【免费下载】胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结
胡壮麟之《语言学教程》相关名词解释
1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike¡¯s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike¡¯s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator¡¯s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et 16. competence: language user¡¯s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). 20£® Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21£® Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22£® Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23£® Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24£® Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25£® Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26£® Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27£® Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28£® Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29£® Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30£® Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31£® Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32£® IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33£® Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34£® Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in ¡°dog¡¯s¡±.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.¡±dog in the manger¡±)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.¡±contact¡±or¡±contiguous¡±assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,orbetween one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky¡¯s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker¡¯s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talkabout things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites. 86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ¡°recognition lexicon¡±in which each word is represented by a full and independent¡±recognistion element¡±.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,allelements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it. 97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered. 100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language. 102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,suchas speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency. 111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker¡¯s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley¡¯s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is¡±genden difference¡±116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there¡¯s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women¡¯s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers¡¯social starts and phonological variations。
胡壮麟语言学 重点名词解释
语言学重点名词解释refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.refers that there is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for(meaning and sounds).means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.system must be learned by each speaker.people what they should say and not say.in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time在那一刻、时、块的情况（当代、古代）历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.(在过程中都有什么变化、区别、有大时间变化)2个共时即为历时occur in the world’s languages.are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity。
胡壮麟版语言学名词解释
Define the following terms:1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic:a term in contrast with emic which originates f rom American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic:a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech commun ith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations areinvolved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: a re sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.胡壮麟语言学术语解释231．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: th e manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: t he collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation:different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:;any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem:any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. l oanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation:an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.胡壮麟语言学术语总结491.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of thetruth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what i s talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate l ogic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: thi s effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: a ny conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106 modular:whi ch a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108 propositions:w hatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics:is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: th e way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Ch omsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity:one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118 linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: a n utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: t he act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. i llocutionary act: th e act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature:the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Descriptive描述性的：if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Synchronic共时的：the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. synchronic study共时研究: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的：the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Diachronic study历时研究: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.Langue语言：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is abstract.Parole言语：refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence：(N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languag e. Performance：defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 设计特点是指界定性质的人类区别于其他动物的交际系统。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》名词解释
LINGUISTICS A COURSE BOOKDefine the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of humanlanguage, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of humanlanguage, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguisticsigns or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting studybetween language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic processin which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually avowel or a voiced consonant) by vibratingthe vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use ofa simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone: any of the different forms ofa phoneme(e.g. <th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated <t>.Both <th> and <t> are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergoing a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc.33. Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 34. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech thatinvolve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language interms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound only morphemic words whichconsist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc. 37. inflection: the manifestation ofgrammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). 39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph: any of the different form of amorpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. “dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system. 56. back-formation: an abnormal type ofword-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix froma long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called. “contact”or “contiguous” assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a wordor phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.60. category: parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.61. concord: also known as agreement, is therequirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item andothers in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holdingbetween elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: theanalysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: oneconstruction whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such as the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object. 68. surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more general features, in these two government relations, is technically called constituent command, c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication. 72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which itis used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part ofmeaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast withdenotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to expressa propostion, meaning the properties of theentity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of language to expressa proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair incomplementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such as male, female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kindare gradable, such as long: short, big;small, fat; thin, etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind ofantonymy in that members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy; sell, lend, borrow, above, below, etc.85. relational opposites: converse antonymyin reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, and temporal and spatial relations. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. The shorter, better; words .etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, inwhich the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e. the class name. A superordinate usuallyhas several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. <+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take, e.g. regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition; what is talk about in an utterance, that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus, which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound, word, syntax, etc.)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully activated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriatecontext for it.97. frequency effect: describes theadditional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawnfrom a set of proposition, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes things that, while not following logically, are implied, in an ordinary sense, e.g. ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader issupposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception: language awareness of things through the physical senses, esp. sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research, which studies the understanding of language. 102. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 103. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 104. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular: which a assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing: the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents, traditionally e.g. to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure. Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics (being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind, and experimental psycholinguistics (being concerned somehow whth empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized. 113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing development.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “gender difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. 123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of thecooperative principle.128. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running”entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution necessary (Gradation, Quantity2, Manner); Say no more than you must (given Q). 133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked creatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked a(simpler, less “effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed). 134. constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to. 135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s representation of speech acts:a minimalist kind of presentation in whicha part of passage can be seen as a summeryof a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more backgrounded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts. For example, she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 144. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 147. narrator’s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speeche.g. He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same asthose used to represent a speech, e.g. He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard, printer, screen, disk drives, programs, etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programmed instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information. Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom. 157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word, sequence of words. or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context, which is a further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so thatinformation on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately, applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume. An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e. change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry. It merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships, between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies. It covers specifically a logical organization of information, such as document representatives, for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use. 167. syllabus: the planning of course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Descriptive描述性的：if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Synchronic共时的：the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. synchronic study共时研究: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的：the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Diachronic study历时研究: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.Langue语言：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is abstract.Parole言语：refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence：(N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languag e. Performance：defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 设计特点是指界定性质的人类区别于其他动物的交际系统。
(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-31.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。
如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。
2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functionsinclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。
语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。
3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith orintuition alone.位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结（共10篇）
语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)：语言学名词解释第四版教程语言学教程第四版笔记语言学教程考试题语言学教程中文版pdf篇一：新编语言学教程名词解释(部分重点)(1) linguistics: （语言学）the scienti?c or systematic study of language.(2) language: （语言）a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: （任意性）the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:（双重性）the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:（语言能力）knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use,i.e. performance.(6) performance:（语言运用）Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: （共时语言学）the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: （历时语言学）the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:（音位）the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: （音位学）the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:（形态学）the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:（词素）the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: （自由词素）a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: （黏着词素）a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:（语素变体）the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.（句法学）(5) IC analysis:（Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法）the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function（概念功能）: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function（人际功能）: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function（语篇功能）: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:（上下义关系）the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym:（整体部分关系）the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:（语用学） a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:（指示）the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors in?uence the structure and use of language.（社会语言学）(8) diglossia:（双语） a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:（双语现象）the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region ora nation.(11) taboo:（禁忌）a word or expression that is prohibited by thepolite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:（委婉语）a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room”for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.（认知语言学）篇二：]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》前四章名词解释胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax 句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals 喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音 Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素 morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀 derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound 向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme 语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonologicalconditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化 contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative 离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction 向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程篇三：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1. design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysisin linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization.11. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics includepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et15. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.17. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.this an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspiratedt.Boththand tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.26. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.30. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.34. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,w hich do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39. allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60. Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.68. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.69. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.70. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on. 71. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied intoseparate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in languageprocessing.79. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.81. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.82. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87. sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.92. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释.174个
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(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟的语言学笔记(1)
胡壮麟的语言学笔记1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary（随意的）vocal（发音的，口头的）symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic（固有的，内在的，本质的）connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is sy mbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality（二元性）, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission（文化传播）and interchangeability（可交换性）3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque（不透明的，难理解的，晦涩的）or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sen tences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say i t when necessary, and hecan understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Cho msky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell wh ich dog (dogs) is (are) “speaking” and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday,representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”:ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to t he bottom of my ears!”13. What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (fal sehood). According to P. Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”, one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create cer tain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence.The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one languag e of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our timecan read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists. 25. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while h is performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).27. In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do theydiffer? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.28. What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.29. How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.30. What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved, e.g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) ]; (4) alveolar:[t, d, l, n, s, z]; (5)T, Plabiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental:[ retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[ ]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[ k, g]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal:[h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.31. What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive:[p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal:[m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap;(5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant:[w, j]; (8) affricate:[ ].32. What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.33. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics语音学, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.34. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recogn ize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.35. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.36. What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.37. What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). Theminute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme. 38. What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear [l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of [l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark [l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.39. What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal [n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ] (alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[…imput] (bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivati ves: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.40. What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation. 41. What is morphology?“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.42. What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.43. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‟t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.。
胡壮麟语言学教程第6章专业术语解释
胡壮麟语言学教程第6章专业术语解释1. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated withthe use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field basied on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders,language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, the most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.2. Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phrasesare identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.3. holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’ language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to unstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them.4. two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at the rate of one everytwo walking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence.5. Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complated idea.6. connectionism: With respection to the respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or wordsthat are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel iterms being processed based on their similarity to known ones. 7. Cohortmodel is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognitionpostulation postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggestedthat the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidatesthat are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate is a clear winner.8. Interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higherprocessing levels have direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowedge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the formal of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonems; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.9. Race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other―a pre-lexical route, which computers phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when theword itself is accessed When word―level information appears to affect alower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.10. Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension systemcontinually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language grammarwith remarkable speed. serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to itsinterpretation ,primarily grammatical information .Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.11. Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitiveto a vast range of information .including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker\\writer and of the world in general.parallel model describes how the processor users all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence .itis generally acknowledged that listener and readers integrate and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.12. Resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model , information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it .semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truthof propositions , do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text. analyzing events in terms of goals ,actions, and reactions . A resonance process serves as first stage in processing a text, and , reading objectives and details of text structure determine whatever a reader goes further searches for a coherent structure for the text.13. Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation inalternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.14. Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.15. Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relation configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving object. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.16. Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.17. Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.18. Basic level category is the most economical level at which you canfind the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level thatwe conjure up the gestalt of the category.19. Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.20. Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure toour experience.21. Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the others. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.22. Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another.23. Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.24. Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.25. Generic space maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstuct, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It defines the core cross-space mapping between them.26. Blend space is the fourth space onto which is partially projected by inputs I1 and I2.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
胡壮麟语言学考点重点总结小抄版
胡壮麟语⾔学考点重点总结⼩抄版1.语⾔的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 多产性productivity移位性displacement⽂化传播性culturaltransmission
2.语⾔的功能：传达信息功能informative⼈济功能：interpersonal⾏事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal元语⾔功能metalingual
3. 语⾔学linguistics：包括六个分⽀语⾳学Phonetics⾳位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics 语⽤学pragmatics
4. Origin of language ①the divine-origine theory...②The bow-wow theory..In primitive times people imitated the sounds of theanimal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that
③The pooh-pooh theory…In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joywhich gradually developed into language.④The “yo-he-ho” theory….As primitive people worked together, they producedsome rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学： findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of suchpractical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known asapplied linguistics.Descriptive描绘性的： if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的： if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“ correct and standard in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.Synchronic共时的： the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.synchronic study共时研究 : The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features ofthe English used in Shakespeare’ s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的： the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Diachronic study历时研究 : The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’ s time is a diachronic study. Langue 语言： refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is abstract.Parole 语言： refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence ： (N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules ofe. his languag Performance ： defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. 设计特色是指界定性质的人类差别于其余动物的社交系统。
语言学(胡壮麟版)
语言通过词汇和语法结构，能够描述和传达关于世界的信息，包括事物的性质、状态和关系等。
语言的信息功能
建立和维持社会关系
语言是人们在社会交往中建立和维持关系的工具，通过语言交流，人们可以建立友谊、合作和信任等关系。
表达情感和态度
语言不仅传达信息，还能够表达情感和态度，如喜怒哀乐、赞扬和批评等。
一个语义场由一组相关的词构成，它们共同表达一个概念。
语义的变化
语义的演变和变化，如词义的扩大、缩小、转移等。
语义
04
CHAPTER
语言的功能
传达功能
语言能够将信息从一个个体传递给另一个个体，实现信息的交流和共享。
思考功能
语言不仅是表达思想的工具，也是思考的工具。人们通过语言组织和表达思想，进而进行推理、判断和创造。
语言接触对语言发展的影响
语言融合
语言接触
06
CHAPTER
语言与文化
语言与文化的关系
01
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化传承和交流的载体。
02
语言反映了特定民族的历史、传统、习俗和社会行为规范，是文化信息的载体。
文化对语言的影响深远，不同文化背景下形成的语言具有独特的表达方式和意义。
03
文化传统、信仰和价值观等会影响语言的表达和意义，形成特定的语言习惯和表达方式。
社会经济发展
社会经济的发展对语言的发展有着重要的影响，如随着社会经济的发展，新词汇和表达方式不断涌现。
社会文化
社会文化对语言的发展也有着重要的影响，如不同文化背景下的人们有着不同的语言表达方式和习惯。
社会因素对语言发展的影响
语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的交流和融合，是语言发展的重要途径之一。
胡壮麟版语言学名词解释
Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformativefunction,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike 'dsistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike 'dsistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator ' s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic : a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive : the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness : one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality : one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement : one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion : one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics : he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such aspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence : language user ' s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance : the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations areinvolved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrowtranscription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: a re sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place todivert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme( eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation ; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation : in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.胡壮麟语言学术语解释231．Complementary distribution : the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32 ．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve morethan single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.Theprinciple suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: th e manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme : an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “ dog' s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g. ” dog in the man46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word : word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. l oanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend : a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym : is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called. ” contact ” or ” contiguous ” assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.胡壮麟语言学术语总结491. prepositional logic : also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate l ogic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a“ recognition lexicon ” in which each word is represented by a full and independent ” recognistion the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: thi s effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: a ny conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understandeach word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to makefriends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production : a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order tomake friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106 modular:whi ch a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108 propositions:w hatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguisticstructure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures representedin the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: th e way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker ' sknowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Ch omsley ' s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is ” genden difference ”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there no li'mist to the structural diversity of languages.118 linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women ' s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers ' social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: a n utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: t he act of saying something;it ' s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: th e act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it t'hes consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker ' s knowledge or knows wh he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g. ” Mary is running ” entails,among other things, ” Mary is not standing still ”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.。
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胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformativefunction,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,yingdown rules for language use.8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at themoment of communication.12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies.14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such aspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,etpetence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations areinvolved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23.Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some placeto divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.25.Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When/t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 26.Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping ofthe air can be perceived.27.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29.Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31.IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32.Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound oly morphemic words w hich consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39.allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme isbut it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.41.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is addedto,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.45.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articlesand pronouns.46.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49.loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,insome cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fullyborrowed.51.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.55.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is morespecifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so thatthe sounds become less alike,or different.57.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation ofthe origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of thetruth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.60.Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of oneelement change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a“recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistionelement”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.67.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understandeach word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies theunderstanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde tomake friends,influence people,convey information and so on.71.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,wherea bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,eachgoverned by its own principles and operating independently of others.74.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionallye.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property ofpropositions that they have truth values.76.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguisticstructure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures representedin the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.82.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determinesthought.84.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about bynothing less than women’s place in society.86.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look atstructural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87.sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understandsociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’socialstarts and phonological variations.89.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means ofsyntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.92.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.93.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequenceof,or the change brought about by the utterance.94.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandableto the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.95.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Maryis running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.96.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.。