Unit1A
(新版)冀教版七年级英语下册:unit 1 A Trip to the S
by bike
by car
take a train
Presentation Learn some new words
adj. 使人激动的 prep. 沿着…… n. 千米,公里 adj. 特殊的;特别的 n. 文化 v. 到达,抵达 v. 动身;出发;离开
exciting along kilometre special culture arrive leave
4. What does Li Ming send to Jenny?
A trip plan.
A study plan.
5. How many days will they stay in China?
About ten days. About a month.
Fast Reading
1. Who will come to China? 2. Where will be their first stop? 3. How far is it from Beijing to Xi’an? 4. How long is the Silk Road?
北ng is the Silk Road? It’s about 6 500 kilometres.
Question
Can you say these numbers? 1 114 one thousand one hundred (and)
fourteen 6 500 six thousand (and) five hundred
and sixty-one
2 Fill in the blanks using “will” and the given verbs.
Jenny and Danny will go to China. They will travel __a_lo_n_g___ the Silk Road with Li Ming and Wang Mei. The Silk Road is about 6500 _k_i_l_o_m_e_t_r_es__ long. It will be a very _e_x_c_i_ti_n_g_ trip for them. They’ll learn about the history and _c_u_l_tu_r_e_ of China.
unit1 单词 A new start:Start
Understanding ideas
Words and expressions:
organise v. 组织 整理 organisation n. 组织;机构;团体 organised adj.有组织的,有条理的 organiser n.组织者 organise a meeting/party/trip 组织会议 聚会 旅行 organise one's thought 整理思绪 WTO(the World Trade organisation)世贸组织 set up/start an organisation 创立一个组织
人教版三年级下册英语unit1教材A部分课文翻译
【导语】本⽂《⼈教版三年级下册英语unit1教材A部分课⽂翻译》由写作翻译频道整理,仅供参考。
如果觉得很不错,欢迎点评和分享~感谢你的阅读与⽀持!1let's talk部分翻译Miss White:Boys and girls,we have two new friends today.怀特:孩⼦们,今天我们有两位新朋友。
Amy:Hi,l'm Amy.l'm from the UK.埃⽶:嗨,我是埃⽶。
我来⾃英国。
Zhang Peng:Hi,l'm ZhangPeng. l'm from Shandong.张鹏:嗨,我是张鹏。
我来⾃⼭东。
John and Sarah:Welcome!约翰和萨拉:欢迎!2Look and say部分翻译Mike:Hi,l'm Mike.l'm from Canada.What about you?迈克:嗨,我是迈克。
我来⾃加拿⼤。
你呢?Sarah:Hi,l'm Sarah.l'm from the USA.萨拉:嗨,我是萨拉。
我来⾃美国。
3Let's learn部分翻译4Let's chant部分翻译We are friends.We like to play.我们是朋友。
我们喜欢玩耍。
We are friends.We like to play.我们喜欢玩耍。
我们是朋友。
A boy from Canada,⼀个来⾃加拿⼤的男孩,A girl from the UK,⼀个来⾃英国的⼥孩,Friends from China and the USA.来⾃中国和美国的朋友们。
5Let's spell部分翻译cat 猫 bag包 dad爸爸 hand ⼿听⼒原⽂cat,/k/-/æ/-/t/,/kæt/bag,/b/-/æ/-/g/,/bæg/dad,/d/-/æ/-/d/,/dæd/hand,/d/-/æ/-/n/-/d/,/hænd/ChantDad has a black cat.The cat is in the bag.Dad has a black cat.The bag is in his hand.听⼒翻译猫,/k/-/æ/-/t/,/kæt/包,/b/-/æ/-/g/,/bæg/爸爸,/d/-/æ/-/d/,/dæd/⼿,/d/-/æ/-/n/-/d/,/hænd/说唱爸爸有⼀只⿊⾊的猫。
五年级下册英语学案-Unit 1 A phone call (无答案)
Unit 1 A phone call【学习目标】1.学会听、说、读下列词汇:ask, before, call, do shopping, Easter Bunny, get, ill, mobile phone, over there, paint, phone box, phone call, programme, see you tomorrow, something, wait a moment, website, work, wrong.2.学会使用:问句“What can you do with a mobile phone?”和答句“I can …”来进行交际。
【学习重难点】重点:1.单词的认读。
2.功能句的理解。
3.对课文的理解。
难点:1.运用“询问对方使用手机做什么”的功能句型进行表述。
2.句型:(1)What can you do with a mobile phone?(2)I can …【学习过程】一、新知学习。
1.课文预习。
阅读课文,将自己不认识的单词写下来。
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________2.学习单词和句型。
(1)朗读词汇:ask, before, call, do shopping, Easter Bunny, get, ill, mobile phone, over there, paint, phone box, phone call, programme, see you tomorrow, something, wait a moment, website, work, wrong.(2)朗读句型:①What can you do with a mobile phone?②I can …(3)小组活动,练习下述句型。
人教英语八下_Unit 1 Section A 重点单词笔记
人教版八年级下册各单元重点单词笔记Unit1 SectionA1.mattern.问题;事情(1)询问某人的情况=problem重点句型怎么了? What’s the matter (with sb.)? 注意这里的the必须要加What’s wrong with sb.? What’s up? What’s the problem/trouble with sb.?互换(2)表示一个问题或一件事情e.g. They had some important matters to discuss.(3)关于...的问题a matter of sth./doing sth.e.g. Making a plan is a matter of choosing the best time and activities.补充:no matter who/what/when/where 无论...v.有影响matter to sb. 对某人有影响It doesn’t matter to me what you do. 你做什么对我没影响(你做什么我无所谓)2.重要的名词(身体部位)(下列均可数)arm n. 手臂back n. 背,背部ear n. 耳朵eye n. 眼睛foot n. 脚(复数为feet)hand n. 手head n. 头leg n. 腿mouth n. 嘴巴neck n. 脖子nose n. 鼻子stomach n. 胃tooth n. 牙齿(复数为teeth)3.表达生病的用法总结(用have表示得了某种病)(1)have a +疾病名称have a cold/fever/cough 感冒/发烧/咳嗽发高烧have a high fever He is coughing (2)have a +部位+ache n.表示疼痛have a stomach ache/tooth ache/head ache(3)have a +sore adj. 疼痛的;酸痛的+疼痛部位have a sore throat/back——have a very /really sore throat/back√4.liev. ①躺lie-lying-lay-laine.g. As long as you lie down and rest, you will feel much better tomorrow.The bus driver saw an old man lying on the side of the road.①撒谎lie-lying-lied-liede.g.lie to sb. 对某人说谎Don’t lie to me!n. 谎言tell a lie5.restn. ①休息时间(睡眠时间)have/take a good rest①剩余部分;其余the rest of sth.e.g. I would like to spend the rest of my life living with you.v. =relax 休息;放松e.g. Rest your eyes every half an hour.He won’t rest until he finds her.6.breakv. break-broke-broken已学,之前笔记有n. 间歇,休息,暂停(指短暂地歇了一下)①lunch/tea/class break 午饭/下午茶/课间的休息时间①take a break/ take breaksHe worked all day without a break=He worked all day without taking a breakYou need to take breaks away form the computers.7.hurtv. hurt-hurt-hurt①hurt sb./hurt oneself 使疼痛;使受伤He hurt his back /himself when he played tennis outside.If your head and neck still hurt tomorrow, then go to the doctor.①hurt oneself doing sth. 做某事弄伤了自己John hurt himself cutting up the carrots.①hurt one’s feeling 伤害某人的感情/使不快It hurt me to know that he lied to me.adj. 受伤的None of the passengers were badly hurt.8.off adv./prep. 本身意义一般指远离,主要总结含有off的动词短语get off 下车-get on 上车turn off 关上-turn on 打开take off 脱下;飞机火箭的起飞发射put off 推迟cut off 切除take/have three days off 请三天假9.to one’s surprise 一般位于句首,单独用(逗号隔开)10.onto prep. 本身意义一般指朝,向e.g. Some passengers helped Mr.Wang to move the man onto the bus11.troubleUCN(不可数名词). 困难;苦恼e.g. People don’t want to help others because they do not want any trouble.①be in trouble处于困境中Although we are in trouble, we won’t give up.e.g. Now he is in trouble, we should try our best to help him①get (sb.) into trouble (使某人)陷入困境中e.g. If I don’t arrive home on time, I’ll get into trouble!My brother always gets me into trouble with my parents.①have trouble with sth.=have trouble (in) doing sth.做某事有困难e.g. His son had trouble (in)working out the math problem.I had trouble in understanding the meaning of the word.补充:同义的还有have difficulties/problems with sth.=have difficulties/problems (in) doing sth. trouble也可做可数名词,意思是一件麻烦事,烦心事V. 使烦恼,使忧虑;麻烦某人trouble sb.e.g. Sorry to trouble you, but could you tell me the time?What is troubling you these days?12.hitV. hit-hit-hit击;打;撞击①hit sb. (with sth.)e.g. Bus No.26 hit an old man on Zhonghua Road.My parents never hit me when I was a child.①hit sb. +prep.+ the 身体部位hit me on the head/hit him in the facee.g. She hit him on his head with her umbrella.补充:hit常用于被动语态be done e.g. I was hit by a stone.13.right away =at once= in a minute= immediately 立刻;马上The old man had a heart problem and needed to go to the hospital right away.。
最新人教PEP版九年级英语精品课件Unit 1 A
1. How did Wei Fen improve her English pronunciation? _________________________________________________ 2. How can she find the meaning of new words? _________________________________________________ 答案: 1. By listening to the conversations in English movies. 2. By looking them up in a dictionary.
最新人教PEP版九年级英语
Ⅱ. 短语互译
1. be afraid to ______________
2. as well
______________
3. 记笔记
take__________
4. (在词典、参考书中或通过电脑)查阅; 抬头看
looபைடு நூலகம்________
答案: 1. 害怕去做 2. 也; 同样地 3. notes 4. up
6. pronounce(v. )→
(n. )发音; 读音
答案: 1. 教科书; 课本 2. 交谈; 谈话 3. 大声地; 出声地
4. sentence 5. patient 6. pronunciation
最新人教PEP版九年级英语
Ⅱ. 短语连线 1. 制作单词卡 2. 大声朗读 3. 进行对话 4. 英语口语 5. 听磁带
—OK! Let’s go for a walk.
A. to take
B. take
C. taking
新视界Unit1 A new start课后习题答案
Unit1 A new start1.她是个好学生,但她很害羞,又缺乏自信。
She is a good student, but she is very shy and lacks confidence.2.他承认自己设定的目标不够现实,因此考试成绩也不够理想。
He confessed that he had not set realistic targets/goals, so he didn’t do as well in the exam as he had expected.3.如何组织时间,如何结交新朋友是大学新生面临的挑战。
How to organize time and how to make friends are challenges that freshmen are faced with.4.直到大学毕业我才认识到,学习并不是大学生活的全部,大学生活本可以更加丰富多彩。
It wasn’t until graduation that I realized college life was not all about studying. It could have been more colorful.5.大学是人生中最美好的时光。
好好享受大学生活,因为这样的时光不会再来。
College years are the best years of a person’s life. Enjoy your college life because these moments will never come again.第5题So you’ve finished school, and are on your way to university to pursue your studies that will lead to a brilliant career. This will relieve your parents who have supported you all this time and they will fell very proud too. So what do you need in order to have confidence and not feelinadequate in those important first few weeks? Take some basic advice from someone who has already taken the first steps towards independence. University is a time to grow up, broaden your horizons and make your dreams come true.第六题1.neglect2.frustrates3.shivers4.ideal5.assured6.I bet7.confessed8.rhythm第七题1. Stay up2.try out3.hand in4. Hold on5.go aheadFurther reading第三题:a d d d d a第四题1. Barely2.spill3.ignorant4.sign up5.artificial6.rent7.burst into tears8.breathe9.extreme第五题Many students in Britain take a gap year before starting university so they are order and more adult than some students in other countries. Getting to know the new teacher is important. Although the student may be impressed by them and even a little frightened, they are very happy to have so many intelligent people.Check in them every day. So shortly after students have sip, theyare often invited to dinner or at least to run out of a glass of sherry with their professors.After a few days, they become official members of collegesworn to honor its rules and traditions. There are so many interesting activities and societies that there is no danger they will ever be surrounded by things to do during their times at university.综合训练第五题There’s a huge difference between school and university. At school, everyone sees you as a child, and the truth is, that’s what you are---a kid. Your parents and teachers make decisions for you and you don’t have any real responsibilities. But once you get to university, everything changes. Suddenly, you’re responsible for yourself and there’s no one to give you the kind of advice guidance you received at school. No one’s going to tell you to get up in the mornings, and you don’t have to bother to go to lectures if you don’t want to. You have to be very careful with you’re allowance, as it’s very easy to spend too much money. It can take a long time to make good friends and you may share a dorm at night with people who are very different from you. As a result, life can seem much more complicated than when you were at school, when everything was very simple. But after some time you realize the truth---you are an adult and that’s fantastic.第五题1. The basketball club was so attractive to freshmen that he didn’t sign up for it until he waited an hour. (他等了一小时才报上名)2. Looking back on my college life, I really wished I hadn’t spent all my times in studying. (我真希望我没有把所有的时间都用在学习上)So that I could have take up more hobbies.3. Two mouths later, he realized that he shouldn’t have taken part in the reading group in the first place. (自己压根就不该参加这个阅读小组)。
Unit1+A+new+star单词复习课件+2024届高考英语外研版必修第一册一轮复习
new job in a big firm, and I found it very c__h_a__l_l_e_n.g(cihnagllenge)
9. He d__e__s_c__r_ibtheedrobbery in detail to the policeman and his d__e__s__c_r_iwpatsion
小组互动合作
applicants
application
5. As far as I know, a number of ________ offered their ________ forms to our
company to __a_p__p__ly_ for the post of assistant manager.(apply)
小组互动合作
【练一练】
1. Children are always __c_u__r_i_o_uabsout everything they see and hear. They will ask all kinds of questions c__u_r_i_o__u_s. Tlyo meet their _c_u__ri_o__s_itwye’d better answer
__fo__rm__e_r_(form) monitor as the chairman of students’ union. 4. When he realised that his son was out of s_i_g_h_t____, he got into __a______
外研版(2019)高中英语第一册 unit1 A new start reading教学设计
Train students’reading skills oflocate certain information.
While-reading
(scanning)
Lead to the topic and activate knowledge.
Pre-reading
T ask Ss to look at the title and the picture, predict what topics will be talked in the passage.
Ss make a prediction.
教学难点
引导学生根据文本和图片准确理解孟浩的经历和情感,并总结出其情感变化。
教学策略
任务型教学法、P–W–P阅读模式
Teaching contents
Procedures
Purposes
Teacher’s activity
Students’activity
Lead-in
1. T asks Ss to tick the topics they’d like to include in their own diaries in Activity 1.
1. T asks Ss to choose the best description in Activity 3.
2. T asks some Ss to share their answers and give the reasons.
1. Ss complete Activity 3. They can read the passage again if necessary.
Unit 1 A new start --课文知识讲解(重点短语+句子解析)
外研版七年级上册新教材(讲义)Unit 1 A new start重点短语on the blackboard 在黑板上write down 记下start to do 开始做the first 第一个point out 指出...in the first lesson 在第一节课jump into my mind 跳进我的脑海look up at 抬头看think about 思考,想想看put up my hand 举起手来There is a mistake. 有一个错误。
Confucius 孔子Mencius 孟子well done 做得不错in fact 事实上all of you 你们所有人junior high school 初中more difficult 难度更大It’s important to do做某事这是很重要的the main idea of the passage 该文章的中心思想learn from 向…学习make mistakes 犯错it’s important for sb. to do sth. 某人做事很重要。
come into 进入ask sb. to do sth 要求某人做些什么how about …怎么样fell so nervous 非常紧张地gave a silly answer 给出了一个愚蠢的答案turn red 变红with a smile 微笑着(脸上带着)make sb.+ adj. 让某人怎么样了the students' union 学生联合会at school 在学校all kinds of activities 各种活动such as 比如cultural festivals 文化节日sports meets 体育比赛sometimes 有时need to 需要describe our problems 描述我们的问题state our problems 说明我们的问题for example 例如It's hard to do sth. 这是很困难的去做......give sb. some advice 给某人一些建议the first 最先a piece of advice 一条建议the second 第二个look at 看look up 向上看/ 查阅(字典)by yourself 单独地、靠你自己problem 问题try your best 尽你所能work hard 努力工作read the passage 标题的含义find out 发现the meaning of the title 读这篇文章Do you remember...? 你还记得......吗?your sixth birthday 你的六岁生日made a paper boat 做了一艘纸船in the pool 在池中sail away 远航look at 查看It's a letter from sb. 这是某人的一封信。
七年级上册英语人教版Unit1 section A
B: My name’s/I’m…
A: Nice to meet you.
B: Nice to meet you, too.
Report: Her name’s… His name’s… My name’s… I want to be your friend.
Grammar Focus
Questions What’s your name?
What’s his name? What’s her name?
Answers
My name’s Jenny.
I’m Jenny.
His name’s Tony.
Her name’s Gina.
Look! what’s = what is
1.your name what’s 1.What’s your name?
Cindy I’m
I’m Cindy.
2. name his what’s Bob He’s
2.What’s his name? He’s Bob.
3. Mike you Are am I yes
3. Are you Mike? Yes, I am.
Mary
Alan
Mary: Nice to meet you!
Alan: Nice to meet you, too.
Mary: I’m Mary. What’s your name?
Alan: My name’s Alan.
Tony Tony: Nice to meet you! Jim: Nice to meet you, too. Tony: I’m Tony. What’s your name? Jim: My name’s Jim.
高一英语(外研版)必修一 Unit 1 A New Start(1)教学设计
2. What happened on your first day at senior high? Share your experiences and feelings with the class.
In his diary, he wrote about the school campus, his new English teacher, the first class, an embarrassing moment and his feelings.
Then teacher asks students to choose the best description of Meng Hao’s first day at senior high. Ex.2 on Page 4.
Curious: decided to explore a bit
Surprised: saw the same manIhad met earlier
During the English class:
Nervous: tried to turn on my brain; the engine just wouldn’t start; butterflies in my stomach; breathed deeply
1. What do these students do at school?
2. How is this school different from your school?
(Teacher gives demonstration.)
unit1 a university stands and shines
第一单元综合教程第三册上海外语教育出版社1.2 大学,巍然屹立约翰·梅斯菲尔德1. 世上没有什么比大学更辉煌。
在防线崩瘫,价值崩溃之时,在大坝决堤,洪水泛滥之际,在未来黯然,古老的价值观深陷困境之时,大学,不管它位于何处,都会巍然屹立,熠熠闪光。
不管它身在何处,都会激励人类自由之思想去不懈探求,给世间带来智慧启迪。
2. 世上没有什么比大学更美好。
在那里,痛恨无知者可以努力求知,认知真理者可以帮助他人洞察是非;在那里,探索者和学习者们都在对知识的探求中携手前行,用更好的方式去崇尚思想,欢迎接纳那些受难或流亡的思想者,永远维护思想与学术的尊严并确立各种事物的准则。
对于那些正处于可塑期的年轻人,大学帮助他们树立崇高的理想,形成合作关系,这种关系至死不衰:他们给予年轻人渴求的亲密友谊,提供机会去讨论那些无尽的话题。
没有这些,青春似乎只是耗费时光。
3. 世上没有什么比大学更持久。
宗教也许会演化成不同的教派或异教;朝代会衰亡或被替代,但是,千百年来,大学会依然存在,人类生命的洪流会穿流其中,思想者和探索者会为把思想带入世间这一不朽的事业而并肩奋斗。
4. 成为这伟大社团中的一员绝对是莫大的荣耀。
5. 在授予我们荣誉的时候,你或者公开声明,或者让人感觉理所当然,那就是我们有资格按照自己所遵循的生活方式去教学。
自创始之时起,人文主义就在我们中间留下了“开心地学习,愉快地传授”这一印迹;尽管我们更愿意学习,但是对于所有人来说被认为有资格当老师才是最大的荣誉。
6. 在这辉煌的时刻,我谨代表我的同仁,代表身边那些博学、勇敢、睿智、天才的人们——他们代表着我们的生存法则,代表着我们呼吸的空气,代表着我们所渴望持久的自由探求的权力,代表我们将被后人铭记的艺术一感谢你们给了我们如此大的荣誉,它将把我们和你们在有生之年联系在一起。
1。
Unit1 SectionA 人教版九年级英语上册单词
人教版九年级英语上册单词讲解word版Unit1sectionAtextbook n.教科书:课本conversation n.交谈:谈话aloud adv.大声地:出声地Pronunciationn.发音:读音Sentence n.甸子patient adj.有耐心的n.病人expression n.表情;表示;表达方式Discover 发现;发觉secret n.秘密;秘诀adj.秘密的;保密的look up(在词典,参考书中或通过电脑)查阅;抬头看grammar n.语法repeat v重复;重做Note n.笔记:记录只.注意:指出pal n.朋友:伙伴Physics n.物理:物理学Chemistry n.化学memorize n.记忆;记住pattern n.模式:方式Pronounce n发音1.textbook [ˈtekstbʊk]n.教科书:课本复数textbooks【例句】I study by reading the textbook.我通过读课本学习。
近义词:schoolbook拓展:e-textbook电子课本2.conversation [ˌkɑːnvərˈseɪʃn] n.交谈:谈话复数conversations搭配in conversation with和……谈话make a conversation会话3.aloud [əˈlaʊd] adv.大声地:出声地【搭配】read aloud大声朗读【拓展】aloud, loud, loudly4.pronunciation [prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃn] n.发音:读音复数pronunciations词根:Pronounce V.发音【例句】I don't know how to pronounce this word.我不知道这个单词怎么发音。
【例句】Your pronunciation is excellent.你的发音好极了5.Sentence[ˈsentəns]n. 句子复数sentences【搭配】topic sentence主题句【例句】What does this sentence mean?这个句子是什么意思?6.patient [ˈpeɪʃnt] adj.有耐心的n. 病人【搭配】patient with对……有耐心mental patient精神病人【例句】The patient made a rapid recovery.病人很快恢复了健康。
人教版三年级下册英语unit1教材A部分课文翻译
WORD格式人教版三年级下册英语unit1教材A部分课文翻译1let'stalk部分翻译MissWhite:Boysandgirls,wehavetwonewfriendstoday.怀特:孩子们,今天我们有两位新朋友。
Amy:Hi,l'mAmy.l'mfromtheUK.埃米:嗨,我是埃米。
我来自英国。
ZhangPeng:Hi,l'mZhangPeng.l'mfromShandong.张鹏:嗨,我是张鹏。
我来自山东。
JohnandSarah:Welcome!约翰和萨拉:欢迎!2Lookandsay部分翻译Mike:Hi,l'mMike.l'mfromCanada.Whataboutyou?迈克:嗨,我是迈克。
我来自加拿大。
你呢?Sarah:Hi,l'mSarah.l'mfromtheUSA.萨拉:嗨,我是萨拉。
我来自美国。
3Let'slearn部分翻译4Let'schant部分翻译Wearefriends.Weliketoplay.我们是朋友。
我们喜欢玩耍。
Wearefriends.Weliketoplay.WORD格式我们喜欢玩耍。
我们是朋友。
AboyfromCanada,一个来自加拿大的男孩,AgirlfromtheUK,一个来自英国的女孩,FriendsfromChinaandtheUSA.来自中国和美国的朋友们。
5Let'sspell部分翻译cat猫bag包dad爸爸hand手听力原文cat,/k/-/æ/-/t/,/kæt/bag,/b/-/æ/-/g/,/bæg/dad,/d/-/æ/-/d/,/dæd/hand,/d/-/æ/-/n/-/d/,/hænd/ChantDadhasablackcat.Thecatisinthebag.Dadhasablackcat.Thebagisinhishand.听力翻译猫,/k/-/æ/-/t/,/kæt/WORD格式包,/b/-/æ/-/g/,/bæg/爸爸,/d/-/æ/-/d/,/dæd/手,/d/-/æ/-/n/-/d/,/hænd/说唱爸爸有一只黑色的猫。
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The Human Complex—a Never-failing Source of Wonderment “在我看来,”托马斯·杰弗森在1814年写道,“对人来说,没有什么知识会比了解自身的构架、它的部件、它们的功能和作作用更能是他满足的了。
”在杰弗森之前和之后的伟大的思想家都持这个观点,但是奇怪的是,这不是一个令普通百姓心悦诚服的看法。
人对属于他个人的最珍贵的财产的态度是明显矛盾的。
他对它兼有着迷和害怕,部分反映出古代的禁忌,部分则是深信人体过于复杂而不可理解。
研究人体的途径可谓五花八门:对愤世嫉俗者来说,人体仅是泥土构造的陋房;诗人赞之曰灵魂的宫殿;医生认此为易于生病的躯体。
精神病学家视之为理智和个性的居所;遗传学家视之为自我繁衍的机器;生物学家看见的则是一个能以往昔之经历改造将来的生物体。
所有的对人体的专业的科学的观点都是有效的。
然而,所有的观点必须以同样的前提为出发点:一个对人体基本结构和功能的观点——它的解剖学和生理学。
我们现在对人体的理解的基本原则是所有的生物都是由具有相似结构和功能的细胞构成。
细胞的研究—它是什么,它做什么和它如何繁衍—显示出它本身是一个奇妙的复杂的世界。
细胞的主要妙处之一,是其体积之微与活动能力之强两者之间的反差。
每一个细胞是如此的微小以至于成千上万的它们能在一英寸立方的人体组织中被发现。
然而,,每一个细胞构成了一个秩序井然,分工明确,忙碌得几乎难以想象的化学实验室。
细胞有主要的两个部分:一个是核,包含基因材料DNA,和环绕的半流质的细胞质。
包裹着细胞质的是细胞膜,它将细胞内含物包容于细胞之内,将不需要的物质排出,而允许适当的营养物质和废物通过。
细胞核—细胞的总部—指挥细胞质的主要活动;然而,它最微妙的时刻是细胞繁殖,这时染色体所包含的DNA分离。
细胞是在细胞质进行的夜以继日的持续的工作。
每个它的多种多样的组成,或者细胞器,都是具有超凡技能的专家。
一种方面是分解食物使之进入细胞膜并将它转换为能量。
一些方面为提供蛋白质合成的场所—伴随着细胞复制,对于大多数细胞是一个主要的功能。
一些方面为将已制造的蛋白质加以整理以运输至身体需要的任何地方。
为了运作顺利,因此细胞总的来说要求从身体得到特殊的帮助:食物为释放能量提供原材料,氧气帮助分解食物,水分转运无机物如钠、钙。
一旦这些需要得到满足,细胞本身就能提供复杂的机制,使其处于正常运作所必须的平衡状况—简而言之,能保持身体活着并健康。
细胞共用某一种相同的特性,但是大多数的人体细胞发展有特殊的特征和能力。
构成骨的细胞能收集钙盐;这些细胞连锁而成坚固的块状,无活动能力。
相反的,血液中能抵抗侵略细菌的白细胞能在体内自由流动。
其他细胞产生特殊的化学物质以供身体使用—由内分泌腺生产的激素或来自胰的消化酶注入肠。
还有构成肺或肾的非常薄的膜的其他细胞可以允许过滤或交换已溶解的身体的燃料和废物。
根据它们独自的特点和所要求的功能,细胞构成了不同类型的组织:骨,肌肉,神经组织,结缔组织和上皮。
构成每个这些组织的细胞是各不相同的,但因基本的相似点而同属一类。
例如,肠肌肉的细胞比腿部肌肉长而细的细胞更圆,更短,当受到化学或电刺激时两种都会有力地收缩。
构成骨组织的细胞有相当程度的不同,可在一处形
成脆骨,而在另一处形成疏松而有韧性的软骨;然而,所有细胞都储存盐类,使骨成为钙化的结构。
在皮下的支持脂肪垫料的疏散网络状的细胞和保持膝关节在适当的地方的密集胶囊状的细胞两者都构成结缔组织。
所有的神经细胞,各有不同,接受嗯哼传导电化冲动。
所有的血细胞,各有不同,在循环流体—血浆,自由地漂浮。
最万能的细胞是那些各种各样的上皮的细胞。
构成人体外部的外套—皮肤,上皮细胞保护里面的物质不受外界侵害。
它们还构成嘴巴,胃,肠的黏膜,血管的内表面和允许肺呼吸和肾排泄的膜。
在眼睛的角膜之上它们变成一种外部的挡风玻璃,允许光束自由地进入到视网膜。
其他的上皮细胞分泌保护性的粘液保持肠,肺和鼻腔不至于变干。
还有其他的产生强大的激素调节身体的化学反应。
组织组成了有结构的物质即人体的器官系统。
反过来,这也许可以比作是一些有连锁董事会的公司。
的确器官系统的相互依赖在许多方面已经导致了一些不一致。
值得尊敬的格雷的解剖学——过去供医学生使用了超过100年,列了10个系统:神经的、消化的、呼吸的、血管的、泌尿生殖的、内分泌的、骨骼的、肌肉的、关节的和表皮的。
其他权威分类将关节和骨骼分为一起因为它们如此紧密关联,或者从神经系统分离感觉器官,或给整块的内在器官——呼吸的、消化的、内分泌的和泌尿生殖器的,一个响亮的标题:内脏系统。
比分类名称远为重要的是系统之间的相互影响;一个系统的故障可以破坏或毁坏其他系统。
理想中,当然,所有的系统可以一直完美的各司其责。
不幸的是,自然不允许如此完美。
所有的它们在一方面或其他方面遭受疾病。
神奇的是,出现故障倒是例外而不是常规。
在身体内部本身并没有明确的“正常”的标准。
变异不止发生在个体间,也发生在个体本身内部,有时从小时到小时,依赖于他那时的活动。
医生们私下打趣说,甚至狒狒也可在医学院混到毕业;只要它学会故弄玄虚地说“看情况”。
开业者的主要的头痛之一是决定是否一个病人的状况反映的是一个真实的疾病还是仅仅是正常的一个大范围。
这个范围的宽度也许是被一些统计学所表明的。
健康心脏的重量被认为在240~360克之间;健康的肝的重量在1000~2000克之间;血糖水平在70~130毫升每克之间。