14- Questionnaire Design 2006
research design
独创和新颖之处：许多研究者都同意阅读在写作教学中能激发学生的分析性思考能力，为学生从词汇到结构提供模仿的材料。
读后续写是一种特殊的读写结合方式，它要求学生能深入理解阅读文本，根据文章所给的提示，运用创造性思维写出他们自己的结尾。
所以不仅训练了学生的语言能力，也培养了学生的创造性思维。
重点解决的问题：1.写作材料的选取。
首先话题必须与控制组的话题一致，文章要有趣，新颖，让学生有读下去的愿望。
其次，难度不能太大，应在学生的理解范围之内。
最后，文章长度不能过短，长一些内容就丰富一些，语言变化也会多一些。
这样续写思路更加明确，协同更易发生，内容更加连贯，主题不易偏离。
2.教学中教师的指令需体现促学要求，帮助学生解决写作过程中碰到的内容，结构，语言上的问题。
3.评价标准的制定。
续写的内容应与原文保持连贯，语言表达上应多使用原文的词语和句型。
研究方法：本课题将先通过查阅文献确定研究方向，然后采用定量和定性研究，通过学生习作和问卷调查来搜集数据。
将学生分为控制组和试验组，控制组采用传统的写作教学法，即给出话题，教师讲解，学生习作，最后教师进行批改反馈。
试验组采用读后续写教学法，教师通过详细分析阅读材料的结构，组织，语言，学生通过模仿阅读文章，发展创造性思维，完成作文，然后通过同伴互评，自己修改，最后教师反馈，完成整个写作教学过程。
在整个研究过程中，试验组和控制组的写作话题和写作频率一致。
本课题的受试是一所普通中学高二的学生。
在阅读能力方面，学生已经学习了大约2500字左右的词汇量；掌握了基本的阅读技能，如速读，略读，跳读，以及找中心句，猜词义等技能。
在写作能力方面，学生积累了约800字左右的写作词汇，通过五个基本句型和各种词组表达法的学习，能写出一些简单的句子。
其次，学生也已经了解了作文的评分标准，知道从哪些方面去提高写作水平。
第二，学生在高一时，教师曾根据课本话题尝试过读写结合的写作教学，取得了一定的效果，学生的头脑中已有模仿写作的概念，所以能更快地接受读后续写。
Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验设计与实施
盲底产生
处理编码的产生采用分层分段随机法，使用统计软
件包在计算机上产生，而且必须有重新产生的能力， 即重现性。 一般情况下，处理编码是按受试者入组顺序排列的 编号（入组号），分配至各个中心由小到大依次使
用各个药物编号。
盲法设计
应急信件准备
每个受试者准备一个应急信件，供紧急揭盲用。
应急信件随试验药物一起发往各试验中心，非必 要时切勿拆阅，试验结束时随CRF表一起收回。
盲法类型
单盲法试验 Single Blind Trial Technique
双盲法试验 Double Blind Trial Technique
双盲、双模拟 Double-blind，Doubledummy Trial Technique
双盲法和双盲双模拟技巧示意图
双盲法 A药 B药
双盲双模拟技巧 A药试验药 1
量效关系研究一般有以下4种方法：
1.平行量效研究：得出群体平均量效关系，而不 是个体量效曲线的分布或形态; 2.交叉量效研究：起效很快、且治疗结束后病人 迅速回到治疗前状态。优点：病人接受多个不 同的量效可估计出个体量效曲线的分布，同时 也可得出群体平均量效曲线; 3.剂量递增研究; 4.供选择的剂量研究（安慰剂对照组滴定至终 点）：病人的剂量需递增至出现某种好的或坏 的反应
加控制。
其它目的---次要指标
次要指标是指与试验主要目的有关的附加支持指
标，也可以是与试验次要目的有关的指标，在设计时也需 明确说明与定义。
复合指标
如果从与试验目的有关的多个指标中难以确定单一 的主要指标时，可以将多个指标组合起来构成一个复合指 标，作为主要研究指标。如临床上常采用的量表就是由多 个指标组成的，其总分就是其中的一种。
Quantitative Data Analysis- Questionnaire Design
Professional and Academic Skills(PAS)-2Week-3Quantitative Data Analysis- Questionnaire Design andLevel MeasurementDate: 10/02/2020v Collecting Quantitative Data using Questionnaire v Questionnaire Designv Pilot Questionnairev Level of Measurement: Categorical Variable and Continuous Variablev Identify the main issues that you need to consider when preparing quantitative data for analysisCollecting Primary Data using QuestionnaireØQuestionnaire:“is a method/technique of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to same set of questions in a predetermined order”(De Vaus, 2014)Ø “It also widely used as an instrument” (Ekinci, 2015)ØIt provides efficient way of collecting responses from a large sample prior to quantitative analysisTypes of QuestionnaireSource: Saunders (2016)Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaireAdvantages◦Large sample size – can be collected relatively quickly◦Cost effective- large sample of the population can be contacted at relative cost◦Analysis easier and visualisation – closed questions are easier to analyse◦Anonymity- allows respondents to maintain their anonymity◦If completed anonymously and in private then personal questions may receive more valid answersDisadvantages◦Difficult for respondents to provide deep reasons behind consumers behaviour◦Unanswered questions- some questions will be ignored and left unanswered◦Dishonest answer- they may not be 100% truthful with their answers◦Respondents under no/little pressure to complete and return◦No flexibility re questions posed and no supplementary options available-Things to Consider to Produce a Good QuestionnaireüTo ensure that it will collect precise data that you require to answer your research question(s) and your research objectivesüYou are unlikely to have more than one opportunity to collect the dataüDesign of your questionnaire will affect the response rate and the reliability of the data you collect (clear, specific and unambiguous)üEasy questions at the start and open questions at endüFar more closed than open questionsü Types of questions you need to ask to collect your dataüNumber of questions you need to ask to collect your dataüVisual presentation of the questionnaire- Colourful, artistic appearance of the questionnaireValidity and ReliabilityValidity: refers to the ability of your questionnaire to measure what you intend to measure also know as measurement validity.Reliability- refers to the consistency of the research method used, For example if the same method was used again would it lead to the same data collected.For a questionnaire to be valid it must be reliableValidity and reliability of the data you collect and the response rate you achieve depend largely on the:- Design of your questions- Structure of your questionnaire- and the rigor of your pilot testingFactors that can impact ReliabilityØParticipants errorØParticipants biasØResearcher errorØResearcher biasHow many questions should a questionnaire have?◦For your MA dissertation time taken to complete the questionnaire should not exceed 10 -12 minutes.◦Effective design of the questions should allow you to include all necessary questions for your final project and should consist maximum 15-20 questions.How many need to be collected ?◦Around a minimum of 100 for your MA dissertation when conducting a mono method.Constructing your Questions- Closed and Open questionsOpen questions- refer to as open ended questions, allow respondents to give answers in their own wayFink (2013) Closed questions- refer to closed-ended questions or forced-choice questions, provide a number of alternative answers from which the respondent is instructed to choose. It is easier,quicker and require minimal writingThere are 6 types of closed questions:List question: where the respondent is offered a list of items, any of which may be selectedCategory question: where only one response can be selected from a given set of categoriesRanking question: where the respondent is asked to place something in orderRating question: in which a rating device is used to record responsesQuantity question: to which the response is a number giving the amountMatrix question: where responses to two or more questions can be collected using the same gridSource: Saunders, 2016Rating /Likert Scale questionsCategory questionQuantity questionSemantic differential Rating question- Series of bi-polar adjectives between which underlined spaces areprovided for the recipient to record their views/feelings.Example of Rank questionExample of Matrix QuestionConstructing the QuestionnaireØExplaining the purpose of the questionnairev Covering letter or welcome screen:self-completed questionnaires should be accompanied by a covering letter, email, text or SMS message which explains the purpose of of the surveyv Introducing the questionnaire- explain clearly and concisely why you want the respondents to complete the surveyExample of Introduction for Interviewer-completed questionnaire….Lavrakas, 2016Closing the QuestionnaireØ at the end of the questionnaire you will need to explain clearly what you want your respondents to do with their completed questionnaire.Example:Saunders, 2016Pilot Testing and Assessing ValidityThe purpose of the pilot testing is to refine questionnaire so that the respondents will have no problems in answering the questions and there will be no problem in recording the dataØIt helps you to obtain some assessment of the questions, validity and likely reliability of the dataØTo ensure that the data collected will enable your investigative questions to be answeredØfor student questionnaire minimum number of a pilot is 10 (Flink, 2013)To ensure questionnaire’s face validity, as part of your Pilot you should try to get additional information about (Bell and Waters, 2014)-üHow long the question took to completeüthe clarity of the instructionüWhich, if any, questions were ambiguousüWhich, if any, question the respondents felt uneasyüwhether in the layout was clear and attractiveüany other commentsInternet QuestionnaireFor both Web and Mobile questionnaire:ØIt is important to have clear timetable that identifies the tasks need to be doneØA good response will depend on the recipient being motivated to answer the questionnaire and to send it backØEmail or SMS message and visual appearance will help to ensure a high level of responseØQuestionnaire design must be clear across all display mediaData collection- what to measureIf you intend to undertake quantitative analysis then you should consider:v The number of cases of data (sample size)v Type or types of data (scale of measurement)v Data layout and format required by the analysis softwarev Impact of data coding on subsequent analysis (for different types ofdata)v Process and checking the data error (checking your data for out of range values)When you collect data you need to decide on two thingsv What to measurev How to measureWhat to Measurev Usually we collect several measures on each person or thing of interestv Each thing we collect data about is called an observationv Each observation can be a person or an organisation, a product or a period in time Factual or demographic variables- age, gender, education, occupation, incomeAttitudes or opinion variables- record how respondents feel about something, or what they think is true or falsev Behaviour or event variables- contain data about what people did or what happened in past, happening or will happen in the future.Data collection- what to measure continue …..VariablesObservations Age SexIncome Brand preference 20Female 10,000Zara 30Female 35,000Cartier25Male 25,000 SuperdryLevel of MeasurementLevel of measurement: is the relationship between what is being measured and the numbers that represent what is being measured Variables can take many forms and levels. Quantitative data can be divided into two distinct groups:v Categorical variable◦Descriptive or Nominal data◦Ranked datav Numerical variable◦Continuous data◦Discrete DataCategorical DataCategorical data- refer to data whose values can not be measured numerically but can be classified into sets (categories) according to the characteristics that identify or describe the variable or placed in rank order (Brown and Saunders, 2008)i.e. your species (human, domestic cat, fruit bat), race, sex, age group, and educational levelv Descriptive/Nominal data- these data simply count the number of occurrences in each category of a variable. (a car manufacturer may categorize the types of cars as hatchback, Saloon and estate)Binary/dichotomous variable: a sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories.It names two distinct types of things such as: Male or Female, Dead or Alive; Yes or NoCategorical Data continuous…….v Ranked/ordinal variable- precise form of categorical data. When categories are ordered, the variable is known as an ordinal variable.v Ordinal variables will tell us the things that happenedv The order in which things occurredv But this data will not tell us differences between the values/points on a scaleExample 1- beauty pageant winners- first, second and thirdExample-2 : satisfaction levelUnsatisfied Very unsatisfied Very Satisfied Satisfied Somewhatsatisfied123 45Examples of Nominal and ordinal DataNumerical Variablev Numerical variables are those whose values are measured or counted numerically as quantities . (Brown and Saunders, 2008).v These data are more precise than categorical data as you can assign each data valuea position on a numerical scaleTypes of Numerical variable:v Continuous variable-a variable that has a changing value and it can take on infinitely many, uncountable number. i.e. time, a person’s weight, Age, number of customers etcv Interval data: for data to be interval, we must be certain that data on scalerepresent equal differences in the property being measured. (i.e. measure averageday time temperature during summer in London- 60-70 degrees Fahrenheit, 80-90….)Numerical Data continues ……v Ratio data : a ratio variable has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has an absolute value of 0.v Discrete variable- can take only certain values. Usually the whole number on the scale. i.e.v Example:rating your confidence level on 5 point scale.Number of Customers-12Number of shops- 10Number of friends- 8Stress Level0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Seminar ActivityActivity-1:Demonstrate your choice of data collection method(s) that you plan to adopt in your study.Activity-2-In small groups, discuss about different types of questionnaire and which one you are likely to use.- What are the main attributes of questionnaires discussed on this PPT?-What scale of measurement questions you are likely to use in you questionnaire, provide at least three examples of Rating scales questions.。
Questionnaire Design
Questionnaire Design Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users.It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms of design time and interpretation.The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include:1.Defining the Objectives of the survey2.Determining the Sampling Group3.Writing the Questionnaire4.Administering the Questionnaire5.Interpretation of the ResultsThis document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire. Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires.What can questionnaires measure?Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs. Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative.When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires are inexpensive to administer. This loss of control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent. Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if agroup of participants are asked on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software, it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general, questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user satisfaction, of the system or interface in question.Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy" and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general, we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation.When to use a questionnaire?There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following circumstances.a.When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quiteinexpensive to administer. Although preparation may be costly, any datacollection scheme will have similar preparation expenses. The administrationcost per person of a questionnaire can be as low as postage and a fewphotocopies. Time is also an important resource that questionnaires canmaximize. If a questionnaire is self-administering, such as a e-mailquestionnaire, potentially several thousand people could respond in a few days.It would be impossible to get a similar number of usability tests completed inthe same short time.b.When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants.Questionnaires are easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality isthe necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examplesof such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questionsabout private or personal behavior.c.When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursueother data collection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmationtools. More costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionallythere will not be resources to run these other tests on large enough participantgroups to make the results statistically significant. A follow-up large scalequestionnaire may be necessary to corroborate these earlier results.I. Defining the Objectives of the SurveyThe importance of well-defined objectives can not be over emphasized. A questionnaire that is written without a clear goal and purpose is inevitably going to overlook important issues and waste participants' time by asking useless questions. The questionnaire may lack a logical flow and thereby cause the participant to lose interest. Consequential, what useful data you may have collected could be further compromised. The problems of a poorly defined questionnaire do not end here, but continue on to the analysis stage. It is difficult to imagine identifying a problem and its cause, let alone its solution, from responses to broad and generalizing questions. In other words, how would it be possible to reach insightful conclusions if one didn't actually know what they had been looking for or planning to observe.A objective such as "to identify points of user dissatisfaction with the interface and how these negatively affect the software's performance" may sound clear and to the point, but it is not. The questionnaire designer must clarify what is meant by user dissatisfaction. Is this dissatisfaction with the learning of the software, the power of the software, of the ease of learning the software? Is it important for the users to learn the software quickly if they learn it well? What is meant by the software's performance? How accurate must the measurements be? All of these issues must be narrowed and focused before a single question is formulated. A good rule of thumb is that if you are finding it difficult to write the questions, then you haven't spent enough time defining the objectives of the questionnaire. Go back and do this step again. The questions should follow quite naturally from the objectives.II. Writing the QuestionnaireAt this point, we assume that we have already decided what kind of data we are to measure, formulated the objectives of the investigation, and decided on a participant group. Now we must compose our questions.If the preceding steps have been faithfully executed, most of the questions will be on obvious topics. Most questionnaires, however, also gather demographic data on the participants. This is used to correlate response sets between different groups of people. It is important to see whether responses are consistent across groups. For example, if one group of participants is noticeably less satisfied with the test interface, it is likely that the interface was designed without fair consideration of this group's specific needs. This may signify the need for fundamental redesign of the interface. In addition, certain questions simply may only be applicable to certain kinds of users. For example, if one is asking the participants whether they find the new tutorial helpful, we do not want to include in our final tally the responses of experienced users who learned the system with an older tutorial. There is no accurate way to filter out these responses without simply asking the users when they learned the interface.Typically, demographic data is collected at the beginning of the questionnaire, but such questions could be located anywhere or even scattered throughout the questionnaire. One obvious argument in favor of the beginning of the questionnaire is that normally background questions are easier to answer and can ease the respondent into the questionnaire. One does not want to put off the participant by jumping in to the most difficult questions. We are all familiar with such kinds of questions.It is important to ask only those background questions that are necessary. Do not ask income of the respondent unless there is at least some rational for suspecting a variance across income levels. There is often only a fine line between background and personal information. You do not want to cross over in to the personal realm unless absolutely necessary. If you need to solicit personal information, phrase your questions as unobtrusively as possible to avoid ruffling your participants and causing them to answer less than truthfully.What kind of questions do we ask?In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or performstatistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible. Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent. Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent increases.Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent, giveThere is no clear consensus on the number of options that should be given in an closed format question. Obviously, there needs to be sufficient choices to fully cover the range of answers but not so many that the distinction between them becomes blurred. Usually this translates into five to ten possible answers per questions. For questions that measure a single variable or opinion, such as ease of use or liability, over a complete range (easy to difficult, like to dislike), conventional wisdom says that there should be an odd number of alternatives. This allows a neutral or no opinion response. Other schools of thought contend that an even number of choices is best because it forces the respondent to get off the fence. This may induce the some inaccuracies for often the respondent may actually have no opinion. However, it is equally arguable that the neutral answer is over utilized, especially by bored questionnaire takers. For larger questionnaires that test opinions on a very large number of items, such as a music test, it may be best to use an even number of choices to prevent large numbers of no-thought neutral answers.Closed format questions offer many advantages in time and money. By restricting the answer set, it is easy to calculate percentages and other hard statistical data over the whole group or over any subgroup of participants. Modern scanners and computers make it possible to administer, tabulate, and perform preliminary analysis in a matter of days. Closed format questions also make it easier to track opinion over time by administering the same questionnaire to different but similar participant groups at regular intervals. Finally closed format questions allow the researcher to filter out useless or extreme answers that might occur in an open format question.Whether your questions are open or closed format, there are several points that must by considered when writing and interpreting questionnaires:1.Clarity: This is probably the area that causes the greatest source of mistakesin questionnaires. Questions must be clear, succinct, and unambiguous. Thegoal is to eliminate the chance that the question will mean different things todifferent people. If the designers fails to do this, then essentially participantswill be answering different questions.To this end, it is best to phrase your questions empirically if possible and to avoid the use of necessary adjectives. For example, it asking a question about frequency, rather than supplying choices that are open to interpretation such as:1.Very Often2.Often3.Sometimes4.Rarely5.NeverIt is better to quantify the choices, such as:6.Every Day or More7.2-6 Times a Week8.About Once a Week9.About Once a Month10.NeverThere are other more subtle aspects to consider such as language and culture.Avoid the use of colloquial or ethnic expressions that might not be equally used by all participants. Technical terms that assume a certain background should also be avoided.2.Leading Questions: A leading question is one that forces or implies a certaintype of answer. It is easy to make this mistake not in the question, but in the choice of answers. A closed format question must supply answers that notonly cover the whole range of responses, but that are also equally distributed throughout the range. All answers should be equally likely. An obvious, nearly comical, example would be a question that supplied these answer choices:1.Superb2.Excellent3.Great4.Good5.Fair6.Not so GreatA less blatant example would be a Yes/No question that asked:7.Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?In this case, even if the participant loved the interface, but had an favorite that was preferred, she would be forced to answer No. Clearly, the negativeresponse covers too wide a range of opinions. A better way would be to ask the same question but supply the following choices:8.Totally Agree9.Partially Agree10.Neither Agree or Disagree11.Partially Disagree12.Totally AgreeThis example is also poor in the way it asks the question. It's choice of words makes it a leading question and a good example for the next section onphrasing.3.Phrasing: Most adjectives, verbs, and nouns in English have either a positiveor negative connotation. Two words may have equivalent meaning, yet one may be a compliment and the other an insult. Consider the two words"child-like" and "childish", which have virtually identical meaning. Child-like is an affectionate term that can be applied to both men and women, and young and old, yet no one wishes to be thought of as childish.In the above example of "Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?"clearly "best" has strong overtones that deny the participant an objectiveenvironment to consider the interface. The signal sent the reader is that the designers surely think it is the best interface, and so should everyone else.Though this may seem like an extreme example, this kind of superlativequestion is common practice.A more subtle, but no less troublesome, example can be made with verbs thathave neither strong negative or positive overtones. Consider the following two questions:1.Do you agree with the Governor's plan to oppose increaseddevelopment of wetlands?2.Do you agree with the Governor's plan to support curtaileddevelopment of wetlands?They both ask the same thing, but will likely produce different data. One asks in a positive way, and the other in a negative. It is impossible to predict how the outcomes will vary, so one method to counter this is to be aware ofdifferent ways to word questions and provide a mix in your questionnaire. Ifthe participant pool is very large, several versions may be prepared anddistributed to cancel out these effects.4.Embarrassing Questions: Embarrassing questions dealing with personal orprivate matters should be avoided. Your data is only as good as the trust and care that your respondents give you. If you make them feel uncomfortable, you will lose their trust. Do not ask embarrassing questions.5.Hypothetical Questions Hypothetical are based, at best, on conjecture and, atworst, on fantasy. I simple question such as:1.If you were governor, what would you do to stop crime?This forces the respondent to give thought to something he may have never considered. This does not produce clear and consistent data representing real opinion. Do not ask hypothetical questions.6.Prestige Bias: Prestige bias is the tendency for respondents to answer in away that make them feel better. People may not lie directly, but may try to puta better light on themselves. For example, it is not uncommon for people torespond to a political opinion poll by saying they support Samaritan social programs, such as food stamps, but then go on to vote for candidates whooppose those very programs. Data from other questions, such as those that ask how long it takes to learn an interface, must be viewed with a little skepticism.People tend to say they are faster learners than they are.There is little that can be done to prevent prestige bias. Sometimes there just is no way to phrase a question so that all the answers are noble. The best means to deal with prestige bias is to make the questionnaire as private as possible.Telephone interviews are better than person-to-person interviews, and written questionnaires mailed to participants are even better still. The farther away the critical eye of the researcher is, the more honest the answers.Now What?Now that you've completed you questionnaire, you are still not ready to send it out. Just like any manufactured product, your questionnaire needs to go through quality testing. The major hurdle in questionnaire design is making it clear and understandable to all. Though you have taken great care to be clear and concise, it is still unreasonable to think that any one person can anticipate all the potential problems. Just as a usability test observes a test user with the actual interface, you must observe a few test questionnaire takers. You will then review the questionnaire with the test takers and discuss all points that were in any way confusing and work together to solve the problems. You will then produce a new questionnaire. It is possible that this step may need to be repeated more than once depending on resources and the need for accuracy.ConclusionsQuestionnaire design is a long process that demands careful attention. A questionnaire is a powerful evaluation tool and should not be taken lightly. Design begins with an understanding of the capabilities of a questionnaire and how they can help your research. If it is determined that a questionnaire is to be used, the greatest care goes into the planning of the objectives. Questionnaires are like any scientific experiment. One does not collect data and then see if they found something interesting. One forms a hypothesis and an experiment that will help prove or disprove the hypothesis.Questionnaires are versatile, allowing the collection of both subjective and objective data through the use of open or closed format questions. Modern computers have only made the task of collecting and extracting valuable material more efficient. However, a questionnaire is only as good as the questions it contains. There are many guidelines that must be met before you questionnaire can be considered a sound research tool. The majority deal with making the questionnaire understandable and free of bias. Mindful review and testing is necessary to weed out minor mistakes that can cause great changes in meaning and interpretation. When these guidelines are followed, the questionnaire becomes a powerful and economic evaluation tool.Sauce: /classes/cs6751_97_winter/Topics/quest-design/。
Questionnaire Design (Research Method)
Ch 11
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Questionnaire Design
• Questionnaire design is a systematic process in which the researcher contemplates various question formats, considers a number of factors characterizing the survey at hand, ultimately words the various questions very carefully, and organizes the questionnaire’s layout.
Ch 11
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Developing Questions
• Marketing research questions measure may include – Attitudes – Beliefs – Intentions – Behaviors – Demographics
Ch 11 10
Words to Avoid in Questionnaire Development
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Questionnaire Configurations Example
Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonald’s hamburgers by coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is. Like very Form: 100 75 much Dislike very much
英语六级听力真题长对话
英语六级听力真题长对话英语六级听力真题（长对话）（通用8篇）随着时间的推移，一年一度的六级考试马上就要到来了。
听力一直是六级考试的难点。
下面是yjbys网店铺提供给大家关于英语六级听力真题(长对话)，供大家参考。
英语六级听力真题长对话篇1Conversation OneM: So how long have you been a Market Research Consultant?W: Well, I started straight after finishing university.M: Did you study market research?W: Yeah, and it really helped me to get into the industry, but I have to say that it's more important to get experience in different types of market research to find out exactly what you're interested in.M: So what are you interested in?W: Well, at the moment, I specialize in quantitative advertising research, which means that I do two types of projects. Trackers, which are ongoing projects that look at trends or customer satisfaction over a long period of time. The only problem with trackers is that it takes up a lot of your time. But you do build up a good relationship with the client. I also do a couple of ad-hoc jobs which are much shorter projects.M: What exactly do you mean by ad-hoc jobs?W: It's basically when companies need quick answers to their questions about their consumers' habits. They just ask for one questionnaire to be sent out for example, so the time you spend on an ad-hoc project tends to be fairly short.M: Which do you prefer, trackers or ad-hoc?W: I like doing both and in fact I need to do both at the sametime to keep me from going crazy. I need the variety.M: Can you just explain what process you go through with a new client?W: Well, together we decide on the methodology and the objectives of the research. I then design a questionnaire. Once the interviewers have been briefed, I send the client a schedule and then they get back to me with deadlines. Once the final charts and tables are ready, I have to check them and organize a presentation.M: Hmm, one last question, what do you like and dislike about your job?W: As I said, variety is important and as for what I don't like, it has to be the checking of charts and tables.Questions 1 to 4 are based on the conversation you have just heard.Q1: What position does the woman hold in the company?Q2: What does the woman specialize in at the moment?Q3: What does the woman say about trackers?Q4: What does the woman dislike about her job?Conversation TwoW: Hello, I'm here with Frederick. Now Fred, you went to university in Canada?M: Yeah, that's right.W: OK, and you have very strong views about universities in Canada. Could you please explain?M: Well, we don't have private universities in Canada. They’re all public. All the universities are owned by the government, so there is the Ministry of Education in charge of creating the curriculum for the universities and so there is not much room for flexibility. Since it's a government operatedinstitution, things don't move very fast. If you want something to be done, then their staff do not have so much incentive to help you because he's a worker for the government. So I don't think it's very efficient. However, there are certain advantages of public universities, such as the fees being free. You don't have to pay for your education. But the system isn't efficient, and it does not work that well.W: Yeah, I can see your point, but in the United States we have many private universities, and I think they are large bureaucracies also. Maybe people don't act that much differently, because it’s the same thing working for a private university. They get paid for their job. I don’t know if they're that much more motivated to help people. Also, we have a problem in the United States that usually only wealthy kids go to the best schools and it's kind of a problem actually.M: I agree with you. I think it's a problem because you're not giving equal access to education to everybody. It’s no t easy, but having only public universities also might not be the best solution. Perhaps we can learn from Japan where they have a system of private and public universities. Now, in Japan, public universities are considered to be the best.W: Right. It's the exact opposite in the United States.M: So, as you see, it's very hard to say which one is better.W: Right, a good point.Questions 5 to 8 are based on the conversation you have just heard.Q5: What does the woman want Frederick to talk about?Q6: What does the man say about the curriculum in Canadian universities?Q7: On what point do the speakers agree?Q8: What point does the man make at the end of the conversation?英语六级听力真题长对话篇2Lecture 1The negative impacts of natural disasters can be seen everywhere. In just the past few weeks, the world has witnessed the destructive powers of earthquakes in Indonesia, typhoons in the Philippines, and the destructive sea waves that struck Samoa and neighboring islands.A study by the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters finds that, between 1980 and 2007, nearly 8,400 natural disasters killed more than two-million people. These catastrophic events caused more than $1.5 trillion in economic losses.U.N. weather expert Geoffrey Love says that is the bad news. "Over the last 50 years, economic losses have increased by a factor of 50. That sounds pretty terrible, but the loss of life has decreased by a factor of 10 simply because we are getting better at warning people. We are making a difference. Extreme events, however, will continue to occur. But, the message is that they may not be disasters."Love, who is director of Weather and Disaster Risk Reduction at the World Meteorological Organization, says most of the deaths and economic losses were caused by weather, climate, or water-related extremes. These include droughts, floods, windstorms, strong tropical winds and wildfires.He says extreme events will continue. But, he says extreme events become disasters only when people fail to prepare for them."Many of the remedies are well-known. From a planning perspective, it is pretty simple. Build better buildings. Don’tbuild where the hazards will destroy them. From an early-warning perspective, make sure the warnings go right down to the community level. Build community action plans. ”The World Meteorological Organization points to Cuba and Bangladesh as examples of countries that have successfully reduced the loss of life caused by natural disasters by taking preventive action.It says tropical cyclones formerly claimed dozens, if not hundreds of lives, each year, in Cuba. But, the development of an early-warning system has reversed that trend. In 2008, Cuba was hit by five successive hurricanes, but only seven people were killed.Bangladesh also has achieved substantial results. Major storm surges in 1970 and 1991 caused the deaths of about 440,000 people. Through careful preparation, the death toll from a super tropical storm in November 2007 was less than 3,500.Q16. What is the talk mainly about?Q17. How can we stop extreme events from turning into events?Q18. What does the example of Cuba serve to show?Lecture 2As U.S. banks recovered with the help of American government and the American taxpayers, president Obama held meetings with top bank execut ives, telling them it’s time to return the favor. “The way I see it are banks now having a greater obligation to the goal of a wide recovery,” he said. But the president may be giving the financial sector too much credit. “It was in a free fall, and it was a very scary period.” Economist Martin Neil Baily said. After the failure of Lehman Brothers, many of the world’s largest banks feared the worst as the collapse ofthe housing bubble exposed in investments in risky loans.Although he says the worst is just over, Bailey says the banking crisis is not. More than 130 US banks failed in 2009. He predicts high failure rates for smaller, regional banks in 2010 as commercial real estate loans come due."So there may actually be a worsening of credit availability to small and medium sized businesses in the next year or so."Analysts say the biggest problem is high unemployment, which weakens demand and makes banks reluctant to lend. But US Bankcorp chief Richard Davis sees the situation differently."We're probably more optimistic than the experts might be.With that in mind, we're putting everything we can, lending is the coal to our engine, so we want to make more loans. We have to find a way to qualify more people and not put ourselves at risk."While some economists predict continued recovery in the future, Baily says the only certainty is that banks are unlikely to make the same mistakes - twice. "You know, forecasting's become a very hazardous business so I don't want to commit myself too much. I don't think we know exactly what's going to happen but it's certainly possible that we could get very slow growth over the next year or two.”If the economy starts to shrink again, Baily says it would make a strong case for a second stimulus -- something the Obama administration hopes will not be necessary.Q19. What dose president Obama hope the banks will do?Q20. What is Martin Neil Baily’s prediction about the financial situation in the future?Q21. What does U.S. Bankcorp chief Richard Davis say about its future operation?Q22. What does Martin Neil Baily think of a second stimulus to the economy?英语六级听力真题长对话篇3Section ADirections: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of eachconversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will bespoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer. from the fourchoices marked A), B),C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with asingle line through the centre.注意：此部分试题请在答题卡1上作答。
如何设计问卷 英文 Questionnaire Design
to be collected from a large number of people in the same way and for data to be analysed quantitatively and systematically. Questionnaires are best used for collecting factual data and appropriate questionnaire design is essential to e.nsure that we obtain
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• Ask for only one piece of information at • a time • For example, “Please rate the lecture in terms
of its content and presentation” asks for two pieces of information at the same time. It should be divided into two parts: “Please rate the lecture in terms of (a) its content, (b) its presentation.”
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• Ask precise questions
• Questions may be ambiguous because a word or term may have a different meaning. For example, if we ask students to rate their interest in “medicine,” this term might mean “general medicine” (as opposed to general surgery) to some, but inclusive of all clinical specialties (as opposed to professions outside medicine) to others.
questionaire design
Example 1: Hypothesis: Using L1 in the process of learning English has a negative effect on students’ learning outcomes but it has a stronger negative effect on adults than children. Independent variable: The use of L1 Moderator variable: Age Dependent variable: Learning outcomes
Control variables控制变量 控制变量
The variables whose effects are neutralized or kept constant are called control variables. The purpose of such control is to cancel out or neutralize any effect the variables might otherwise have on the observed phenomenon. 其常为第二自变量 （如年龄、性别） 如年龄、性别）
应用语言学研究方法 之
问卷设计与实施 Questionnaire Design and Administration
Introduction
Definition of Research Research is “a systematic approach to finding answers to questions” (Hatch and Farhady 1982:1) Three essential elements of research: questions (purpose) a systematic approach (process) answers (product)
QUESTIONNAIRE+DESIGN
QUESTIONNAIREDESIGN1TABLE OF CONTENTPage 1. INTRODUCTION 22 2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-ADMINISTERED STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES3. GETTING STARTED 34. TYPES OF QUESTIONS 55. TYPES OF RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES 86. QUESTION WORDING 107. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT 138. THE STRUCTURE OF A QUESTIONNAIRE 159. ADDITIONAL READING 1510. QUESTIONNAIRE EXAMPLE 171 Adapted by Dr RJ Eiselen and Prof Tina Uys from Eiselen, R., Uys, T., Potgieter, N. (2005). Analysing survey data using SPSS13: A workbook. University of Johannesburg.1. INTRODUCTIONQuestionnaires usually form an integral part of descriptive and opinion-related surveys. Questionnaires can either be in the form of a self-administered questionnaire i.e. where the respondents is requested to complete the questionnaire in his/her own time or in the form of a structured interview, where the interviewer (very often the researcher) writes down the answers of the respondent during a telephone or face-to-face interview.Irrespective of which method is used, the formulation of the questions and the structure of the questionnaire are critical to the success of the survey. This document focuses on the issues involved in the design of a structured questionnaire.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-ADMINISTEREDSTRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRESSelf-administered structured questionnaires, whether disseminated by hand (i.e. delivered at a person’s home or office), by post, (i.e. via snail-mail), via e-mail or the Web, have the following distinct advantages:•They are more cost effective to administer than personal (face-to-face) interviews.•They are relatively easy to administer and analyse•Most people are familiar with the concept of a questionnaire•They reduce the possibility of interviewer bias•They are perceived to be less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys and hence, respondents will more readily respond truthfully to sensitive questions•They are convenient since respondents can complete it at a time and place that is convenient for them.The most important disadvantage of self-administered structured questionnaires that are disseminated by hand, post, e-mail or the Web is that the response rate tends to be low, especially when the questionnaire is too long or is complicated to complete, the subject matter is either not interesting to the respondent or is perceived as being of a sensitive nature. Another disadvantage is that the researcher does not have control over who fills in the questionnaire even though it may be addressed or delivered to the intended participant.3. GETTING STARTEDBefore one starts formulating questions to include in a questionnaire, it is imperative to have clarity about the research question and intended goals. A well defined research question and clearly defined goals for an intended study is the first step towards ensuring that all the relevant questions but only relevant questions are asked: Each question should thus be directly linked to the research question(s) and the intended goals.Therefore, knowing in advance how the response-information is going to be utilised is important. No ‘nice to haves’ should be asked, only ‘need to haves’. The length of the questionnaire is inversely proportional to the response rate. Unnecessary questions should therefore be eliminated. This is especially important with regard to biographical or background questions. Do not ask biographical questions just because everybody else seems to be asking it. If knowing your respondent’s marital status is not going to contribute towards answering the research question, then don’t ask it!It is not necessary to start from scratch with each study you do. It is a good idea to get hold of copies of questionnaires that deal with similar topics or to consult the literature for similar studies that have been conducted. In that way you will avoid re-inventing the wheel.The following steps should be followed when designing a questionnaire:Formulate the research question and research objectives / goals - what do you wish to ascertain?(1) Provide a clear, concise formulation of the researchquestion(s), i.e. what do you wish to ascertain and why?(2) Specify clear and unambiguous goals for the intended study Define the target population – who do you wish to target?(1) Provide a clear, concise and unambiguous formulation of whothe target population is, i.e. who the intended study is aimed at.(2) A clear description of the target population allows theresearcher to ask relevant background questions and toformulate the questions in such a way that it is understood bythe respondents.Formulate the questions in order to answer the research question(s)(1) List ALL the information needed to be able to answer all theresearch question(s)(2) Scrutinise the existing body of knowledge, e.g. availablequestionnaires or articles regarding similar studies in order toselect questions that are relevant for your purposes(3) Adapt and refine the available questions(4) Formulate your own questions where necessary(5) Decide on the appropriate level of measurement for eachquestion(6) Determine the appropriate statistical techniques to be used. Organise the questions(1) Questions should be organised in logical order e.g. backgroundquestions in the same section; opinion-related questionsdealing with the same topic in a separate section, etc.(2) It is often a good idea to start with a question that is non-threatening, yet interesting to the respondent.Consult expertsOnce you have a first draft of the questionnaire:(1) Consult experts in the specific field of study to ascertain theiropinion whether you have addressed all relevant issues andformulated the questions in an understandable andunambiguous way(2) Consult an expert in questionnaire design to assist with theformulation of the questions and the response format.Do a pilot study among a small group of respondents similar to those in the target populationA pilot study is imperative in any study since it(1) Enables the researcher to identify and rectify problems prior tothe survey being conducted.(2) Provides an indication of the response rate that can beexpected.Adhere to ethical standardsThe rights of respondents as human beings should be respected at all times (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2004). This implies that(1) The decision to take part in a survey (by completing thequestionnaire) remains the choice of the respondent(2) A respondent should be given the option to withdraw from thestudy at any time(3) A respondent cannot be coerced into providing information,especially not information that may be perceived as sensitive orincriminating(3) Respondents should be given the assurance that theirresponses will remain anonymous and that the information theyprovide will be treated as confidential at all times4. TYPES OF QUESTIONSThe types of questions to be asked are directly related to the information the researcher requires. A questionnaire usually consists of a combination of the following types of questions:Factual and opinion-related questionsFactual questionsFactual questions mostly relate to facts about a respondent’s demography, habits or hobbies but can also test a respondent’s knowledge on a particular subject.Example:Can you contract HIV and AIDS by having sex with multiple partners without using a condom?Care should be taken to phrase factual questions in such a way that it does not require complicated calculationsExample:How much money did you spend on clothes last year?Remember that respondents are notoriously unreliable about issues such as income. It is therefore better to ask income categories rather than exact income.The questions in section A of the Example questionnaire are factual questionsOpinion-related questionsOpinion-related questions refer to questions that reveal respondents’ attitudes or perceptions or their perception of the frequency of a particular behaviour. The questions in section C of the example questionnaire are opinion-related questionsOne should avoid asking respondents to provide information about someone else’s opinions.Example: Are your male colleagues sexist?It is often a good idea to assess the respondent’s knowledge about an issue before asking him/her to express an opinion as people often base their opinions on inaccurate factual knowledge (Neuman 2001).Threatening or sensitive and non-threatening or non-sensitive questionsThreatening or sensitive questions relate to sexual behaviour, illegal activities, mental health, alcohol and drug use, deviant behaviour or controversial public issues. These questions should preferably be avoided as it tends to have a negative impact on response rate and, in addition, respondents tend to give socially acceptable answers tothese rather than the true answer (Cohen, et al. 2004). If you cannot avoid asking a question that may be perceived as threatening or sensitive, position the question towards the end of the questionnaire.Question 16 (section B) of the example questionnaire may be perceived as a sensitive question as people do not like to acknowledge that they are addicts or that drinking coffee is an addiction.Open-ended versus closed questionsOpen questionsWith open-ended questions, no pre-coded answers, i.e. response categories are provided. These questions are particularly useful when it is important to avoid influencing respondents by providing a list of possible answers to choose from, for example, reasons for a particular behaviour or an opinion.Open-ended questions have certain disadvantages:•Open questions can only be coded after the survey has been conducted and are thus time-consuming.•An open question often yields unusable information due to the fact that the respondent does not understand the question.•The respondent should have the necessary skills to record his/her own response, i.e. the respondent should be able to write down aresponse. Semi-literate respondents or those who have difficultyexpressing their thoughts and ideas, often avoid answering openquestions.Open-ended questions should therefore be used circumspectly and only when absolutely necessary.Question 31 (Section C) in the example questionnaire is an open-ended question.Closed questionsClosed questions are often referred to as multiple-choice questions.Response categories are provided and respondents only need toselect a particular answer or answers. These are especially useful to indicate the level of detail one expects the respondent to provide.Example: When one asks about religious affiliation for example, the response categories can be broad categories such as Christian,Hindu, Jewish, Muslim etc. or they can indicate particular groupings within the various religions such as Protestant, Catholic, etc. Theextent of detail required is then clear from the response alternatives provided.When formulating closed questions keep the following in mind:•Each question should contain clear instructions as to how to fill it in, i.e. tell the respondent when the question requires only oneanswer and when more than one answer may be given.•Make sure that all possible answers /alternatives are provided, i.e the response alternatives should be exhaustive. Use other (please specify) if you are not sure.•If only one answer / alternative is to be marked, the alternatives should not overlap, i.e. the alternatives should be mutuallyexclusive.•If the possibility exists that a question does not apply to a respondent, include Not Applicable as one of the alternatives.All of the questions in the example questionnaire, except question 31 (Section C) are closed questionsSkip, branching or contingency questionsThis kind of question is used when a set of questions is only applicable to a subgroup of respondents.Example: Do you smoke cigarettes? YES / NO.If yes, how many cigarettes do you smoke on average perday?Less than 10 10-19 20-39 40 or moreIf no, please proceed to question 6Branching questions should be used with care as respondents (and sometimes researchers!) can easily get confused, which may result in a loss of information. It is therefore essential to give clear, unambiguous instructions.Question 8 (Section B) in the example questionnaire is an example of a skip or branching question.5. TYPES OF RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES (RESPONSECATEGORIES)•Yes/No answersThese answer categories are usually provided with factual questions.Example:Do you smoke cigarettes? YES NOQuestion 8 (Section B) is an example of a Yes/No question.•Extent of agreement, level of importance or frequency of behaviourQuestions 10 to 11 (Section B) in the example questionnaire are examples of frequency of behaviour questions; question 15 (SectionB) is an example of a level of importance question and questions 17 to30 (Section C) are examples of extent of agreement questions.Examples:To what extent do you agree with the following statement?Capital punishment should be re-instated in South AfricaStrongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stronglydisagree5 4 3 2 1How often do you participate in the activities of your group of friends?Always Often Sometimes Seldom Never5 4 3 2 1This response format is commonly known as the Likert scale or format. There are a number of issues that need to be considered with regard to this response format.o Number of response categories:Researchers do not agree about the number of categories that should be provided. This can vary from three, four to nine or even ten categories. It is important to consider how ‘finely’ you want respondents to express their views. It is often argued that more than seven categories only confuse respondents and hence yield unreliable responses.o Odd or even number of categories: The decision whether to use an odd or an even number of categories is related to whether to include a middle or neutral category. Not includinga neutral option may mean that you force your respondents totake a stance on an issue about which they feel neutral. On the other hand, providing a neutral option may lead to some respondents choosing the neutral position even though they dohave an opinion on the issue. There is no clear-cut solution tothis problem. It is important, however, to place the neutralposition in the middle, as respondents seem to be more likely tochoose categories towards the end of a scale (Neuman 2001:263).o Non-attitudes: Researchers do not agree about whether respondents should be given the opportunity to indicate thatthey do not have a view on a particular issue, by providingoptions like ‘don’t know’. ‘unsure’ or ‘no opinion’. Those againstare afraid that respondents will choose the ‘no opinion’ optionto avoid having to make a choice. On the other hand, notproviding the option could mean that respondents are forced toexpress an opinion when they don’t actually have one (Neuman2001: 262). It is important to remember that being neutral isnot the same as not having an opinion.o Description for each category:Researchers also debate whether one should provide a description for each category orwhether only the two extreme positions should be named.Those who take the latter position believe that it creates animpression of equal intervals in the minds of the respondentsand is therefore to be preferred.• Rankings or ratingsRespondents are sometimes asked to rank various options in order of importance.Example:Arrange the following six issues in order of the importance they have in your life by allocating a 1 to the most important issue, a 2 to the second-most important and continue in this way until you allocate a 6 to the least important issue. Use each number only once.Economic situationLiving conditions in your communityEducational facilitiesProvision of social servicesParticipation in decision makingHuman dignityQuestion 9 (Section B) of the example questionnaire is an example of a ranking question.Ranking questions should be used with extreme care. Respondents seem to find it difficult to rank more than six options. Even highly educated respondents sometimes misunderstand a question like this and would allocate the same rank to more than one option, especially if there are a large number of options. Therefore it should only be used when absolutely necessary.6. QUESTION WORDINGThe wording of every question is of the utmost importance. A ‘good’ question should satisfy EACH of the following criteria:•The question should be short, simple and to the pointThis implies, amongst others, that double-barrelled questions, i.e. a single question addressing more than one issue, should be avoided.Example of a double-barrelled questionDo you believe employment equity training should be linked to the availability of present posts and future vacancies as a result of natural attrition at your company?A short and simple question should not contain jargon, slang orabbreviations.•The question should be clear and unambiguousThere should be no room for misunderstanding on the part of the respondent as to the meaning of the question. The researcher should also understand the answer in the way meant by the respondent.Example of an ambiguous questionHow many family members do you have?The word family means different things to different people.•The question should have a clear instructionExample of a question without a clear instructionThe following question does not contain a clear instruction as to how to answer it:What brand of computer (PC) do you own?Dell 1Mecer 2Apple 3Other (please specify) 4The respondent is not told whether only one or more than one option should be marked. There are other problems with this question – can you see what they are?•The question should not contain double negativesThis occurs when respondents are asked whether they agree or disagree with a negative statement. If they disagree with the statement they are expressing a double negative because they disagree with not doing or believing something.Example of a double-negative question:Do you agree or disagree with the following statement:I do not feel threatened by the employment equity process at my company•Respondents should be asked to express opinions about their own views, not what they think somebody else thinks. Researchers sometimes draw conclusions about the views of respondents when they were asked to express an opinion about someone else’s views. This only results in unreliable and incorrect information. Therefore conclusions cannot be drawn about other people’s views on the basis of what a respondent believe these views are.Example of a question where the views of others are required :Do you think men are more positive about women’s abilities as equals than was the case in the past?•The question should be phrased neutrallyQuestions that contain value-judgements or give the respondent an indication of what the socially desirable answer is are called leading questions. These should be avoided as respondents have a tendency to give researchers the answers they think the researchers expects. Example of a leading questionHas your company acted in a responsible manner by implementing an HIV/AIDS policy?•The question should not contain emotional languageOne should avoid using words with emotional connotations when formulating a question, as respondents would tend to react to the emotional connotation rather than the issue.Example of an emotive questionUnder what circumstances would you agree to murdering babies by allowing the mother to have an abortion?•The question should not make the respondent feel guiltyIf respondents feel that they are implicating themselves by answering a question truthfully, they will tend to lie.Example of a question that may make a respondent feel quiltyHow often have you cheated on your tax returns in the past five years?•The question should not have prestige biasIf a particular opinion is linked to a person with high status in the community it influences the respondent’s reply. If respondents respect the high-status person they will tend to assume that s/he must be right and will reply accordingly.ExamplePresident Mbeki believes that HIV does not cause AIDS. Do you agree?•The question should accommodate all possible answersThe response alternatives should be exhaustive. If one is unsure whether all possibilities have been provided, it is important to include an option stating Other (please specify). If a substantial number of respondents choose a particular alternative, this can then be coded after the questionnaires are received back.ExampleWhat is your religious affiliation?Christian 1Hindu 2Jewish 3What should respondents who are Muslim or do not have a religious affiliation reply here?•The response alternatives should be mutually exclusive Response categories should not overlap or be unbalanced. Only one response alternative should be applicable to a particular respondent. Example of a question where the response alternatives are NOT mutually exclusiveWhat is your age group in full years?’18-25 125-35 235-45 345 or older 4A person who is 25 years old can mark more than one options.•The question should not make assumptionsA question should not begin with a premise and then ask questions based on the premise.Example of a question where an assumption is madeAre you satisfied with your current short-term insurance? Yes/NoThe assumption here is that all the respondents have short-term insurance.•The question should not ask about hypothetical situationsRespondents tend to answer explicit, tangible questions about topics that relate to their experience much more reliably than abstract hypothetical questions. The latter type of question expects of respondents to consider what they would do or think should they find themselves in a hypothetical situation. The majority of respondents find this very difficult to do.Example of a hypothetical questionWhat would you do if your 15-year old daughter fell pregnant?•The question should be asked on the highest level of measurement that would still make sense.This criterion will be discussed in the next section.7. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTNumbers have four characteristics that can be used to measure variables on different levels. The first is a distinction between different mutually exclusive categories, secondly their rank, thirdly equal intervals between successive numbers and fourthly the existence of an absolute zero value. These characteristics form a hierarchy that means that later characteristics include the earlier ones. The presence of one or more of these characteristics indicates a particular level of measurement of a variable.•Nominal measurementsWe talk about nominal measurement if people can be divided into different mutually exclusive categories according to this measurement.The people in a particular category are then similar according to the characteristic that is measured and differ from those who are placed in another category. Each person belongs to one category only. Although a number is allocated to each category such as, for example, 1 for female and 2 for male, these numbers are only used to distinguish between the categories and we could just as well use a letter. Examples of nominal measurements in our study are gender, where students live (type of residence), which faculty they belong to and whether they are contemplating leaving South Africa.•Ordinal measurementsApart from categorising people, ordinal level measurements have the additional characteristic that the various categories can be arranged in an order from low to high. Each category, therefore, has more of the relevant characteristic than the one preceding it. Examples of ordinal measurements in our example are year of study as well as the extent towhich students feel that crime has increased over the past five years and the extent to which they feel safe in South Africa. In fact, questions 17 to30 in the example questionnaire are examples of ordinal measurements.They are often referred to as Likert scale items (named after the person who created this type of measurement.•Interval measurementsWith interval measurements there are equal intervals between the different categories. Numbers are allocated in such a way that the distance between the numbers corresponds to the difference in the degree to which the characteristic is present. In addition to the fact that we can distinguish between the measurements and the ranking of the measurements, interval measurements also have the characteristic of equal intervals. Examples of interval measurements are IQ or temperature. If, for example, a person has an IQ of 150 and another has an IQ of 75, one can only say that there is a 75-point difference between their IQ levels. One cannot say that the one student is twice as intelligent as the other. This illustrates the fact that distances are assumed equal but, because there is no absolute zero level, relative comparisons cannot be made.•Ratio measurementsRatio measurement has the same characteristics as interval measurement, with the added characteristic of having an absolute zero value. In this case, the amount indicated by the numbers corresponds to the amount of the particular variable that is present. An absolute zero value means that the 0 represents the total absence of the variable.Examples of ratio measurements are income, family size and age.Differences can be calculated and relative comparisons can be made for ratio measurements. For example, a person of age 60 is three times older and is 40 years older than a person who is 20 years old.It is important to know on what level a measurement is because the measurement level determines the statistical techniques that may be used in analyses. A wide variety of techniques are available on the higher measurement levels (interval and ratio) while the types of statistical techniques on the lower measurement levels are more limited. In general, the same statistical techniques may be used for interval and ratio measurements. We therefore often talk about interval-ratio, numerical, continuous or metric data.Variables should preferably be conceptualised and measured on the highest possible measurement level that would still make sense. If, for example, one knows what the actual ages of respondents are (ratio level), it is possible to re-assign them to age categories (younger than 18, 19-25, 26-35, 36-45, etc.), but if you only know the age category to which respondents belong, there is no way to establish the respondents’ exact ages. This would restrict the number of statistical techniques available.8. THE STRUCTURE OF A QUESTIONNAIREQuestion order•Questions should be grouped in logical groups that relate to a particular topic.• A questionnaire should be viewed as a conversation and hence should have a certain logical order. It is therefore important to exhaust a particular topic before the next one is introduced.•The more general questions about a particular topic should be asked first, followed by the more specific questions thereby creating a funnel effect.•Questions dealing with biographical information are usually placed at the beginning of a questionnaire, since they deal with factual information and are generally perceived to be non-threatening.•Transitions between questions should be smooth.•One should avoid structuring the questionnaire in such a way thata response pattern develops where respondents answer all thequestions in a particular way without reading the questions properly.Length of the questionnaire•Response rate is often inversely proportional to the length of the questionnaire, i.e. the longer the questionnaire the lower the response rate tends to be•The length of a questionnaire depends on the survey format and the characteristics of the respondents.•As a rule of thumb, it should take no longer than30-45 MINUTES to complete a face-to-face (personal) interview, 15-20MINUTES to complete a self-administered questionnaire and 5-8 minutes to complete a telephone interview.Format and layoutThe following should be taken into account as far as the physical appearance of the questionnaire is concerned.•The font size should not be too small. Choose a style that is easy to read, such as Arial 11 or 12.•The layout should not be cramped to avoid respondents missing a question.•With regard to paper size, A4 or A5 is preferable.•If the questionnaire is printed on both sides of the page to avoid costs, it should be crammed to read like a book. If it is crammed in the upper left-hand corner there is a danger that respondentsmight miss the questions on the back page.。
Questionnaire Design
Questionnaire DesignQuestionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users.It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms of design time and interpretation.The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include:1.Defining the Objectives of the survey2.Determining the Sampling Group3.Writing the Questionnaire4.Administering the Questionnaire5.Interpretation of the ResultsThis document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire. Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires.What can questionnaires measure?Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs.Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative.When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires are inexpensive to administer. This loss of control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent. Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if a group of participants are asked on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software, it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general, questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user satisfaction, of the system or interface in question.Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy" and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general, we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation.When to use a questionnaire?There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following circumstances.1.When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quite inexpensive toadminister. Although preparation may be costly, any data collection scheme will have similar preparation expenses. The administration cost per person of a questionnaire can be as low as postage and a few photocopies. Time is also an important resource that questionnaires can maximize. If a questionnaire is self-administering, such as a e-mail questionnaire, potentially several thousand people could respond in a few days. It would be impossible to get a similar number of usability tests completed in the same short time.2.When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants. Questionnaires areeasy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behavior.3.When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursue other datacollection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmation tools. More costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionally there will not be resources to run these other tests on large enough participant groups to make the results statistically significant. Afollow-up large scale questionnaire may be necessary to corroborate these earlier results. I. Defining the Objectives of the SurveyThe importance of well-defined objectives can not be over emphasized. A questionnaire that is written without a clear goal and purpose is inevitably going to overlook important issues and waste participants' time by asking useless questions. The questionnaire may lack a logical flow and thereby cause the participant to lose interest. Consequential, what useful data you may have collected could be further compromised. The problems of a poorly defined questionnaire do not end here, but continue on to the analysis stage. It is difficult to imagine identifying a problem and its cause, let alone its solution, from responses to broad and generalizing questions. In other words, how would it be possible to reach insightful conclusions if one didn't actually know what they had been looking for or planning to observe.A objective such as "to identify points of user dissatisfaction with the interface and how these negatively affect the software's performance" may sound clear and to the point, but it is not. The questionnaire designer must clarify what is meant by user dissatisfaction. Is this dissatisfaction with the learning of the software, the power of the software, of the ease of learning the software? Is it important for the users to learn the software quickly if they learn it well? What is meant by the software's performance? How accurate must the measurements be? All of these issues must be narrowed and focused before a single question is formulated. A good rule of thumb is that if you are finding it difficult to write the questions, then you haven't spent enough time defining the objectives of the questionnaire. Go back and do this step again. The questions should follow quite naturally from the objectives.II. Writing the QuestionnaireAt this point, we assume that we have already decided what kind of data we are to measure, formulated the objectives of the investigation, and decided on a participant group. Now we must compose our questions.If the preceding steps have been faithfully executed, most of the questions will be on obvious topics. Most questionnaires, however, also gather demographic data on the participants. This is used to correlate response sets between different groups of people. It is important to see whether responses are consistent across groups. For example, if one group of participants is noticeably less satisfied with the test interface, it is likely that the interface was designed without fair consideration of this group's specific needs. This may signify the need for fundamental redesign of the interface. In addition, certain questions simply may only be applicable to certain kinds of users. For example, if one is asking the participants whether they find the new tutorial helpful, we do not want to include in our final tally the responses of experienced users who learned the system with an older tutorial. There is no accurate way to filter out these responses without simply asking the users when they learned the interface.Typically, demographic data is collected at the beginning of the questionnaire, but such questions could be located anywhere or even scattered throughout the questionnaire. One obvious argument in favor of the beginning of the questionnaire is that normally background questions are easier to answer and can ease the respondent into the questionnaire. One does not want to put off the participant by jumping in to the most difficult questions. We are all familiar with such kinds of questions.It is important to ask only those background questions that are necessary. Do not ask income of the respondent unless there is at least some rational for suspecting a variance across income levels. There is often only a fine line between background and personal information. You do not want to cross over in to the personal realm unless absolutely necessary. If you need to solicit personal information, phrase your questions as unobtrusively as possible to avoid ruffling your participants and causing them to answer less than truthfully.What kind of questions do we ask?In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses. Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader, for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible. Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent. Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent increases.Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy for the respondent, giveThere is no clear consensus on the number of options that should be given in an closed format question. Obviously, there needs to be sufficient choices to fully cover the range of answers but not so many that the distinction between them becomes blurred. Usually this translates into five to ten possible answers per questions. For questions that measure a single variable or opinion, such as ease of use or liability, over a complete range (easy to difficult, like to dislike), conventional wisdom says that there should be an odd number of alternatives. This allows a neutral or no opinion response. Other schools of thought contend that an even number of choices is best because it forces the respondent to get off the fence. This may induce the some inaccuracies for often the respondent may actually have no opinion. However, it is equally arguable that the neutral answer is over utilized, especially by bored questionnaire takers. For larger questionnaires that test opinions on a very large number of items, such as a music test, it may be best to use an even number of choices to prevent large numbers of no-thought neutral answers.Closed format questions offer many advantages in time and money. By restricting the answer set, it is easy to calculate percentages and other hard statistical data over the whole group or over any subgroup of participants. Modern scanners and computers make it possible to administer, tabulate, and perform preliminary analysis in a matter of days. Closed format questions also make it easier to track opinion over time by administering the same questionnaire to different but similar participant groups at regular intervals. Finally closed format questions allow the researcher to filter out useless or extreme answers that might occur in an open format question.Whether your questions are open or closed format, there are several points that must by considered when writing and interpreting questionnaires:1.Clarity: This is probably the area that causes the greatest source of mistakes inquestionnaires. Questions must be clear, succinct, and unambiguous. The goal is to eliminatethe chance that the question will mean different things to different people. If the designers fails to do this, then essentially participants will be answering different questions.To this end, it is best to phrase your questions empirically if possible and to avoid the use of necessary adjectives. For example, it asking a question about frequency, rather thansupplying choices that are open to interpretation such as:1.Very Often2.Often3.Sometimes4.Rarely5.NeverIt is better to quantify the choices, such as:6.Every Day or More7.2-6 Times a Week8.About Once a Week9.About Once a Month10.NeverThere are other more subtle aspects to consider such as language and culture. Avoid the use of colloquial or ethnic expressions that might not be equally used by all participants. Technical terms that assume a certain background should also be avoided.Leading Questions: A leading question is one that forces or implies a certain type of answer. It is easy to make this mistake not in the question, but in the choice of answers. A closed format question must supply answers that not only cover the whole range of responses, but that are also equally distributed throughout the range. All answers should be equallylikely. An obvious, nearly comical, example would be a question that supplied these answer choices:1.Superb2.Excellent3.Great4.Good5.Fair6.Not so GreatA less blatant example would be a Yes/No question that asked:7.Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?In this case, even if the participant loved the interface, but had an favorite that was preferred, she would be forced to answer No. Clearly, the negative response covers too wide a range of opinions. A better way would be to ask the same question but supply the following choices:8.Totally Agree9.Partially Agree10.Neither Agree or Disagree11.Partially Disagree12.Totally AgreeThis example is also poor in the way it asks the question. It's choice of words makes it a leading question and a good example for the next section on phrasing.∙Phrasing: Most adjectives, verbs, and nouns in English have either a positive or negative connotation. Two words may have equivalent meaning, yet one may be a compliment and the other an insult. Consider the two words "child-like" and "childish", which have virtually identical meaning. Child-like is an affectionate term that can be applied to both men and women, and young and old, yet no one wishes to be thought of as childish.In the above example of "Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?" clearly "best"has strong overtones that deny the participant an objective environment to consider theinterface. The signal sent the reader is that the designers surely think it is the best interface, and so should everyone else. Though this may seem like an extreme example, this kind of superlative question is common practice.A more subtle, but no less troublesome, example can be made with verbs that have neitherstrong negative or positive overtones. Consider the following two questions:1.Do you agree with the Governor's plan to oppose increased development ofwetlands?2.Do you agree with the Governor's plan to support curtailed development ofwetlands?They both ask the same thing, but will likely produce different data. One asks in a positive way, and the other in a negative. It is impossible to predict how the outcomes will vary, so one method to counter this is to be aware of different ways to word questions and provide a mix in your questionnaire. If the participant pool is very large, several versions may beprepared and distributed to cancel out these effects.∙Embarrassing Questions: Embarrassing questions dealing with personal or private matters should be avoided. Your data is only as good as the trust and care that yourrespondents give you. If you make them feel uncomfortable, you will lose their trust. Do not ask embarrassing questions.∙Hypothetical Questions Hypothetical are based, at best, on conjecture and, at worst, on fantasy. I simple question such as:1.If you were governor, what would you do to stop crime?This forces the respondent to give thought to something he may have never considered. This does not produce clear and consistent data representing real opinion. Do not ask hypothetical questions.∙Prestige Bias: Prestige bias is the tendency for respondents to answer in a way that make them feel better. People may not lie directly, but may try to put a better light on themselves.For example, it is not uncommon for people to respond to a political opinion poll by sayingthey support Samaritan social programs, such as food stamps, but then go on to vote forcandidates who oppose those very programs. Data from other questions, such as those that ask how long it takes to learn an interface, must be viewed with a little skepticism. People tend to say they are faster learners than they are.There is little that can be done to prevent prestige bias. Sometimes there just is no way to phrase a question so that all the answers are noble. The best means to deal with prestige bias is to make the questionnaire as private as possible. Telephone interviews are better thanperson-to-person interviews, and written questionnaires mailed to participants are even better still. The farther away the critical eye of the researcher is, the more honest the answers.making the questionnaire understandable and free of bias. Mindful review and testing is necessary to weed out minor mistakes that can cause great changes in meaning and interpretation. When these guidelines are followed, the questionnaire becomes a powerful and economic evaluation tool.。
工作特征量表中文版
Work Design Questionnaire(工作设计调查问卷——Morgeson&Humphrey)Autonomy(自主性)Work Scheduling Autonomy（工作调度自主性）1.The job allows me to make my own decisions about how to schedule my work.这项工作能让我自主决定工作安排。
2.The job allows me to decide on the order in which things are done on the job.这项工作可使我决定工作中要做的事情的次序。
3.The job allows me to plan how I do my work.这项工作可使我计划如何工作。
Decision-Making Autonomy(决策的自主性)1.The job gives me a chance to use my personal initiative or judgment in carrying out the work. 这项工作给了我一个在完成工作中使用个人自主性和判断力的机会。
2.The job allows me to make a lot of decisions on my own.这项工作可使我自己做很多决定。
3.The job provides me with significant autonomy in making decisions.在决策时，这项工作给了我极大的自主性。
Work Methods Autonomy（工作方法的自主性）1.The job allows me to make decisions about what methods I use to complete my work.这项工作可使我决定用什么方法来完成这项工作。
2.The job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do the work.这项工作给了我很大的关于如何做这项工作的独立性和自由。
Questionnaire-DesignPPT课件
答案的设计方法（1）
二项选择法
二项选择法也称真伪法或二分法，是指提出的问题仅有两种答案可以选择。“是” 或“否”，“有”或“无”等。 如，“您家里现在有吸尘器吗?”
易于理解和可迅速得到明确的答案，便于统计处理及分析；但难以反映被调查者意 见与程度的差别，了解的情况也不够深入。这种方法，适用于互相排斥的两项择一 式问题，及询问较为简单的事实性问题。
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问卷应该具备的功能
成功的问卷设计应该具备三个功能：
能将所要调查的问题明确地传达给被调查者； 能够取得对方合作，并取得真实、准确的答案； 问卷应该具有一些自我检测的功能。帮助确定被访者回答的认真程度。
在实际调查中，由于被调查者的个人特征差异（教育水准、理解能力、 道德标准、宗教信仰、生活习惯、职业和家庭背景等），调查者的专业 知识与技能高低，会给调查带来困难，并影响调查的结果。
士与国家广告管理机关、广告用户和经营者等各方的沟通和交流，进一步 加强和改善广告监督管理工作，促进广告业的健康发展。本次问卷调查并 非知识性测验，只要求您根据自己的实际态度选答，不必进行讨论。根据 统计法的有关规定，对您个人情况实行严格保密。”
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被访者基本情况及主题内容
被调查者基本情况：
如消费者的性别、年龄、民族、家庭情况、婚姻状况、文化程度，职 业、单位、收入、所在地区等等。
动机性问题、态度性问题
动机性问题是为了解被调查者行为的原因或动机问题。例如，“为什么购某物?为 什么做某事？”等。在提动机性问题时，应注意人们的行为是有意识动机，也可以 是半意识动机或无意识动机产生的。
态度性问题是关于对回答者的态度、评价、意见等问题。例如：“您是否喜欢XX 牌子的自行车?”
在实际调查中，以上各种类型的问题往往是结合使用的。
问卷法Questionnaireppt教学课堂
实用内容
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4. The design of questionnaire
4.1 Criteria for a good questionnaire:
(1) Having high internal validity
By saying a questionnaire should have high internal validity means that items in the questionnaire must measure the variables you really want to investigate. But some researchers might fail to meet the criteria because of lack of skills or experience. Actually, having low internal validity is a common flaw occurring in a questionnaire constructed by a novice researcher
data. (4) Deciding on the content of individual item. (5) Choosing questions structure. (6) Determining the order of questions. (7) Deciding the format of the questionnaire. (8) Conducting a pilot study to test the questionnaire.
实用内容
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(2) Specifying what kind of data you intend to collect.
大学生网约车持续使用意愿分析
Finally, the conclusion of difference analysis and structural equation analysis is summarized, and then management Suggestions are proimpact, perceived convenience, perceived safety, perceived price and habit.
然后，对大学生网约车持续使用意愿进行实证分析。对样本的人口统计特 征和观测变量进行描述性统计分析，对影响持续使用意愿的因素与人口统计特 征进行差异性分析，然后对量表进行信度分析、效度分析和相关性分析。并对 构建的大学生网约车持续使用意愿的结构模型进行验证。通过分析发现，对大 学生网约车持续使用意愿显著正向影响最大的因素为感知便利性，其次是感知 价格和感知安全，社会影响和习惯也对大学生网约车持续使用意愿有显著正向 影响。得到各因素对大学生持续使用网约车意愿的影响程度，为后续对网约车 的管理提供理论支持。
大学生的“隐私悖论”——信任、边界管理与网络素养的权衡
中文摘要自进入网络时代，隐私关注与在线自我表露就成为各界研讨焦点，尤其两者之间矛盾，即“隐私悖论”是否必然存在广受国内外学者热议。
据此，利用Citespace 软件对以往研究热点进行回顾反思，并引出研究问题：广州大学生微信用户有无存在“隐私悖论”现象？信任度、网络素养、边界管理等变量如何作用于隐私关注与自我表露？针对研究问题，紧扣自我表露、信任度、网络素养三大面向，设计测量指标体系，创新性将自我表露细化为深度、广度、持久度三大指标，将信任度细化为网络人际信任、社交媒体信任，将网络素养细化为“接近”“分析”“评价”“内容生产”，依次展开问卷设计、发放问卷、数据整理分析。
经SPSS 量化分析发现，广州大学生整体上关注隐私意愿较为强烈，与自我表露具有正向相关性，“隐私悖论”现象存在；网络素养中“内容生产”维度、网络人际信任、边界管理是造成“隐私悖论”的重要变量。
同时，当前存在着网络平台隐私保护措施不足、大学生网络素养不高、社会隐私保护意识薄弱等问题，应当建立健全微信边界协商机制、提升用户网络隐私素养、营造浓厚隐私文化氛围，进一步提升大学生隐私保护水平。
关键词：隐私悖论隐私关注微信大学生用户AbstractSince entering the Internet era, privacy concerns and online self-disclosure have become the focus of discussion in all circles. In particular, whether the contradiction between them, namely the "privacy paradox", is inevitable has been widely discussed by scholars at home and abroad. In this study, Citespace software was used to review and reflect on previous research hotspots, and based on this, the research question was raised: is there a "privacy paradox" among WeChat users of guangzhou university students? How do trust, network literacy, boundary management and other variables affect privacy concerns and self-disclosure? According to the research question, the paper closely self-disclosure and trust, network literacy, oriented design measurement index system of innovative self-disclosure refining into depth, breadth and durability of three indicators, will refine trust for trust network interpersonal trust, social media, the network literacy into "close" to "analysis" "content", "evaluate", in turn, questionnaire design, questionnaire and data analysis. Through the quantitative analysis of SPSS, it is found that college students in Guangzhou pay more attention to privacy on the whole, which is positively correlated with self-disclosure. The phenomenon of "privacy paradox" is established. The dimension of "content production", network interpersonal trust and boundary management are the important variables that cause the "privacy paradox" in network literacy. At the same time, there are problems such as insufficient privacy protection measures on the network platform, low online literacy of college students, and weak awareness of social privacy protection. Therefore, WeChat boundary negotiation mechanism should be established and improved to improve users' online privacy literacy and create a strong privacy culture atmosphere, so as to further improve the level of privacy protection for college students.Key Words：privacy paradox privacy concerns WeChat college users目录中文摘要 (I)Abstract (II)目录 (III)1绪论 (1)1.1选题背景 (1)1.2研究意义 (2)1.3文献综述 (4)1.4研究内容及方法 (12)2核心概念及理论基础 (14)2.1核心概念 (14)2.2理论基础 (18)3研究设计 (23)3.1研究问题与假设 (23)3.2量表选择 (26)3.3研究理论模型 (30)3.4问卷设计与数据收集 (30)3.5数据分析工具与方法 (32)4数据分析与结果解释 (33)4.1量表的信度与效度分析 (33)4.2基本信息与隐私披露、保护情况的频数分析 (34)4.3影响因素的描述性统计分析 (37)4.4影响因素的相关性分析 (45)4.5影响因素的回归性分析 (46)4.6检验结果及其分析 (48)5讨论与对策 (52)5.1讨论 (52)5.2对策建议 (53)5.3研究创新点及研究局限 (55)5.4研究展望 (57)注释 (58)参考文献 (62)附录 (66)在校期间发表论文清单 (71)致谢 (72)1绪论1.1选题背景信息科技蓬勃发展背后正急速扩大隐私泄露的可能性与空间。
数据收集工具：如何选择和使用说明书
7The right tools for the job: data gathering7Do ing theres ear chChapter T able of ContentsTools and methodsBe creativeData-gathering tools mainly for use with wordsData-gathering tools – for use with words and/or numbersGathering image-based dataData-gathering tools – mainly for use with numbersThis chapter will help you figure out how to . . .••Gather data that uses mainly words (interviews, accounts, diaries, group interviews, focus groups, document interrogation)••Gather data that uses words and/or numbers (questionnaires, observation, image-based methods)••Gather data that mainly uses numbers (tests, official statistics, other numerical data)For extra help, check out these other resources:Interviews and accountsBarbour, R. and Schostak, J. (2011) Interviewing and focus groups. In B. Somekh and C. Lewin (eds), Theory and Methods in Social Research (2nd edn.). London: Sage. A brief but useful account.Gouseti, A. (2014) Digital Technologies for School Collaboration. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Mainly about the use of digital technology in schools but with some good ideas for everybody.ESOMAR (2011) ESOMAR guideline on social media research. Amsterdam: ESOMAR. Available at https:// /uploads/public/knowledge-and-standards/codes-and-guidelines/ESOMARGuideline-on-Social-Media-Research.pdf (accessed 23 November 2016). From the world organisation for market research, this useful guideline covers the collection of social media data and has especially useful information on ethics.INVOLVE (2014) Guidance on the use of social media to actively involve people in research.Eastleigh: INVOLVE. Available at: /wp-content/ uploads/2014/11/9982-Social-Media-Guide-WEB.pdf (accessed 15 October 2016). This gives examples and discussion of the use of social media to gather data and involve research participants. Good advice is also proffered on ethics and social media.Jones, C. (2011) Ethical issues in online research. British Educational Research Association. Available at: https:///researchers-resources/publications/ethical-issues-in-online-research (accessed16 October 2016). Particularly useful on issues of anonymity, confidentiality and consent in online research.DiariesAltricher, H. and Holly, M. (2011) Research diaries. In B. Somekh and C. Lewin (eds), Theory and Methods in Social Research (2nd edn.) London: Sage. Short and to the point.Bolger, N., Davis, A. and Rafaeli, P. (2003) Diary methods: capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579–616. This is a thoroughgoing academic review. All the information you would ever want on diaries, and more.Corti, L. (1993) Using diaries in social research. Social Research Update, 2. Available at http:// sru.soc.surrey. /SRU2.html (accessed 23 November 2016). This is an excellent, practical webpage on the use of diaries.Focus groupsBloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M. and Robson, K. (2001) Focus Groups in Social Research. London: Sage.A comprehensive overview.Parker, A. and Tritter, J. (2006) Focus group method and methodology: current practice and recent debate. International Journal of Research and Method in Education, 29 (1), 23–37. A good up-to-date account treated with academic ri gour.QuestionnairesOppenheim, A.N. (2000) Questionnaire Design. London: Continuum. Regarded as a classic text on the subject, and deservedly so.ObservationStructured observationCroll, P. (1986) Systematic Classroom Observation. Lewes: Falmer Press. A good, balanced overview.Unstructured observationAn excellent outline of participant observation is given at /research/participant_ observation.htm.Image-based methodsKent County Council (2013) Cameras and images within educational settings. Maidstone: Kent County Council. (Enter ‘kelsi’ and the title into your search engine.) This web-based booklet on using images in schools provides invaluable information and advice, especially on issues such as ethics and copyright. It has some really helpful sample consent forms for the use of images. If you can’t find it via your search engine, it is available at http://bit.ly/2fnW1sW.Mukherji, P. and Albon, D. (2015) Research Methods in Early Childhood. London: Sage. Contains an excellent chapter (Chapter 14) on the use of images, particularly drawings, with young children.Prosser, J. and Loxley, A. (2008) Introducing visual methods: ESRC National Centre for Research Methods review paper. Available at: /420/1/MethodsReviewPaperNCRM-010.pdf (accessed 17 October 2016). An easily accessed and thoroughgoing overview offering practicality and rigour. It covers everything from respondents with cameras to photo elicitation and graphical elicitation.Prosser, J. (ed.) (1998) Image-Based Research. London: Routledge. The bible of theory and practice on this subject with contributions from a range of experts. It is more technical and discursive than Prosser and Loxley (2008).Rose, G. (2016) Visual Methodologies (4th edn). London: Sage. An authoritative text on interpreting visual culture, which spans an enormous range of visual material from archival photography to documentary film, websites and social media.T ests/ Includes access to tests and various online assessments.Official statisticsSmith, E. (2008) Using Secondary Data in Educational and Social Research. Maidenhead: Open University Press. An invaluable sourcebook for official statistics and how you can use them.chapter 7 Checklist You may find it helpful to copy this table and write down the answers to the questions. Have you ...Notes1 ... thought about the different kinds of data you cancollect?What kinds of data are these?Write them down here.✓2 … decided on the method (or methods) you will use tocollect data?What is this? Write it down here.✓3 ... begun to think about how you will analyse these data inthe context of answering your research question?✓。
毕业论文范文——基于素质洋葱模型的基层管理人员的培训分析-以A公司为例
毕业论文（设计）论文（设计）题目：基于素质洋葱模型的基层管理人员的培训分析-以A公司为例姓名学号院系专业年级指导教师年月日目录摘要 (1)ABSTRACT (2)第一章绪论 (3)第一节研究背景及意义 (3)一、研究背景 (3)二、研究意义 (3)第二节相关文献综述 (4)第二章理论基础 (6)第一节素质洋葱模型 (6)第二节培训相关理论 (7)一、培训需求分析相关理论 (7)二、人力资本理论 (8)第三章A公司基层管理人员培训现状分析 (10)第一节基层管理人员的内涵与特征 (10)第二节A公司基层管理人员的培训现状 (11)第四章对A公司基层管理人员培训体系的实证分析错误！未定义书签。
第一节研究构思........................................ 错误！未定义书签。
第二节设计及调查情况统计 ..................... 错误！未定义书签。
第三节调查结果统计分析......................... 错误！未定义书签。
第四节实证分析结论................................. 错误！未定义书签。
第五章结语. (14)参考文献 (18)附录一 (20)致谢 (22)摘要当代社会是人才的竞争，是知识的竞争，如何应用好人力资源这个模块成为众多企业所关心的问题，而在人力资源管理过程中，如何去提高人员的素质，培训则成为一个重要的方式和手段，培训可以有效提升企业的人力资本存量，因此，员工的培训越来越被企业所重视。
但如何摒弃原有的培训模型，研究新型的培训体系对每个企业来说都是一个巨大的挑战。
素质模型在人力资源管理中的广泛应用，为员工培训带来了一种新的思路。
近年来，将素质模型应用于培训领域也有了一定的发展，但是将研究对象定义为基层管理人员的研究却少之又少。
基层，对于任何一个企业而言都是至关重要的，就好比一座建筑，建筑的根本在于地基，要想成功经营企业，没有坚实的地基是经不起市场竞争激烈碰撞的，基层管理者是地基的凝聚者，因此基层管理者的素质我们所不能忽视的。
questionnaire 设计指南
Ways to establish trust
• Provide a token of appreciation • Provide a sense of legitimate authority • Make completing the questionnaire seem important • Remind respondent of previous relationship with sponsor (if applicable)
Ways to decrease perceived cost
• • • • •
Avoid subordinating language Do not embarrass the respondent Do not inconvenience the respondent Make questions appear short and easy Avoid asking personal information (if it must be asked, use ‘soft’ wording and inform about confidentiality) • Keep subsequent requests similar
Question order
• Be sure that the order of the questions does not produce bias in responses
“Norm of even-handedness” “Anchoring” “Addition (carryover) effect” “Subtraction effect”
One of the most important aspects of designing a questionnaire is improving your Response Rate, which requires providing the respondent with the motivation to complete the questionnaire. So consider:
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9
Self-administered questionnaire
• Disadvantages:
– Low response rate – Questions can be misunderstood – No control by interviewer – Time and resouces loss
– – – – – Occupation Special sensitivities Education Ethnic Language
⇒Questionnaire needs to be adapted to your population, not the opposite!
15
Stages in designing a questionnaire (3)
• Varying response
– Misunderstanding/misinterpretation
• Need to get it right first time
– Hard to chase after missing data
7
Types of Questionnaire
• Face to face • Telephone Interviewer -administrated • By post • E-mail/Internet Self-administrated
10
Interview-administered questionnaire
• Advantages:
– Participation by illiterate people – Clarification of ambiguity – Quick answers
11
Interview-administered questionnaire
Design questions:
– Content of the questions – Format of the questions
– Presentation and layout
– Coding schedule (if appropriate)
• Pilot and refine questionnaire
16
What do you prefer?
Vom Befrager einzutragen: Datum der Befragung: __.__._____ Initialen des Befragers: ____ Name des Arztes: _____________________ Befragung vollständig, keine weiteren Anrufe oder Nachfragen notwendig!
13
Stages in designing a questionnaire (1)
Planning the study:
• Decide on goals
– Identify risk factors for getting bitten by dogs – Literature, experts on dog bites
⇒As simple and focused as possible
5
Advantages of questionnaires
• Can reach a large number of people relatively easily and economically
• Provide quantifiable answers
Fragenkomplex Symptome: Hatte Ihr Patient eines der mehrere der folgenden Symptome? Generalisierter Hautausschlag > 3 Tage: Ja Nein Unbekannt
Vom Befrager einzutragen: - Datum der Befragung: - Initialen des Befragers (Vor-+ Nachname): - Name des Arztes: - Befragung vollständig? Guten Tag, mein Name ist ___ (bitte Namen nennen)___. Ich bin Mitarbeiter im Kreisgesundheitsamt in Husum oder
• Know the subject
• Formulate a hypothesis
– Postmen more likely to get bitten by dogs than the normal population
• Define information needed to test hypothesis
4
Why using a questionnaire?
A well designed questionnaire:
• Gives accurate and relevant information to your research question • Minimises potential sources of bias • Will more likely be completed
– Occupation, owning dog, outdoor activities, attitude towards dogs
14
Stages in designing a questionnaire (2)
Determine study population:
• Know the respondents
• Disadvantages:
– Interviewer bias – Needs more resources – Only short questionnaires possible
• Especially on telephone
– Difficult for sensitive issues
Masern-Ausbruch Nordfriesland Juni 2001
Dr. Gerard Krause
Abt. Infektionsepidemiologie Robert Koch-Institut Seestrasse 10 13353 Berlin
Guten Tag, mein Name ist _______________: Ich bin Mitarbeiter im Kreisgesundheitsamt in Husum / Als Mitarbeiter des Robert Koch-Institutes unterstü ich das Kreisgesundheitsamt Husum. Wir haben tze derzeit im Landkreis Nordfriesland eine ungewö hnliche Hä ufung von Masernerkrankungen. Wir mö chten uns zunä chst herzlich dafü bedanken, dass Sie uns Ihren Patienten r ____________________________(Name des Falles) geboren am ______ als Masernfall gemeldet haben. Wir fü hren derzeit eine epidemiologische Untersuchung durch um diese Masernhä ufung eindä mmen zu kö nnen. Das Erfassen von Masernkomplikationen ist hier besonders wichtig. Vor kurzem mü ssten Sie von uns ein Fax mit weiteren Erlä uterungen zu dieser Hä ufung erhalten haben, in dem wir auch auf diese Nachrecherchen hingewiesen haben. Um den von Ihnen gemeldeten Fall korrekt einordnen zu kö nnen, mö chten wir noch kurz einzelne Informationen abklä ren.
2
Sources of information
• • • • • physical signals temperature atmospheric pressure ... medical records, demography, census bureau • ? • individual experience QUESTIONNAIRES
8
Self-administered questionnair easy to administer – Preserves confidentiality – Completed at respondent's convenience – No influence by interviewer
___.___._____ ___ ___ ________________________________ (1) Ja (2) Nein, Nachfrage notwendig.
Als Mitarbeiter des Robert Koch-Institutes unterstütze ich das Kreisgesundheitsamt Husum.
• Relatively easy to analyse