage system71.室内装修interior decoration72.可持续发展sustainable development73.性能系数coefficient performance74.绝热膨胀isentropic expansion75.负荷计算load calculation76.水力计算hydraulic calculation77. 瞬时冷负荷cooling load instantaneously78.稀释通风dilution ventilation79. 换气次数the number of air changes80. 置换通风make–up ventilation81. 居住建筑residential buildings 82.辐射供热radiant heatingⅡ. Sentences Translation (pay attention to your translation skills)1.The time could have been more profitably spent in making a detailedinvestigation.花费一些时间来做一个详细的调查是很有益的。

关于自然界的英文单词

关于自然界的英文单词The Wonders of Nature.Nature, the vast and enigmatic realm that surrounds us, is a constant source of fascination and inspiration. It encompasses a vast array of phenomena, from the smallest particles to the vastest galaxies, each displaying their unique beauty and complexity. Let us delve into some of the English words that encapsulate the essence of nature andits various aspects.1. Biodiversity: This term refers to the vast array of life forms that populate our planet. It encompasses therich diversity of species, ecosystems, and geneticvariation found throughout the natural world. Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining the health and resilience of ecosystems and for the provision of essential ecosystem services such as pollination, climate regulation, and nutrient cycling.2. Ecosystem: An ecosystem refers to a community ofliving organisms and their interactions with their non-living environment. It represents a functional unit where energy and matter are cycled and transformed, maintaining a state of dynamic equilibrium. Ecosystems range from small and intimate, such as a terrarium, to vast and complex,like the Amazon rainforest.3. Geology: This discipline deals with the study of the Earth's solid matter, including its rocks, minerals, andthe processes that shape them. Geology is responsible for understanding the Earth's formation, its internal structure, and the various geological features that dot the landscape, such as mountains, valleys, and plateaus.4. Meteorology: Meteorology is the study of atmospheric conditions and phenomena, including weather, climate, and atmospheric chemistry. It encompasses the understanding of wind patterns, precipitation, temperature fluctuations, and other aspects of the Earth's atmosphere that affect ourdaily lives.5. Hydrology: Hydrology deals with the study of water and its movement through the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface. It includes the understanding of rivers, lakes, groundwater, and the water cycle, which is responsible for transporting water from the surface to the atmosphere and back again.6. Biome: A biome refers to a large-scale ecological community characterized by a particular set of plant and animal species adapted to specific environmental conditions. Different biomes, such as the tundra, rainforest, and desert, each have their unique characteristics and challenges that shape the life within them.7. Evolution: Evolution is the process by which species adapt and change over time, responding to environmental pressures and natural selection. It is a fundamentalconcept in biology that explains the diversity of lifeforms and their remarkable adaptability to changing conditions.8. Erosion: Erosion is the process by which rocks, soil,and other materials are transported and deposited by wind, water, ice, or other agents. It shapes the landscape, creating features like canyons, beaches, and deltas, and is a crucial component of the Earth's surface evolution.9. Sedimentation: Sedimentation refers to the accumulation of solid particles, such as sand, mud, and gravel, at the bottom of lakes, rivers, and oceans. This process plays a key role in forming sedimentary rocks andin shaping the Earth's seabed and riverbeds.10. Plate Tectonics: Plate tectonics is the theory that explains the structure and evolution of the Earth's crust through the movement of tectonic plates. These plates, made up of crustal material, move over the Earth's mantle, causing earthquakes, volcanoes, and other geological phenomena.These are just a few of the many English words that describe the intricate and fascinating world of nature. Each of these terms represents a vast and complex field of study, and together they provide a comprehensiveunderstanding of the natural world and its impact on our lives. As we delve deeper into these topics, we gain a deeper appreciation for the wonders of nature and our role within it.。

绝对温度（absolutetemperature）概念

绝对温度（absolutetemperature）概念热力学温度又称开尔文温度T,或称绝对温度,度量符号为K.绝对零度时的温度定义为0K.冰水混合物的温度为摄氏0度,定义为273.15K.水在标准大气压下结冰的温度,即摄氏温度0℃,或华氏温度32℉,相当于热力学温度273.16K绝对温度的原理一定质量的气体等压膨胀时,在常温下其V－t图线为一条不过坐标原点的直线（盖－吕萨克定律）.若实验测得这条图线,加以外推,找出图线与t轴的交点处的摄氏温度值,它就是使理想气体体积变为零的最低温度,即热力学温度（绝对温度）的零度.绝对零度是一个「理论值」,而非一个实际已经观测到或达到的温度,也就是说,它是一个科学家根据实验所间接「推论」出来的数值；而到目前为止,以人类的科学技术,还达不到这样的低温.物质的分子无时无刻不在剧烈地运动,也正是因为分子运动的结果,而使得温度上升,因此被称之为「热运动」；相对地,如果把温度不断地降低,就会使得分子的热运动愈来愈慢、愈来愈慢；那究竟要到什么时候,物质分子才会完全静止不动呢?绝对零度（也就是大约摄-273.15℃）正是科学家们推导出来的答案；它代表著在此温度之下,物质分子不再具有任何能量来进行热运动,也就是一切的分子都会停止活动.但后来的科学家发现,即使在绝对零度的低温下,分子运动却可能不会完全静止,不过,这已是量子力学的艰深范畴了!冷冻后的原子温度到底是多少度,方法之一是先把雷射关掉.在朱棣文最初的实验里,原子冷冻后会在这个状态下维持约0.1毫秒(1ms =10-3 s),随后原子就在无动力的情况下离开观测区继续飞行.测量这个只受重力下飞行一段固定距离所需的时间,可以大约估计原子的温度.朱棣文量得的温度大约是240μK,这大约等于钠原子速度为 30 cm/s的温度,跟理论上计算的多普勒极限差不多,用多普勒冷冻最低就只能达到这个温度了.The kelvin (symbol: K) is a unit increment of temperature and is one of the seven SI base units. The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale where absolute zero, the theoretical absence of all thermal energy, is zero kelvin (0 K). The Kelvin scale and the kelvin are named after the British physicist and engineer William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), who wrote of the need for an "absolute thermometric scale". Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to as a "degree", nor is it typeset with a degree symbol; that is, it is written K and not °K.Contents [hide]1 History2 Usage conventions2.1 Use in conjunction with Celsius3 Color temperature4 Kelvin as a measure of noise5 See also6 References7 External links[edit] HistorySee also: thermodynamic temperature#History1848Lord Kelvin (William Thomson), wrote in his paper, On an Absolute Thermometric Scale, of the need for a scale whereby "infinite cold" (absolute zero) was the scale’s null point, and which used the degree Celsius for its unit increment. Thomson calculated t hat absolute zero was equivalent to ?273 °C on the airthermometers of the time.[1] This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. It’s noteworthy that Thomson’s value of "?273" was actually derived from 0.00366, which was the accepted expansion coefficient of gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point. The inverse of ?0.00366 expressed to five significant digits is ?273.22 °C which is remarkably close to the true value of ?273.15 °C.1954Resolution 3 of the 10th CGPM gave the Kelvin scale its modern definition by designating the triple point of water as its second defining point and assigned its temperature to exactly "273.16 degrees Kelvin."[2]1967/1968Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature "kelvin", symbol K, replacing "degree absolute", symbol °K.[3] Furthermore, feeling it useful to more explicitly define the magnitude of the unit increment, the 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."[4] 2005The Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale would refer to water having an isotopic composition specified as VSMOW.[5][edit] Usage conventionsWhen reference is made to the unit kelvin (either a specific temperature or a temperature interval), kelvin is always spelledwith a lowercase k unless it is the first word in a sentence.[6] When reference is made to the "Kelvin scale", the word "kelvin"—which is normally a noun—functions adjectivally to modify the noun "scale" and is capitalized.Until the 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1967–1968, the unit kelvin was called a "degree", the same as with the other temperature scales at the time. It was distinguished from the other scales with either the adjective suffix "Kelvin" ("degree Kelvin") or with "absolute" ("degree absolute") and its symbol was °K. The latter (degree absolute), which was the unit’s official name from 1948 until 1954, was rather ambiguous since it could also be interpreted as referring to the Rankine scale. Before the 13th CGPM, the plural form was "degrees absolute". The 13th CGPM changed the name to simply "kelvin" (symbol K).[7] The omission of "degree" indicates that it is not relative to an arbitrary reference point like the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, but rather an absolute unit of measure which can be manipulated algebraically (e.g., multiplied by two to indicate twice the amount of "mean energy" available among elementary degrees of freedom of the system).This SI unit is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin. As with every SI unit whose name is derived from the proper name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (K). When an SI unit is spelled out in English, it should always begin with a lowercase letter (kelvin), except where any word would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the "d" is lowercase.—Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2.The kelvin symbol is always a roman, non-italic capital K. Inthe SI naming convention, all symbols named after a person are capitalized; in the case of the kelvin, capitalizing also distinguishes the symbol from the SI prefix "kilo", which has the lowercase k as its symbol. The admonition against italicizing the symbol K applies to all SI unit symbols; only symbols for variables and constants (e.g., P = pressure, and c = 299,792,458 m/s) are italicized in scientific and engineering papers. As with most other SI unit symbols (angle symbols, e.g. 45° 3′ 4〃, are the exception) there is a space between the numeric value and the kelvin symbol (e.g. "99.987 K").[8][9]Unicode provides a compatibility character for the kelvin at U+212A (decimal 8490), for compatibility with CJK encodings that provide such a character (as such, in most fonts the width is the same as for fullwidth characters).[edit] Use in conjunction with CelsiusIn science and in engineering, the Celsius scale and the kelvin are often used simultaneously in the same article (e.g., "...its measured value was 0.01028 °C with an uncertainty of 60 μK..."). This practice is permissible because the degree Celsius is a special name for the kelvin for use in expressing Celsius temperatures and the magnitude of the degree Celsius is exactly equal to that of the kelvin.[10] Notwithstanding that the official endorsement provided by Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM states, "a temperature interval may also be expressed in degrees Celsius," the practice of simultaneously using both "°C" and "K" remains widespread throughout the scientific world as the use of SI prefixed forms of the degree Celsius (such as "μ°C" or "microdegrees Celsius") to express a temperature interval has not been widely adopted. A helpful way to think of the kelvin system is thinking that nothing can be colder than 0 kelvin (-273.15degrees Celsius) [3][edit] Color temperatureMain article: Color temperatureSee also: Stefan–Boltzmann constantThe kelvin is often used in the measure of the color temperature of light sources. Color temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light whose color depends on the temperature of the radiator. Black bodies with temperatures below about 4000 K appear reddish whereas those above about 7500 K appear bluish. Color temperature is important in the fields of image projection and photography where a color temperature of approximately 5600 K is required to match "daylight" film emulsions. In astronomy, the stellar classification of stars and their place on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram are based, in part, upon their surface temperature, known as effective temperature. The photosphere of the Sun, for instance, has an effective temperature of 5778 K.[edit] Kelvin as a measure of noiseMain article: noise figureIn electronics, the Kelvin unit is used as an indicator of how noisy a circuit is in relation to an ultimate noise floor, i.e. the noise temperature. The so-called Johnson–Nyquist noise of discrete resistors and capacitors is a type of thermal noise derived from the Boltzmann constant and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a circuit using the Friis formulas for noise.[edit] See alsoComparison of temperature scalesInternational Temperature Scale of 1990Negative temperatureRankine scaleThermodynamic temperatureTriple point(Supplement)I have the link to you, somehow Baidu is not allow to post it here.* Don't lose sync with your promise.。

工程热力学课后答案英文版电子工业出版社

1-11 A barometer is used to measure the height of a building by recording reading at the bottom and at the top of the building. The height of the building is to be determined. Assumptions The variation of air density with altitude is negligible.Properties The density of air is given to be ρ = 1.18 kg/m 3density of mercury is 13,600 kg/m 3.Analysis building arekPa100.70N/m 1000kPa1m/s kg 1N1m) )(0.755m/s )(9.807kg/m (13,600)(kPa97.36m/s kg 1N1m) )(0.730m/s )(9.807kg/m (13,600)(2223bottombottom 223toptop =⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅===⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅==h g P h g ρP ρTaking an air column between the top and the bottom of the building and writing a force balance per unit base area, we obtainkPa 97.36)(100.70N/m 1000kPa 1m/s kg 1N1))(m/s )(9.807kg/m (1.18)(/2223topbottom air topbottom air -=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅-=-=h P P gh P P A W ρIt yields h = 288.6 mwhich is also the height of the building.1-21 The air pressure in a duct is measured by an inclined manometer. For a given vertical level difference, the gage pressure in the duct and the length of the differential fluid column are to be determined.Assumptions The manometer fluid is an incompressible substance.Properties The density of the liquid is given to be ρ = 0.81 kg/L = 810 kg/m 3. Analysis The gage pressure in the duct is determined fromPa636=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅==-=2223atm abs gage N/m 1Pa1m/s kg 1N1m) )(0.08m/s )(9.81kg/m (810ghP P P ρ The length of the differential fluid column is730 mmHgcm 13.9=︒==35sin /)cm 8(sin /θh LDiscussion Note that the length of the differential fluid column is extended considerably by inclining the manometer arm for better readability.2-4 No. This is the case for adiabatic systems only.2-6 A classroom is to be air-conditioned using window air-conditioning units. The cooling load is due to people, lights, and heat transfer through the walls and the windows. The number of 5-kW window air conditioning units required is to be determined.Assumptions There are no heat dissipating equipment (such as computers, TVs, or ranges) in the room. Analysis The total cooling load of the room is determined fromQ Q Q Q cooling lights people heat gain =++whereQ Q Q lights people heat gain 10100W 1kW40360kJ /h 4kW 15,000kJ /h 4.17kW=⨯==⨯=== Substituting,.Q cooling 9.17kW =++=14417Thus the number of air-conditioning units required is units 2−→−=1.83kW/unit 5kW9.172-18 The flow of air through a flow channel is considered. The diameter of the wind channel downstream from the rotor and the power produced by the windmill are to be determined. Analysis The specific volume of the air is/k g m 8409.0k P a100K) K)(293/kg m kP a 287.0(33=⋅⋅==P RT v The diameter of the wind channel downstream from the rotor ism 7.38===−→−=−→−=m/s9m/s10m) 7()4/()4/(21122221212211V V D D V D V D V A V A ππ The mass flow rate through the wind mill iscool·kg/s 7.457/kg)m 4(0.8409m/s)(10m) 7(3211===πvV A mThe power produced is thenkW 4.35=⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-=-=22222221/s m 1000kJ/kg 12)m/s 9()m/s 10(kg/s)7.457(2V V m W 2-19 The available head, flow rate, and efficiency of a hydroelectric turbine are given. The electric power output is to be determined.Assumptions 1 The flow is steady. 2 Water levels at the reservoir and the discharge site remain constant. 3 Frictional losses in piping are negligible. Properties We take the density of water to beρ = 1000 kg/m 3 = 1 kg/L.Analysis The total mechanical energy the water in a dam possesses is equivalent to the potential energy of water at the free surface of the dam (relative to free surface of discharge water), and it can be converted to work entirely. Therefore, the power potential of water is its potential energy,which is gz per unit mass, and gz m for a given mass flow rate.kJ/kg 177.1/s m 1000kJ/kg 1m ) 120)(m /s (9.81222mech =⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛===gz pe e The mass flow rate iskg/s ,000100/s)m 0)(10kg/m 1000(33===V ρmThen the maximum and actual electric power generation becomeMW 7.117kJ/s 1000MW 1kJ/kg) 7kg/s)(1.17 000,100(mech mech max =⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛===e mE WMW 94.2===MW) 7.117(80.0max overall electric W W η Discussion Note that the power generation would increase by more than 1 MW for each percentage point improvement in the efficiency of the turbine –generator unit.3-9 A rigid container that is filled with R-134a is heated. The temperature and total enthalpy are to be determined at the initial and final states.Analysis This is a constant volume process. The specific volume is/kg m 0014.0kg10m 014.03321====m Vv vR-134a 300 kPa 10 kgThe initial state is determined to be a mixture, and thus the temperature is the saturation temperature at the given pressure. From Table A-12 by interpolation C 0.61︒==kPa 300 @sat 1T TandkJ/kg52.54)13.198)(009321.0(67.52009321.0/kgm )0007736.0067978.0(/kg m )0007736.00014.0(113311=+=+==--=-=fg f fgf h x h h x v v vThe total enthalpy is thenkJ 545.2===)kJ/kg 52.54)(kg 10(11mh HThe final state is also saturated mixture. Repeating the calculations at this state,C 21.55︒==kPa 600 @sat 2T TkJ/kg64.84)90.180)(01733.0(51.8101733.0/kgm )0008199.0034295.0(/kg m )0008199.00014.0(223322=+=+==--=-=fg f fgf h x h h x v v vkJ 846.4===)kJ/kg 64.84)(kg 10(22mh H3-22 rigid tank contains an ideal gas at a specified state. The final temperature is to be determined for two different processes.Analysis (a ) The first case is a constant volume process. When half of the gas is withdrawn from the tank, the final temperature may be determined from the ideal gas relation as()K 400=⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==K) 600(kP a 300kP a 1002112212T P P m m T (b ) The second case is a constant volume and constant mass process. The ideal gas relation for this case yields kPa 200=⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==kP a) 300(K 600K 4001122P T T P3-32 Complete the following table for H 2 O :P , kPa T , ︒C v , m 3 / kgu , kJ/kg Phase description 200 30 0.001004 125.71 Compressed liquid 270.3130--Insufficient informationv200 400 1.5493 2967.2 Superheated steam 300133.520.5002196.4Saturated mixture, x=0.825500 473.1 0.6858 3084 Superheated steam4-14 Oxygen is heated to experience a specified temperature change. The heat transfer is to be determined for two cases.Assumptions 1 Oxygen is an ideal gas since it is at a high temperature and low pressure relative to its critical point values of 154.8 K and 5.08 MPa. 2 The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible, 0pe ke ≅∆≅∆. 3 Constant specific heats can be used for oxygen.Properties The specific heats of oxygen at the average temperature of (25+300)/2=162.5︒C=436 K are c p = 0.952 kJ/kg ⋅K and c v = 0.692 kJ/kg ⋅K (Table A-2b ).Analysis We take the oxygen as the system. This is a closed system since no mass crosses the boundaries of the system. The energy balance for a constant-volume process can be expressed as)(12in energiesetc. potential, kinetic, internal,in Change system massand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra Net out in T T mc U Q E E E -=∆=∆=-vThe energy balance during a constant-pressure process (such as in a piston-cylinder device) can be expressed as)(12in out ,in out ,in energiesetc. potential, kinetic, internal,in Change system massand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra Net outin T T mc H Q U W Q UW Q E E E p b b -=∆=∆+=∆=-∆=-since ∆U + W b = ∆H during a constant pressure quasi-equilibrium process. Substituting for both cases, kJ 190.3=-⋅=-==K )25K)(300kJ/kg 692.0(kg) 1()(12const in,T T mc Q v VkJ 261.8=-⋅=-==K )25K)(300kJ/kg 952.0(kg) 1()(12const in,T T mc Q p P4-25 A rigid tank filled with air is connected to a cylinder with zero clearance. The valve is opened, and air is allowed to flow into the cylinder. The temperature is maintained at 30︒C at all times. The amount of heat transfer with the surroundings is to be determined.Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas. 2 The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible,∆∆ke pe ≅≅0. 3 There are no work interactions involved other than the boundary work. Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPa.m 3/kg.K (Table A-1).Analysis We take the entire air in the tank and the cylinder to be the system. This is a closed system since no mass crosses the boundary of the system. The energy balance for this closed system can be expressed asoutb,in 12out b,in energiesetc. potential, kinetic,internal,in Change system massand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra Net out in 0)(W Q u u m U W Q E E E ==-=∆=-∆=-since u = u (T ) for ideal gases, and thus u 2 = u 1 when T 1 = T 2 . The initial volume of air is33112212222111m 0.80)m (0.41kP a200kP a 400=⨯⨯==−→−=V V V V T T P P T P T P The pressure at the piston face always remains constant at 200 kPa. Thus the boundary work done during this process iskJ 80m kPa 1kJ 10.4)m kPa)(0.8 (200)( 312221out b,=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅-=-==⎰V V V P d P W Therefore, the heat transfer is determined from the energy balance to bekJ 80==in out b,Q W4-27 An insulated cylinder is divided into two parts. One side of the cylinder contains N 2 gas and the other side contains He gas at different states. The final equilibrium temperature in the cylinder when thermal equilibrium is established is to be determined for the cases of the piston being fixed and moving freely.Assumptions 1 Both N 2 and He are ideal gases with constant specific heats. 2 The energy stored in the container itself is negligible. 3 The cylinder is well-insulated and thus heat transfer is negligible. Properties The gas constants and the constant volume specific heats are R = 0.2968 kPa.m 3/kg.K is c v = 0.743 kJ/kg·°C for N 2, and R = 2.0769 kPa.m 3/kg.K is c v = 3.1156 kJ/kg·°C for He (Tables A-1 and A-2)Analysis The mass of each gas in the cylinder is()()()()()()()()kg0.808K 298K /kg m kPa 2.0769m 1kPa 500kg 4.77K 353K /kg m kPa 0.2968m 1kPa 50033He111He33N 111N 22=⋅⋅=⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==⋅⋅=⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=RT P m RT P m V VTaking the entire contents of the cylinder as our system, the 1st law relation can be written as()()He12N 12HeN energiesetc. potential, kinetic, internal,in Change system massand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra Net out in )]([)]([0022T T mc T T mc U U U E E E -+-=∆+∆=∆=∆=-v vSubstituting,()()()()()()0C 25C kJ/kg 3.1156kg 0.808C 80C kJ/kg 0.743kg 4.77=︒-︒⋅+︒-⋅f fT TIt givesT f = 57.2︒Cwhere T f is the final equilibrium temperature in the cylinder.The answer would be the same if the piston were not free to move since it would effect only pressure, and not the specific heats.Discussion Using the relation P V = NR u T , it can be shown that the total number of moles in the cylinder is 0.170 + 0.202 = 0.372 kmol, and the final pressure is 510.6 kPa.6-9 An inventor claims to have developed a heat engine. The inventor reports temperature, heat transfer, and work output measurements. The claim is to be evaluated.Analysis The highest thermal efficiency a heat engine operating between two specified temperature limits can have is the Carnot efficiency, which is determined from42%or 42.0K500K 29011C th,max th,=-=-==H L T T ηη The actual thermal efficiency of the heat engine in question is42.9%or 0.429kJ700kJ300net th ===H Q W η which is greater than the maximum possible thermal efficiency. Therefore, this heat engine is a PMM2 and the claim is false .6-11 A heat pump maintains a house at a specified temperature. The rate of heat loss of the house and the power consumption of the heat pump are given. It is to be determined if this heat pump can do the job.Assumptions The heat pump operates steadily.Analysis The power input to a heat pump will be a minimum when the heat pump operates in a reversible manner. The coefficient of performance of a reversible heat pump depends on the temperature limits in the cycle only, and is determined from ()()()14.75K 27322/K 273211/11COP rev HP,=++-=-=H L T TThe required power input to this reversible heat pump is determined from the definition of the coefficient of performance to bekW 2.07=⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==s 3600h 114.75kJ/h 110,000COP HP min in,net,H Q W This heat pump is powerful enough since 5 kW > 2.07 kW.7-8A reversible heat pump with specified reservoir temperatures is considered. The entropy change of two reservoirs is to be calculated and it is to be determined if this heat pump satisfies the increase in entropy principle.Assumptions The heat pump operates steadily. Analysis Since the heat pump is completely reversible, the combination of the coefficient of performance expression, first Law, and thermodynamic temperature scale gives73.26)K 294/()K 283(11/11COP rev HP,=-=-=HL T T The power required to drive this heat pump, according to the coefficient of performance, is thenkW 741.326.73kW 100COP rev HP,in net,===HQ WAccording to the first law, the rate at which heat is removed from the low-temperature energy reservoir iskW 26.96kW 741.3kW 100in net,=-=-=W Q Q H L The rate at which the entropy of the high temperature reservoir changes, according to the definition of the entropy, iskW/K 0.340===∆K294kW 100H HHT Q S and that of the low-temperature reservoir iskW/K 0.340-=-==∆K283kW 26.96L L L T Q S The net rate of entropy change of everything in this system iskW/K 0=-=∆+∆=∆340.0340.0total L H S S Sas it must be since the heat pump is completely reversible.net7-11 Steam is expanded in an isentropic turbine. The work produced is to be determined. Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2 The process is isentropic (i.e., reversible-adiabatic).Analysis There is one inlet and two exits. We take the turbine as the system, which is a control volume since mass crosses the boundary. The energy balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate form aso u tin energiesetc. potential, kinetic, internal,in change of Rate (steady) 0systemmassand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra net of Rate out in 0E E E E E==∆=-332211out out332211h m h m h m W W h m h m h m --=++=From a mass balance,kg/s 75.4)kg/s 5)(95.0(95.0kg/s 25.0)kg/s 5)(05.0(05.01312======m mm mNoting that the expansion process is isentropic, the enthalpies at three states are determined as follows:6)-A (Table KkJ/kg 6953.7kJ/kg4.2682C 100 kPa 503333 ⋅==⎭⎬⎫︒==s h T P 6)-A (Table kJ/kg 3.3979K kJ/kg 6953.7 MPa 41311=⎭⎬⎫⋅===h s s P 6)-A (Table kJ/kg 1.3309K kJ/kg 6953.7 kPa 7002322=⎭⎬⎫⋅===h s s P Substituting,kW6328=--=--=kJ/kg) .4kg/s)(2682 75.4(kJ/kg) .1kg/s)(3309 25.0(kJ/kg) .3kg/s)(3979 5(332211outh m h m h m W7-13 The entropy change relations of an ideal gas simplify to∆s = c p ln(T 2/T 1) for a constant pressure processand ∆s = c v ln(T 2/T 1) for a constant volume process.Noting that c p > c v , the entropy change will be larger for a constant pressure process.7-22 Air is compressed in a piston-cylinder device. It is to be determined if this process is possible.Assumptions 1 Changes in the kinetic and potential energies are negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. 3 The compression process is reversible.Properties The properties of air at room temperature are R = 0.287 kPa ⋅m 3/kg ⋅K, c p = 1.005 kJ/kg ⋅K (Table A-2a).Analysis We take the contents of the cylinder as the system. This is a closed system since no mass enters or leaves. The energy balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed asin,out 12out in ,12out in ,12out in ,energiesetc. potential, kinetic, internal,in Change system massand work,heat,by nsfer energy tra Net out in )(since 0)( )(b b p b b W Q T T Q W T T mc Q W u u m U Q W E E E ===--=--=∆=-∆=-The work input for this isothermal, reversible process iskJ/kg 8.897kP a100kP a 250K)ln K)(300kJ/kg 287.0(ln12in =⋅==P P RT w That is,kJ/kg 8.897in out ==w qThe entropy change of air during this isothermal process isK kJ/kg 0.2630kP a100kP a250K)ln kJ/kg 287.0(ln ln ln121212air ⋅-=⋅-=-=-=∆P P R P P R T T c s p The entropy change of the reservoir isK kJ/kg 0.2630K300kJ/kg 89.78R R ⋅===∆R T q s Note that the sign of heat transfer is taken with respect to the reservoir. The total entropy change (i.e., entropy generation) is the sum of the entropy changes of air and the reservoir:K kJ/kg 0⋅=+-=∆+∆=∆2630.02630.0R air total s s sNot only this process is possible but also completely reversible.8-1 The four processes of an air-standard cycle are described. The cycle is to be shown on P-v and T-s diagrams, and the maximum temperature in the cycle and the thermal efficiency are to be determined.Assumptions 1 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.Properties The properties of air at room temperature are c p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, c v = 0.718 kJ/kg·K, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2).Analysis (b ) From the ideal gas isentropic relations and energy balance,()()K 579.2k P a 100k P a1000K 3000.4/1.4/11212=⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=-kk P P T THeatv()()()K3360==−→−-⋅=-=-=3max 32323in 579.2K kJ/kg 1.005kJ/kg 2800T T T T T c h h q p(c )()K 336K 3360kP a1000kP a1003344444333===−→−=T P P T T P T P v v ()()()()()()()()21.0%=-=-==-⋅+-⋅=-+-=-+-=+=k J /k g2800k J /k g 221211k J /k g2212K 300336K k J /k g 1.005K 3363360K k J /k g 0.718in out th14431443out 41,out 34,out q q T T c T T c h h u u q q q p ηvDiscussion The assumption of constant specific heats at room temperature is not realistic in this case the temperature changes involved are too large.8-5 An ideal Otto cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 9.5. The highest pressure and temperature in the cycle, the amount of heat transferred, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective pressure are to be determined.Assumptions 1 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.Properties The properties of air at room temperature are c p = 1.005 kJ/kg·K, c v = 0.718 kJ/kg·K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2). Analysis (a ) Process 1-2: isentropic compression.()()()()kP a 2338kP a 100K 308K 757.99.5K757.99.5K 3081122121112220.412112=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛==−→−===⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=-P T T P T P T P T T k v v v v vvProcess 3-4: isentropic expansion.()()K 1969==⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛=-0.4134439.5K 800k T T vvProcess 2-3: v = constant heat addition.()kPa 6072=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛==−→−=kPa 2338K 757.9K 19692233222333P T T P T P T P v v (b ) ()()()()kg 10788.6K 308K /kg m kPa 0.287m 0.0006kPa 100433111-⨯=⋅⋅==RT P m V vs()()()()()kJ0.590=-⋅⨯=-=-=-K 757.91969K kJ/kg 0.718kg 106.78842323in T T mc u u m Q v(c) Process 4-1: v = constant heat rejection.()()()()kJ0.2 40K 308800K kJ/kg 0.718kg 106.788)(41414out =-⋅⨯-=-=-=-T T mc u u m Q v kJ 0.350240.0590.0out in net =-=-=Q Q W59.4%===kJ0.590kJ0.350inout net,th Q W η(d ) ()()kPa 652=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛⋅-=-=-===kJm kPa 1/9.51m 0.0006kJ0.350)/11(MEP 331outnet,21outnet,max 2min r W W rV V V V V V8-7 An ideal diesel cycle has a a cutoff ratio of 1.2. The power produced is to be determined.Assumptions 1 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.Properties The properties of air at room temperature are c p = 1.005 kJ/kg·K, c v = 0.718 kJ/kg·K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2a). Analysis The specific volume of the air at the start of the compression is/kg m 8701.0kPa95K)288)(K /kg m kPa 287.0(33111=⋅⋅==P RT vThe total air mass taken by all 8 cylinders when they are charged is kg 008665.0/kgm 8701.0m)/4 12.0(m) 10.0()8(4/3212cyl 1cyl===∆=ππv v VS B N N mThe rate at which air is processed by the engine is determined fromkg/s 1155.0rev/cycle2rev/s) 1600/60kg/cycle)( (0.008665rev ===N nm msince there are two revolutions per cycle in a four-stroke engine. The compression ratio is2005.01==r At the end of the compression, the air temperature is()K 6.95420K) 288(14.1112===--k r T ToutApplication of the first law and work integral to the constant pressure heat addition giveskJ/kg 1325K )6.9542273)(K kJ/kg 005.1()(23in =-⋅=-=T T c q pwhile the thermal efficiency is6867.0)12.1(4.112.12011)1(1114.111.41th =---=---=--c k c k r k r r ηThe power produced by this engine is thenkW105.1====kJ/kg) 67)(1325kg/s)(0.68 (0.1155in th net netq m w m W η8-12 An aircraft engine operates as a simple ideal Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid. The pressure ratio and the rate of heat input are given. The net power and the thermal efficiency are to be determined.Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 3 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. Properties The properties of air at room temperature are c p = 1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4 (Table A-2a).Analysis For the isentropic compression process,K .1527K)(10) 273(0.4/1.4/)1(12===-kk p r T TThe heat addition iskJ/kg 500kg/s1kW 500in in===m Q qApplying the first law to the heat addition process,K 1025KkJ/kg 1.005kJ/kg500K 1.527)(in 2323in =⋅+=+=-=p p c q T T T T c q The temperature at the exit of the turbine isK 9.530101K) 1025(10.4/1.4/)1(34=⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛=⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛=-kk p r T TApplying the first law to the adiabatic turbine and the compressor produceskJ/kg 6.496K )9.5301025)(K kJ/kg 1.005()(43T =-⋅=-=T T c w pkJ/kg 4.255K )2731.527)(K kJ/kg 1.005()(12C =-⋅=-=T T c w pThe net power produced by the engine is thenkW 241.2=-=-=kJ/kg )4.2556kg/s)(496. 1()(C T netw w m W Finally the thermal efficiency is0.482===kW 500kW241.2innet thQ W η。

生态学英文版

Ecology (生態學)IntroductionEcology -- __________________________________________________________ Concept of the ecosystem - The biosphere and biomes•Bioshpere生物圈o The part of the Earth and its atmosphere inhabited by life is called biosphereo Thus, the oceans, land surface and lower parts of the atmosphere all form parts of the biosphere.•Biome生物群落o The biosphere can be divided into biomes which are linked by a common type of vegetation.o Forests, deserts and grasslands are the examples of biomes. Each biome consists of many ecosystems in which communities have adapted to differences in climate,soil, and other environmental factors throughout the biome.A. The Ecosystem生態系統An ecosystem is defined as a complex formed by the living community of different species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment of matter and energy to result in a stable and self-sustainable system.Components of an ecosystem :living community and non-living component•A population 種群consists of all members of the same species occupying a given area at the same time.• A community 群落consists of Populations of all the different species interacting with one another• A habitat生境is a small specific place where an organism lives.- types of habitats :terrestrial habitat ---- forest, ___________________aquatic habitat ---- fresh water : pond, lake, reservoir, __________ •marine : sandy shore, muddy shore, ___________________A habitat can divide into numerous microhabitats小生境, each with_____________________________________________________________________________________•The niche生態位of a species describes the role of specific species in its community.Niches are sometimes distinguished from habitats by saying that the habitat of anorganism is its address, while its niche is its role in the community.e.g. on a tree : caterpillars (feed on leaves),beetles (burrow into trunk)they live on same place but functionally they occupy different niches.•The biotic (living) factors生物的are comprised by all living organisms within the ecosystem.•The abiotic (non-living) 非生物的factors are mainly divided into soil, water and climate.o Water is essential for all living organisms in the soil and enters living cells by osmosis.o Soils vary in their content of clay, silt, sand and gravel. The composition of soil determines the soil texture, porosity, water-retaining capacity and oxygen content.Soil contains a mixture of organic and inorganic nutrients (humus and minerals).o Climate includes environmental variables such as light, temperature, moisture, salinity and wind. These factors are important in determining the types of livingorganisms in the ecosystem.B. Energy flow and nutrient cycling in the ecosystemI) Transfer of energy (many approaches, according to functions in ecosystem)Food chainA linear sequence of organisms showing a pathway of food consumption from producers through a series of consumers. In this series, an organism feeds on the one before it and forms the food of the organism after it.Food chains are short (4-5 levels) because only 10 - 20 % of energy is transferred to the next stage.Each stage in food chain = _______________Trophic levels•The number of steps by which the organisms obtain their energy from plants in a food chain. --- the producers always at the first trophic level.Producers _______ consumers ______ consumers ______consumersdecomposersa) Producers : autotrophs自養-- photosynthetic e.g. green plant, photosynthetic bacteria,chemosynthetic bacteria e.g. nitrifying bacteria,base of food chain and food web.N.B. : Phytoplanktons, which are microorganisms, are important producers floating on the upper layers of lakes or ocean. They are unicellular organisms which alsocontain chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis just like the terrestrial plants .b) Primary consumers : herbivores which feed on plants e.g. pond snails, insect larvae.c) Secondary consumers : carnivores which feed on primary consumers e.g. small fish.d) Tertiary consumers : larger carnivores which feed on secondary consumers e.g. large fishe) Decomposers : mainly ________________________,分解者decompose dead bodies of plants and animals into simpler compoundswhich can then be absorbed by green plants again,important in recycling of nutrients and clearing up dead bodies andexcretory remains.f) Detritivores : consume the losses from the food chain, or dead organic matter detached食腐質動物from dead bodies or excreta (detritus), movement of energy and matter in a continuous manner, therefore hard to define trophic level,mainly bacteria, fungi, protozoans, insects, mites and some small vertebrates,detritus detritivores carnivores and herbivoresImportances :⏹detritivores break down complex compounds to simpler molecules, therefore speeding updecomposition of dead bodies and excretory remains by breaking up detritus into small pieces thus increasing the surface area available for microbial action,⏹adding proteins and microorganisms onto the soil by their faecesg) other definition system :Producer herbivores carnivores top carnivores(prey) (prey/predator) (predator)Some animals may act as both herbivore and carnivore : omnivoreFood web- 2 or more interconnecting food chains, each organism may have different trophic levels營養層in different food chain within a food web.- examples of woodland and fresh water habitat (refer to any textbook)Example of food web : MarshII) Level of organizationArrange the following ecological terms in order :biosphere, community, population, organ, organism, biome, cellSpecies : ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________III) Ecological energeticsProduction : amount of materials which accumulate over a fixed amount of time.Top carnivoresCarnivoresdecomposersHerbivoresGreen plantsN.B. Much of the solar energy reaching the plant is lost by reflection and photosynthetic inefficiency.Useful terms :•Biological productivity生物生產力is the rate at which biomass is produced by an ecosystem. It has two components:o Primary productivity初級生產力, the production of new organic matter by green plants (autotrophs).o Secondary productivity次級生產力, the production of new organic matter by consumers (heterotrophs).•Both of these can be divided into gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.•Gross primary productivity (GPP) 總初級生產力o The total amount of orgainc matter produced by green plants in unit area and per unit time. GPP does not represent the actual amount of food potentially availableto heterotrophs because some of the organic matters are used to meet plant'srespiration and metabolism.•Net primary productivity (NPP) 淨初級生產力o The total amount of organic matter of the organism after respiration andmetabolism have been fueled. Therefore it represents the potential food energyavailable to heterotrophs.Net secondary productivity : ____________________________________________N.B. : Usually, plant has 10% average efficiency of energy transfer while animal has 20%, explain why ?IV) Pyramids1) Pyramid of number (abundance) 數目塔- a diagram representing the progressive drop in numbers of individuals at each successive trophic level, usually upright e.g.- sometimes may be inverted e.g.- Not a good representation : ___________________________________________2) Pyramid of biomass (unit :g/m2) 生物量塔- Biomass ? _____________________________________________________________- better idea about the quantity of materials in each trophic level required to support those level above it, total amount of organic matter is largest at the base of a food chain,- normal shape : upright,rare case : inverted, why ?Reason ---- producer level has rapid turnover rate e.g. phytoplanktons may have smaller biomass than true but have higher productivity, therefore in this case, harvestanimal is better than harvest producer,3) Pyramid of energy 能量塔(productivity) (Unit : g/m2/day, month, year)- the best because :a) it takes into account the rate of production, that is the time factor.b) no inverted pyramid --- always upright,c) importance of solar energy can be stressed.Criticism of all pyramids :- in a food web, many organisms cannot be placed in ONE suitable trophic level.- some still inverted, why ??Cycling of Nutrients in EcosystemsA. Carbon Cycle•Carbon is an essential building element for all organic compounds. The cyclic flow of carbon in Nature is known as the carbon cycle.o In Nature, the most abundant source of carbon exists as carbon dioxide free in the atmosphere and dissolve in oceans.o During photosynthesis, producers make use of light energy to convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon compounds in their bodieso When producers are eaten, the organic carbon compounds in their bodies are passed on to the consumers.o In the bodies of both producers and consumers, part of the organic carbon compounds is broken down into carbon dioxide during respiration and bringback to the atmosphere and oceans.o When the organisms die, a certain amount of organic carbon compounds is locked up in the dead bodies.o Generally the dead bodies undergo decomposition. The organic carboncompounds are converted to carbon dioxide and liberated during the respirationof decomposers.o Sometimes, the dead bodies may become fossil fuels. In such a case, the carbon dioxide can only be released when the fuels are burnt. The process is calledcombustion.Carbon CycleB. Nitrogen Cycle•Nitrogen is an essential element in the synthesis of proteins. The cyclic flow of nitrogen in Nature is known as the nitrogen.o During a process called nitrogen fixation, atmospheric nitrogen is changed to nitrates in the soil.This process is carried out by a group of bacteria callednitrogen-fixing bacteria.固氮細菌o During lightening閃電, a tmospheric nitrogen can also be changed to nitrates.o The nitrogen in the soil is absorbed by producers in ionic forms and converted to organic nitrogenous compounds in their body.o When producers are eaten, the organic nitrogenous compounds in their bodies are passed on to the consumers.o Some of the nitrogen in the consumers' bodies are lost as excretory products.o When the organisms die, a certain amount of organic nitrogen is locked up in the dead bodies.o The organic nitrogen in the excretory products and dead bodies is broken down into ammonium compounds by a group of bacteria called putrefying bacteria. Theprocess is called putrefaction. 腐敗作用o The ammonium compounds are changed stepwise to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. The process is called nitrification.o A process called denitrification changes some of the inorganic nitrogencompounds in the soil changed to nitrogen gas by the so-called denitrifyingbacteria. The nitrogen gas is returned to the atmosphere.Nitrogen cycleReference : Chinese version of Carbon and Nitrogen cycle Carbon Cycle :Nitrogen Cycle :Interdependence of organismsBasic interaction types0 no reaction + positive influence : benefit - negativea) + 0 :b) + + :c) + - :d) + - :e) - - :A) Positive interactions1) Commensalism 片行共生Different species of organisms living together, with only one getting benefits while the other get no harm, e.g. the barnacles藤壺attach themselves to the shells of hermit crabs. They obtain nourishment from the food left by the crab after it has eaten, and the crab can help them escape from danger.2) Mutualism (symbiosis) 互利共生Different species living together that are beneficial to both, e.g. lichens which are the association of fungi and algae. The alga is protected from high light intensity and desiccation by the fungi. Moreover, the fungi are constantly supplied with organic food substances by the algae from photosynthesis.Other example : symbiotic bacteria and rabbits.B) Negative interaction1) Predation (+ -) :two individuals in which one preys on the other while the other is being eaten e.g. foxes and rabbits.N.B. predators regulating the prey population, i.e. Biological control, therefore benefically.2) Parasitism (+ -) :The parasite obtains food or shelter from the host. It can be further divided into ectoparasites, which live on the outer surface of a host, and endoparasites, which live within a host.e.g. tapeworm found in human digestive system obtain nourishment from the human host. N.B. the parasite must not kill the host or else it destroys itself.3) Competition (- -) :a) Interspecific or intraspecific :which one is more serious ? ________________________e.g. barnacles and oysters ---- compete for space and foodb) Two types :(Scramble爭奪) :(Contest) :c) Effects- on plant : changes in growth rate (competition for nutrients or light),extinction of less successful species,- on animal : i) aggression,ii) territory,iii) emigration,iv) increase in death rate,v) predation.d) Evolutionary significance :1) eliminate less well-adapted individuals, therefore gradual improvement of species,2) gives rise to adaptive radiationi.e. filling of more diverse ecological niches by an original species,therefore competition in field -- __________________________________________________________________________________________________3) success in competition depends on environmental conditions, conditions may favour one species at one time, and a different one at some other time, therefore different species may fluctuate in number.Succession 演替Succession is defined as a series of changes in the structure and composition of a community from the pioneer community to the climax community over a period of time.Primary succession :Invasion and colonization of bare rock, only algae and lichens can invadeand colonize the area(insufficient soil and nutrients for trees and shrubs) --first colonizers.by weatheringColonization by larger plant species such as mosses or fernsThe death and decomposition of these plants further enrich the soilColonization by seed-bearing plants, including grasses, shrubs and trees.Secondary succession :When the completely colonized surface has been influenced by living organisms (human) or environmental factors (fire), secondary succession occurs -- result in mesophytes dominantcauses of succession : changes in environment of a pondexisting communities no longer adaptednew species take overClimax community : 頂極群落The final stable and self-perpetuating community developed after number of successional communities, can resist environmental changes and competition, and it is the most productive community that the environment can sustain.Characteristics1) determined by habitat factors,2) interaction results in a stable balanced unit,3) a natural community : self sufficient and self-maintaining,4) species composition of a natural community is the result of natural selection.Adaptations of organisms to the environmenta) Definition :characteristic of an organism with definite value in allowing it to exist under condition of its habitats in order to ensure its continuity, allow the organism to make use of environmental resources or protect it against adverse conditions.b) Types of adaptation :a) morphological, b) physiological, c) behaviouralc) Significance of adaptation :- natural selection eliminates the one not adapted, therefore the adapted are favoured i.e.'survival of fittest',- ability of species to remain in existence depends on :i) ______________________________________________________________ii) ________________________________________________________________Examples of adaptationsReproductiona) Viviparous 胎生droppers of Kandelia水筆仔:- dominant in mangroves in H.K.,- seedlings (fruits) exhibit vivipary -- they develop while still attached to the parent plants, forming 'droppers' which fall into the water and float away, coming to rest in an upright position as the tide recedes,- therefore adapt to i) unstable substratum,ii) anaerobic mud,iii) saline condition.Survivala) Holdfast of Sargassum ( brown algae),- live on the intertidal zone of marine habitat,- develop a powerful holdfast which is a flattened disc capable of adhering strongly to almost any solid substratum.b) Shaped leaves of Pinus :- develop successfully as an evergreen plant in relatively poor, dry soil,- dark green 'needle' leaf with sunken stomata,- each has the shiny look associated with a thick cuticle and is grooved along its length,- small brown scale leaves for protection of buds and dwarfed shoot.Notes on field studiesEnvironment-the surroundings-i.e. the sum total of external influences acting on an organism or community.A) Abiotic (physical) :----- climaticsoil (edaphic)topographica) ClimaticTemperature :- biochemical processes : most life exist within 0 – 600C- physiological effects (breeding),- adaptations :i) behavioral -----ii) structural -----Rainfall :- need for many functions (germination, locomotion, transport, metabolism, osmoregulation), - presence or absence of water causes many adaptations :in plants :in animals :-governs distribution of tropical rain forest, temperate forest,-Light :- three factors : ___________________________________- photosynthesis : food production,flowering (photoperiodism), transpiration,behaviour; breeding cycles,tropisms and nastic response,control zonationHumidity- is related to wind, rainfall and temperature,- transpiration rate,- behaviour of animals e.g. rocky shore animals seek damp place when exposed,Wind- transpiration,- affects mode of growth of vegetation :e.g. mechanical damage : stunting and shearing, defoliation, distortion- dispersal of seeds, fruits and spores, pollinationb) Soil (Edaphic) factors- soil factor i.e. factors which describe the conditions of the soil or substratum,- refer to notes of soil.c) Topographic factors- position of an area in relation to the surrounding country :i) altitude,ii) contour,iii) direction.B) Biotic factorsEffects1) Plant : source of food --- primary producer2) Interaction : refer to notes taught before3) Pollination and dispersal of seed and food by animals4) Protective adaptation :a) ____________ : protective coloration,b) ____________ : many animals resemble plants in shape e.g. stick insects or resembleother harmful animal species, therefore obtain benefits from thisresemblance.5) Man's effect on environment :- farming, pollution – important topic, discuss laterMethods of sampling on area : Study the distribution and abundance of organismsA) Transects 樣條Definition : a line cutting through an area, used to survey vegetation or fauna of the area. Types of transects1) Line transect 樣線:- linear survey of plants and animals through an area, change in level is not recorded.－select a typical stretch of areas of interest in the habitat,－laid a rope on ground, e.g. 10 meter (fixed at the 2 end),－check plants and animals touching the line every 0.5 – 1 meter,－record abundance and distribution of species touching the rope,－data graphed (histograms / kite diagrams / etc.) and analysed .2) Profile transects 剖面樣線:- a diagram shows the profile, i.e. change in level, along a given direction,- vegetation and animals are also indicated along it, show possible changes in vegetable type, - how to measure the level ?3) Belt transect 樣帶:- survey of a strip through an area, usually 2 parallel lines one metre apart,- usually record with quadrat.Presentation of data1)2)3)B) Quadrat樣方Definition : an square of known dimension, used to sample vegetation or animals, record the abundance and distribution of species recorded.The tool used : quadrat frame－random or along a transect (belt transect),－count the number of each species occurring in the quadrat / estimate the percentage coverage of each species in the quadrat,－for random sampling : repeat a number of times to get the average,－for systematic sampling : belt transect --- repeat along the transect,－Present the data (1)May be used to measure1) seasonal change2) zonation3) population numberPoint quadrat : a method by which fine pointed wires are lowered onto the vegetation inside the quadrat to measure relative abundance. e.g. frequency of plant AZonation 成帶現象- characteristic distribution of organisms into zones or strata (vertical zonation e.g. forest).Discussion :What are the limitations of using transect and quadrat ?Example of habitat --- Rocky shore岩岸General layout :Factors on rocky shore1) tidal flow,2) wave action,3) substratum 基層,4) sunlight (illumination),5) rainfall, humidity,6) wind,7) salinity (rock pool)Problems faced1)2)3)4)General adaptation on rocky shoreUpper shore Lower shore1) lung breathers _____________________2) complex excretory organs and excretion by diffusion and excrete ammoniaexcrete uric acids3 mobile, cryptic, thick shells sedimentary, non-cryptic, thinTypical distribution of flora and fauna。

福斯特冰箱EP1 2H EP2 3H用户手册说明书

User ManualCountersEP1/2H, EP1/2HRW, EP1/2M, EP1/2LEP1/3H, EP1/3HRW, EP1/3M, EP1/3LEP1/4H, EP1/4HRW, EP1/4M,EP2/2H, EP2/3H.Four StepsGetting to know your new Foster applianceto extend the life of your applianceInstallationUsing the applianceMaintenance1234Foster applianceAll installations must conform to local and municipal regulations and directives. In case of doubt contact your Foster authorised distributor or the Foster Technical Department. The information contained in this manual is current at the time of publication and is subject to change without notice.CAREFUL – DANGERIgnoring this sign and remarks may result in personal danger.CAREFUL – DANGERIgnoring this sign and remarks may result in damage to your appliance.INFORMATIONUseful hints to make the best use of your appliance.1Climate ClassClimate class indicated on the serial plate shows the ambient temperature & humidity at which this appliance has been tested, for the purposes of establishing values in line with European standards.Climate Class Temperature Relative humidity430˚C55%540˚C40%General Safety- Do not store explosive substances such as aerosol cans with a flammable propellant in this appliance.- Keep all ventilation openings in the appliance or in the structure of a built in unit clear of any obstructions. - Do not use electrical appliances inside the storage compartment.- Do not use steam cleaners, pressure washers or other jets/sprays of water on or around the appliance.- The appliance is air tight when the door or drawers are closed therefore under no circumstances should any living body be stored or ‘locked in’the appliance.- This appliance is heavy. When moving the appliance care should be taken and correct safe practices followed. The appliance should not be moved over uneven surfaces.- The emitted sound level of this appliance is not greater than 70dB(A).- To ensure stability the appliance should be located on a flat, level surface, correctly loaded.- Do not use mechanical devices to accelerate the defrost process.- The worktop should not be sat or stood on.- Where the appliance is fitted with drawers these should not be used as a step to assist or gain height.- Where the appliance is fitted with drawers, do not sit or stand in the drawers.- Care should be taken not to damage the refrigeration circuit and/or system.- If the supply cord is damaged, it must be replaced by the manufacturer, it’s service agent or similarly qualified persons in order to avoid hazards.- Care should be taken to avoid prolonged contact with cold surfaces with unprotected body parts, correct PPE to be used at all time.Electrical SafetyFoster Refrigerator recommends that the equipment is electrically connected via a Residual Current Device (RCD); such as a Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) type socket, or through a Residual Current Circuit Breaker with Overload Protection (RCBO) supplied circuit.Should it be necessary to replace the fuse, the replacement fuse must be of the value stated on the serial label for the appliance.Disposal RequirementsThis appliance contains components and materials which can be harmful to theenvironment if not disposed of correctly. Disposal of this appliance should becarried out by a suitably licensed waste contractor in accordance with nationallaws and regulations which may be in force the at time.2InstallationRemoval of packagingPrior to carrying out this operation please ensure that these instructions have been read, understood and that the necessary personnel and tools are available to ensure that these instructions are complied with. It is also recommended that a full assessment of the installation conditions and requirements be conducted prior to commencing this operation.Tools required: A sharp retractable knife or scissorsPliers or cutters suitable to cut hard plastic2 section appliances weigh up to 150kg when empty and requires at least 2 people to carry outthese instructions.3 and4 section appliances weigh up to 230kg when empty and requires at least 4 people to carry outthese instructions.Never lift more weight than you are comfortable with. Any lifting should be carried out using correct lifting techniques.Never stand directly in line or under the appliance when it is leaning at an angle while carrying outthese instructions.The appliances are top heavy and care should be taken when manoeuvring uneven or slopingsurfaces. Do not manoeuvre the appliance without assistance.It is recommended that gloves are worn when carrying out these instructions.1Remove outer plastic and cardboard. Take carenot to damage the appliance with any sharpobjects used to remove the packaging.Note - The image is of a 2 section appliance.The same instructions apply to 3 and 4 sectionappliances in conjunction with the guidelinesabove with regards to the recommendednumber of people.2Position the pallet against a flat surface of asimilar height to the pallet.3locked.4Support the appliance at the front and rear. Cut the support straps on both sides and unlock the castors.5Carefully slide the appliance off the pallet ontothe adjacent level surface.6If the appliance is not being moved straight to it’s final location lock all the castors once more.7Ensure that all packaging is disposed of in an appropriate way in accordance with any local regulations for waste disposal.Start-Up and Test SequenceAfter unpacking, clean (cleaning directions supplied within this manual) and allow the appliance to stand for 60 minutes before turning on.Ensure the appliance is situated on a firm, level surface,away from both hot and cold air sources, as this willaffect its performance.Place the appliance in a location so as not to exceedthe maximum rated ambient temperature.The appliance produces warm air when operatingnormally and requires adequate ventilation. Thedimensions indicated are a minimum.As the operating temperature has been pre-set no adjustments are required. Allow the appliance to reach its normal operating temperature before loading with product.Connect the appliance to a suitablepower supply. Do not connect ordisconnect the appliance with wethands. The appliance will turn onautomatically displaying the actualinternal temperature of the appliance. Ifthis does not happen and button 3 is‘pulsing’press and hold button 3 for 3seconds to turn on the appliance.5mm50mmUsing the appliance3StandbyPressing button 3 for 3 seconds will turn the unit on or into standby. When in standby, only button 3 will be displayed. The remainder of the display will be blank. When operating normally, the display will show the internal temperature and button 3.Display Icons and ButtonsIconButton1Compressor running 1Information menu 2Keypad locked2Increase value 3Evaporator fans running 3Standby/Exit/Confirm 4Defrost in progress4Decrease value 5Alarm5Light (If fitted)6/7Display units Centigrade or Fahrenheit 8Auxillary output operationIcon 6Button 2Icon 7Icon 8Icon 5Appliance internal Note - Buttons 1, 2, 4 and 5 are only visible after pressing button 3Always ensure air can circulate around/through the stored product. It is important that for optimum energy and temperature performance that adequate airflow is maintained around the perimeter of the shelves, and around all stored products.Where the appliance is fitted with drawers these should not be used as a step to assist or gain height.Where the appliance is fitted with drawers, do not sit or stand in the drawers.40DefrostThe appliance has an automatic defrost function and will defrost periodically each day without any user intervention. This process is normal and does not affect product stored in the appliance. During defrost the appliance can be used as normal.To start a defrost manually press and hold button 3 for 5 seconds. This will turn off the appliance. When this happens do not release the button and after 2 more seconds the display will indicate a defrost has commenced (icon 4 illuminated) and the button can be released.Shelves, Supports, Loading and Air FlowThe appliance is supplied with adjustable, removable trayslides and shelves.Each shelf is capable of holding up to 40kg of product evenly distributed.Do not block air vents with product. A minimum of 25mm should be maintained between the top of the product and the shelf above.Do not place product on the base of the appliance. If it is required to store product on the base of the appliance please contact the Foster parts team to purchase the necessary shelf and spacers.Set PointTo display the appliance Set Point, with the display showing the temperature, press button 3. Then press button 1 and with the display showing ‘SP’ press button 3.To amend the Set Point press button 3. Then press button 1 and with the display showing ‘SP’ press button 3. Adjust using button 2 and button 4. Press button 3 to save the new value. If button 3 is not pressed the new value will not be stored.If the Set Point cannot be adjusted to the value required please contact your authorised Foster dealer for advice.The display will reset after 30 seconds or by pressing button 1.Internal Light(Applicable to models with glass doors.)The light is operated using button 5. Press once to turn on the light and press again to turn off the light. Door LockTo lock the door insert the key and turn 90°, turn in the opposite direction to unlock.Keypad Security SettingsWe advise that this function is used to prevent unauthorised adjustment of the appliance and it’s operating temperature.Press and release button 3. Then press button 1 followed by button 4 to display ‘Loc’. Press button 3 and use buttons 2 and 4 to change the value to ‘Yes’to lock the keypad or ‘no’to unlock it. Press button 3 to save the new value. If button 3 is not pressed the new value will not be stored.The display will reset after 30 seconds or by pressing button 1.Cleaning and MaintenanceCleaning should be carried out periodically as required depending on application.Switch off the appliance, disconnect from the power supply and remove all products, racking and shelves. Care should be taken with the racking and shelves being inspected for any signs of damage resulting in sharp edges and ensure that body parts do not come into contact with cold surfaces.When cleaning a freezer it is recommended that the internal temperature is allowed to increase to above freezing prior to cleaning.Wash all internal and external surfaces with a mild liquid detergent diluted as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Rinse surfaces with clean water and dry thoroughly.Never use wire wool, other abrasive substances, cleaning agents with a high acid or alkaline content (e.g. bleach acid or chlorine) or similar products as they can damage the appliance.When the appliance has been cleaned and dried, refit the racking and shelves.Re-connect the appliance to the power supply adhering to the previous guidelines above. Switch the appliance on and allow it to reach it’s normal operating temperature before re-loading product.CleaningCondenser Air GrillUse a soft brush or vacuum to remove loose dust and dirt from the Condenser Air Grill.CondenserRegular cleaning of the condenser (located behind the Condenser Air Grill) increases energy efficiency and prolongs the life of your appliance.Never use a wire brush, abrasive or corrosive materials to clean the condenser. This should be carried out periodically, by a competent engineer as outlined in the Regular Maintenance section of this manual.GasketAll door gaskets should be inspected on a regular basis and replaced as necessary if damaged. To clean, wipe with a warm damp soapy cloth followed by a clean damp cloth. Finally dry thoroughly.ShelvesThe shelves in the appliance can be removed for cleaning. The shelves are dishwasher safe however the vertical supports should be cleaned with warm soapy water then rinsed and dried.Regular MaintenanceWhere the regular cleaning regime previously describeddoes not remove dirt or grease deposits from thecondenser, it should be cleaned by a competentengineer. We recommend that an engineer servicesthe appliance every 6 to 12 months to maintain yourwarranty and ensure optimal performance of yourappliance. We recommend that service is carried out byan authorised Foster agent or by contacting the FosterService team using the contact details in this manual.TroubleshootingAlarms/Warnings:During operation the current temperature inside the appliance will bedisplayed. At certain times this will change to indicate a particular applianceoperation or fault. The indicators you may see are as follows:hi - The internal temperature of the appliance is higher than it should be. Ensure that the door is closed and that the air flow inside is not obstructed by excesive or poor loading of product. The alarm will reset if the temperature falls to a normal level. If this does not happen please contact your authorised dealer or Foster Service.Lo - The internal temperature of the appliance is lower than it should be. Check to ensure that the appliance has not been loaded with product at a lower temperature than the normal appliance operating temperature. If this is not the case please call your authorised dealer or Foster Service.tA - This indicates that the internal temperature probe has failed. Call your authorised dealer or Foster Service to arrange for this to be replaced. During this time the appliance cannot maintain an accurate temperature and all product should be removed and the appliance switched off.tE - This indicates that the evaporator probe has failed. Call your authorised dealer of Foster Service to arrange for this to be replaced.PF - The mains power has been removed from the appliance for a period of time and has now been restored. This may have resulted in a rise in appliance temperature. Caution should be taken when using products stored within to ascertain whether these products are suitable for use. Upon restoration of the power supply the appliance will resume normal operation and the PF can be cancelled by pressing button 3 once.HC - The condenser temperature is higher than it should be. If the appliance is being subjected to particularly high ambient temperatures steps should be taken to reduce this. If the ambient temperature is not high or reducing the temperature does not rectify the fault please contact your authorised dealer or Foster d - The condenser clean period has expired. Please contact your authorised dealer or Foster Service.While in an alarm condition icon 5 will also be illuminated.6-12 MONTHS(Some indications are only visible periodically during specific appliance operations such as defrost or when activated through use of the appliance).Before calling your supplier please make sure that:Check ProblemSolution If the reason for the malfunction cannot be identified, disconnect the electrical supply from the appliance and contact your authorised dealer or Foster Service. When requesting a service call, please quote the model and serial number which can be found on the inside of the appliance on the right hand wall and begins with ‘E’.The appliance is not functioning Is the appliance plugged in and the socket switched on?If the appliance is plugged in check that the socket is ‘live’ by plugging another appliance in to see if that works.Has the fuse blown?Check the fuse and if necessary change it for a new oneThe appliance is not cooling or it is not reaching the required temperature Is the appliance switched on?Check that the temperature is displayed. If the display shows ‘oFF’ switch on the appliance as it is in standbyIs the condenser blocked or dirty?Inspect and clean the condenser if necessary as described in this manualIs the appliance positioned close to a heat source?Is the heat source affecting the performance of the appliance. If possible move the appliance away from the heat source.Is the appliance loaded correctly?Check the loading of the product contained in the appliance is in accordance with the guidelines in this manualThere is something other than the temperature displayed on the controllerIs the display showing one of the alarms/warnings above?The display may show indications shown in the ‘Alarms and Warnings’ section of these instructions. For anything else contact your authorised dealer or Foster Service.For more information:+44 (0) 1553 698485*************************Document ID code: 00-570479 v3By Appointment toHer Majesty Queen Elizabeth IISuppliers of Commercial Refrigeration Foster Refrigerator, King’s LynnFor service and spares:For service +44 (0) 1553 780333************************For parts +44 (0) 1553 780300**********************Original Instructions。

热能与动力工程专业英语(整理版)

热能与动力工程Therｍal Ｅnerｇy ａnd Powｅr Enｇinｅering材料与能源学院:Iｎsｔitｕte of Matｅrｉals anｄEnergy空调制冷：refrigeratiｏn anｄaｉr coｎditｉonｉｎｇ热传导:ｔhｅｒｍol conductioｎ学生毕业后能胜任现代火力发电厂,制冷与低温工程及相关的热能与动力工程专业的技术与管理工作,并能从事其它能源动力领域的专门技术工作.Ｔhe grａｄuａtes mａｙfｉnd emｐlｏyment ｏf teｃhnology and manaｇeｍent ｉｎthe fields oｆｔhe Tｈermal Eneｒgｙ&Power Engｉnｅering(TEPE)ａnｄitｓrｅｌevaｎce, suｃｈas moｄeｒnｐｏwer plant orｔhe Ｒefｒｉgeｒation anｄCｒｙｏgenｉcs Enginｅeｒｉng (RCＥ）,ｔhｅgrａdｕaｔｅs may aｌso enｇageｄiｎthe specｉal techniｑueｉn tｈe fielｄs relatｅd to TEPE．现代空气动力学、流体力学、热力学、水力学以及航空航天工程、水利水电工程、热能工程、流体机械工程都提出了一系列复杂流动问题,其中包括高速流、低速流、管道流、燃烧流、冲击流、振荡流、涡流、湍流、旋转流、多相流等等A sｅｒiesｏf cｏmplｉｃateｄfｌow probｌems haveｂeen ｐoｓed ｉn modern flｕｉd mechaｎics，ａerｏｄｙnamｉcs，thermｏｄyｎａmics，anｄaeroｎauｔical and aｅrospaｃe engｉneeｒinｇ,waｔer conserｖancy ａnｄhyｄｒｏpower enｇｉnｅｅｒｉng，heａt energｙeｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎg, fluiｄmachｉneryｅｎgｉｎeer ｉng,ａnｄso ｏｎ, and thｅy coveｒhigh-speed fｌow,lｏｗ－ｓｐｅｅd flｏw,eddy fｌow, turbｕlentｆloｗ, ｂurniｎg flｏw, imｐact flow, oscillating flｏw, bａckflｏw, ａnｄｔｗo-ｐhase flｏw,etc.Ｉｎｔhe ｔhｅrｍaｌenginｅeｒｉｎg, ｔｈe ｓｔuｄied objecｔs normally are isolatｅd ｆｒom ｏｎｅａnoｔｈer anｄthen wｅｔｒy to analysis thｅcｈanｇｅａｎd intｅractioｎ, the studieｄｏbjecｔｓｉｓolateｄis named theｒmodynamic syｓｔeｍ．在热力工程中,通常将研究对象分离出来再分析其变化及（与外界)的相互作用，该对象即热力系统。

气体常数英文

气体常数英文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Gas constant, also known as universal gas constant, is a physical constant that appears in the ideal gas law. It is denoted by the symbol R and is approximately equal to 8.314 joules per mole-kelvin (J/mol·K). The gas constant relates the energy of a gas to the temperature and volume of the gas. It is an important constant in thermodynamics and is used in many calculations involving gases.The gas constant is derived from the ideal gas law, which states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature and volume, and inversely proportional to the number of moles of gas present. The ideal gas law can be written as PV = nRT, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the number of moles of gas, T is the temperature of the gas, and R is the gas constant.The value of the gas constant is the same for all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. This makes it a universal constant that can be used to calculate the properties ofgases in a wide range of situations. The gas constant is often used in equations involving the ideal gas law, such as the calculation of the work done by a gas, the heat transferred by a gas, and the changes in internal energy of a gas.The gas constant is also used in the calculation of the molar mass of an unknown gas, as well as in the determination of the molecular weight of a gas. By knowing the value of the gas constant and measuring certain properties of a gas, such as its pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles, it is possible to calculate the molar mass of the gas and identify the gas based on its molecular weight.In addition to its use in thermodynamics, the gas constant is also used in other fields of science and engineering. For example, it is used in the calculation of the densities of gases, the speeds of sound in gases, and the flows of gases through pipes and channels. The gas constant is a fundamental constant that is used in a wide variety of applications and is essential for understanding the behavior of gases in different situations.In conclusion, the gas constant is a universal constant that relates the energy of a gas to its temperature and volume. It is derived from the ideal gas law and is used in many calculations involving gases. The gas constant is a fundamental constant inthermodynamics and is essential for understanding the properties and behavior of gases in a wide range of situations.篇2The gas constant, also known as the universal gas constant or ideal gas constant, is a fundamental physical constant that appears in the equations of state of ideal gases. It is denoted by the symbol R and has a value of approximately 8.314 J/(mol·K) (joules per mole per kelvin). The gas constant is the constant of proportionality that relates the energy of a gas to its temperature and pressure.The gas constant is derived from the ideal gas law, which states that the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas are related by the equation PV = nRT, where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of gas, T is the temperature, and R is the gas constant. The ideal gas law is a simplified model that describes the behavior of gases at low pressures and high temperatures, where the molecules are far apart and do not interact with each other.The gas constant is a key parameter in many areas of science and engineering, including thermodynamics, kinetics, and physical chemistry. It is used to calculate the work done by a gas,the heat transferred in a process, and the changes in internal energy and enthalpy. The gas constant is also used to convert between different units of energy and temperature in calculations.In different unit systems, the value of the gas constant may be expressed in different units. For example, in SI units, the gas constant is typically given in joules per mole per kelvin, while in other unit systems, such as the CGS system, it may be given in ergs per mole per kelvin. Regardless of the unit system, the gas constant is a fundamental constant that plays a crucial role in the study of gases and their properties.In summary, the gas constant is a fundamental physical constant that relates the energy of a gas to its temperature and pressure. It is used in a wide range of scientific and engineering applications and is an essential parameter in the study of gases. The gas constant allows scientists and engineers to make accurate calculations and predictions about the behavior of gases in different conditions, making it a key component of our understanding of the physical world.篇3The gas constant, also known as the universal constant for ideal gases, is a fundamental physical constant that appears in the ideal gas law. It is denoted by the symbol R and has a value of 8.314 J/(mol·K) in SI units. The gas constant is crucial for understanding the behavior of gases and is used in various scientific disciplines such as chemistry, physics, and engineering.The gas constant is derived from combining the ideal gas law, which relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas, with the Boltzmann constant, which relates the average kinetic energy of gas particles to the temperature of the gas. The gas constant is a proportionality constant that allows us to convert units of pressure, volume, and temperature in the ideal gas law equation.The gas constant is the same for all ideal gases regardless of their chemical composition. This is because it reflects the general behavior of gases at the molecular level and is not specific to any particular gas. The value of the gas constant is determined by empirical measurements and is a fundamental constant of nature.In practical applications, the gas constant is often used in conjunction with the ideal gas law to calculate various properties of gases, such as their molar mass, density, and heat capacity. Itis also used in thermodynamic calculations to determine the work done by gases in various processes.Overall, the gas constant is a key concept in the study of gases and plays a crucial role in understanding their behavior and properties. It is a fundamental constant of nature that is widely used in scientific and engineering applications.。

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① Conscious, lying, no muscular activity ② No mental stress ③ Keep fast at least for 12 hours ④ Keep room temperature 20℃～25℃
8-31
Physiology
Calculation of
The energy liberated by oxidation of 1g of fat is 2 times that produced by the same amount of glucose
8-6
Physiology
Protein
The amount of energy provided
8-29
Physiology
Basal metabolism
Energy metabolism in the basic state (conscious, quiet,empty stomach, room temperature20℃～25℃)
Basal metabolic rate（BMR, 基础代谢率）基础代谢率）（
8-10
o
o o
Physiology
Treatment of obesity
Decrease energy input
o
o
Increase energy output(effective)
8-11
Physiology
Section two The measurement of energy metabolism 能量代谢的测定) (能量代谢的测定)
② Measuring urinary nitrogen
Get oxidized protein(1g urinary nitrogen=6.25g protein ) Get heat production, O2 consumption and CO2 production
8-22
Physiology
70% of the total energy
Citric acid cycle and glycolysis
8-5
Physiology
Fat- fatty acids
The storage of fat in the body is much
greater than that of glucose
Usually expressed as Calories per hour per square meter of body surface area(kJ/m2h)
8-30
Physiology
2. Measurement of BMR (基础代谢率的测定基础代谢率的测定) 基础代谢率的测定 Basic condition
by protein is relatively small in human being
Protein will become the major energy source to maintain the essential vital activities in special conditions
surface area
8-32
Physiology
3. Normal value of BMR (基础代谢率的正常值基础代谢率的正常值) 基础代谢率的正常值
Reality value
Average normal value of BMR（kJ/m2h）
Age Male 11-15 195.5 16-17 193.4 181.7 18-19 166.2 154.1 20-30 157.8 146.5 31-40 158.7 146.4 41-50 154.1 142.4 51 ↑ 149.1 138.6
o
8-9
Physiology
Obesity
o o o
Energy intake > energy expenditure Abnormal feeding regulation Psychogenic factors (during or after stress stimulations) Neurogenic abnormalities (Hypothalamus) Genetic factors Childhood overnutrition
Law of conservation of
能量守恒定律) energy(能量守恒定律能量守恒定律
8-12
Physiology
1. Direct calorimetry (直接测热法直接测热法) 直接测热法
Huge equipment
Complicated, sophisticated structure
Female 172.5
8-33
Physiology
Relative value
Reality value – normal average value ×100% normal average value
BMR=
Normal value :±10% 15%
8-34
Physiology
4. Significant of BMR measurement (测定测定BMR的临床意义的临床意义) 测定的临床意义
Hard operating; difficult to spread
8-13
Physiology
8-14
Physiology
2. Indirect calorimetry (间接测热法间接测热法间接测热法)
1. Principle：： Law of definite proportions(定比定律 ) proportions(定比定律 In the chemical reaction, there is a ratio relationship between reagent and resultant. C6H12O6+602→6CO2+6H20+△H
quotient (NPRQ, 非蛋白呼吸商)
8-20
Physiology
3. Methods
① Measuring CO2 production and O2 consumption Open circuit method Closed circuit method
8-21
Physiology
8-15
Physiology
2. Basic parameters：
Thermal equivalent of food(食物的热价)
kcal/g(KJ/g) The number of calories produced by 1 gm of foodstuff, when it is completely oxidized Physical thermal equivalent Biological themal equivalent (Protein: Biological - <Physical -)
Hot stress
Function↑, enzyme↑, Perspire
8-28
Physiology
Section four Basal metabolism (基础代谢) 基础代谢)
1. Basal metabolism and basal metabolism rate (基础代谢及其基础代谢率基础代谢及其基础代谢率) 基础代谢及其基础代谢率
Physiology
Unit 8
Energy metabolism and body temperature
（能量代谢和体温）能量代谢和体温）
Zhang, Yi (张翼)
Department of Physiology, Hebei Medical University
Physiology
Chapter 1 Energy metabolism
8-23
Physiology
Section three The factors affect energy metabolism 影响能量代谢的因素) (影响能量代谢的因素)
8-24
Physiology
1. Muscle activity (肌肉活动肌肉活动) 肌肉活动
8-25
Physiology
能量代谢
8-2
Physiology
◇ Learning objectives
Thermal equivalent of food; thermal equivalent of oxygen; respiratory quotient, RQ; nonprotein respiratory quotient, NPRQ; special dynamic effect; basal metabolism rate Describe the factors that affect energy metabolism. Describe the clinic significant of BMR measurement.
Physiology
Respiratory quotient (RQ, 呼吸商)
The ratio of the volume of CO2 produced to volume of O2 consumed in the same time
8-19
Physiology
Non-protein respiratory
2. Special dynamic effect (食物的特殊动力效应食物的特殊动力效应) 食物的特殊动力效应
Thermogenic effect of food(from 1 to 8 h after meal)