Chapter Five Syntax
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
Chapter_5_Syntax_句法(练习答案)_doc
Chapter 5 Syntax 句法I. Multiple Choices:1.D. Immediate Constituent2. B. semantic3. A. concord4. A. the future is not expressed by morphological change5. D. substitutability6. C. co-occurrence7. B. Predicate 8.B. syntactic 9. C. self-control10. D. Government 11. D. coordinateII. Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words:1. Cohesion refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.2. A sentence structure that is made up of layers of word groups is called a hierarchical structure.3. Sentences are traditionally assumed to be made up of words in _linear___ direction.4. Provide linguistic terms for the following descriptions.1) a type of relation holding with each other at aparticular place in a structure:2) an operation that moves a phrase category from its original position generated byPS rules to another within a structure: transformation3) the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination ofwords into sentences: syntaxIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them:T 1. It is characteristic of Halliday’s theory that more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations, which is the main concern of Chomsky.F2. Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they were separated in traditional grammar. (they were not separated in traditional grammar)F 3. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.(Paradigmatic relation is also called vertical relation; horizontal relation is a term for syntagmatic relation.)T 4. All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete units to form an infinite set of possible sentences.F 5. The English sentence "If only I could fly!" is in imperative mood. subjunctivemoodF 6. GOVERNMENT may be defined as the requirement that the form of two or morewords in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other. concordT 7. The SYNTAGMATIC RELATION is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.T 8. The deep structure may be defined the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verbs, or a verb and its object.F 9. Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into same categoriesbased on commonalities and differences. As a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, it allows us to relate present experiences to past ones.different categoriesF 10. The syntagmatic relation is also known as vertical relation. horizontal relationF 11. "Singing an English song" is an exocentric construction. endocentricconstructionT 12. Single words and clauses can both be constituents.IV. Define the following terms:1. IC analysisIC analysis. IC analysis (immediate constituent analysis) refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents ---- word groups ( or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word.2. paradigmatic relationparadigmatic relation: Saussure originally called associative, is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.3. Lexical ambiguityLexical ambiguity: It refers to ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings. For example, “I went to the bank” is lexically ambiguous in the sense that “bank” in this sentence could refer to a business establishment or a slop of landing adjoining a river.4. Grammatical ambiguityGrammatical ambiguity: Grammatical ambiguity occurs when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two different interpretations, each of which gives rise toa different meaning.5. Concord (or: Agreement)Concord (or: Agreement) could be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. For example, in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in “this man”, “these men”; “book”, “same books”.6. endocentric constructionEndocentric construction is one kind of syntactic constructions whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. An endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction, for example, in the noun phrase “all these last few days”, days is the head. And this phrase is an endocentric construction.V. Questions:1. What is the aim of IC analysis? Make an IC analysis of the following sentence bymeans of either brackets or a tree diagram.北外2010My brother said Mary liked the handbag.The aim of IC analysis is to discover and demonstrate the interrelationships of the words in a linguistic structure—the sentence or the word-combination. The IC analysis views the sentence not just as a linear sequence of elements but as sequence made up of “layers”of immediate constituents, each lower-level constituent being part of a higher-level constituent.Though IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.We can analyze the sentence like this:SNP VPVSˈNP VPN V NPDet N Det NMy mother said Mary liked the handbag. OrMy mother said Mary liked the handbag. 2. Why did Chomsky make the distinction between Deep and Surface structures?人大2006In generative grammar, deep structure is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence, the underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted. On the other hand, surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.According to Chomsky, it is necessary to make the distinction, since it is helpful to differentiate and analyze syntactic structures such as "John is easy to please" and"John is eager to please", and also to disambiguate structures like "the shooting of the hunters". More importantly, it reflects two of the stages of how the language is processed through the generative grammar: the deep structure, which is an underlying structure, has to be transformed to the surface structure via a set of transformational rules.3.Try to identify the possible paradigmatic relation between any items in thefollowing poem by Lu Xun (i.e. tell if there is such a relation between which and which items).岂有豪情似旧时，花开花落两由之。
语言学简明教程Chapter 5
1
Examples:
1) I hurried home. ( a sentence, also a clause, a simple sentence) 2) John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history. coordinating conjunction (coordinate sentence/compound sentence) 3) Because I was late, they went without me. subordinator subordinate clause (从属句) main clause(独立句,主句)
S NP Det A N boy V kicked VP NP Det the N ball.
14
Time for Break
15
5.3 Clause Types
Seven Clause Patterns in English
SV SVC SVA SVO SVOO SVOC SVOA
They are singing. The job is difficult. He was in the car. Lily is playing chess. I will send you the plan. The boss considers his secretary excellent. I put the plate away.
2
complex sentence
Syntax (句法)
—a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. ( More: ….is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the study of grammar, which includes all areas of language aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are constructed. )
chapter 5 短语结构树(2)
短语结构树(18) The PS tree for the sentence “ the child found a puppy”SNP VPDet N V NPThe child found Det Na puppyX-bar 图示XP (NP)Specifier X’(N’)( The)X(N) Complement(mayor) ( of Guangzhou )各种短语的X-杠标图示NP: The tall black student of English from china.[NP[Spec The [N’ [Modifier tall [N’ [Modifier black [N’[N student [Comp[pp of English]] [Adjunct[pp from china]]]]]]]]] (a detailed illustration of the sentence by the nested square backets).XP(NP)Specifier N’(The)Modifier N’(tall)Modifier N’( black)N’Adjunct(PP)(from China)N Complement (PP)(student) (of English)b. VP : ……all read the letters after lunch.[VP[Spec all [V’[V read [NP the [N’[N letters [PP after lunch]]]]]]]]VPSpecifier V’(all)V’PPafter lunchV NPread theN’N Completters (empty)c: PP: right through the center d: AP: Very afraid of snakes. [PP right [P’[P through [NP the center]]]] [AP very[A’[A afraid [PP of snakes]]]] PP APspec.right P’very A’P NP A PPthrough the center afraid of snakese: AdvP：quite independently of any outside pressure.[AdvP quite [Adv’ [Adv independently [PP[P’[P of [NP[Spec any [N’outside [N pressure]]]]]]]]]]AdvPquite Adv’Adv PPindependentlyP’P NPofany N’outside Npressure句子结构：曲折短语IP(23) a. John would study Englishb. John to study English.IPJohn I’I VPwould( to ) V’V NPstudy English(24) a. John studies English.b. John is studying English.c. John has studied English.D. They study English.IPJohn I’I VP-s( is…-ing ) V’( has.. –n)(-pres.) V NPstudy English标句词词组CP:They say that John will study English.[IP They [I’I(-pres.) [VP say [CP that [IP John [I’ will [VP study English]]]]]]].IPSpec I’TheyI VP( -pres.)( present tense)V CPsayC IPthatJohn will study English 并列结构(26). The cat and the dog.NPNP1CoordPThe catCoord. NP2and the dog合并操作MERGER1. A labeled bracketing technique: [VP[V reduce] [N taxes]]2. A labeled tree diagram:VPV Nreduce taxesThe following phrases may be tree diagrammed below in the same manner:(31) a. DP: such a pity,b. PP: right inside it,c. AP: very afraid of the person.a. DPb. PPSpec D’Spec P’(such) ( right)D N P N( a ) (pity) ( inside ) ( it )c.APSpec. A’(very)A PP(afraid)P DP( of )D N(the) (person) In fact, we can hypothesize that all phrases are formed in essentially the same way, namely by merging two categories together to form a larger category.Reduce taxes to [reduce taxes] try [to [reduce taxes]]IP:(35) They will try to reduce taxes.[IP they[I’will [VP[V try [IP [I to [VP [V reduce] [NP taxes]]]]]]]].IPSpecifier I’TheyI VPwillV IPtryI VPtoV NPreduce taxesA CP may be shown below:(36) a. He admitted that he stole it .b. She’s keen for you to go.c. I doubt if he understands.a. He admitted that he stole it.IPSpecifier I’HeI VP(-ed)V CPadmitC IPthatDP I’heI VP(-ed)V NPsteal itb. She’s keen for you to go.IPSpecifier I’SheI VP(-pres. -s)V APbeA CPkeenC IPforSpec. I’youI VPto go c. I doubt if he understands.IPSpec. I’II VP(-pres.)V CPdoubtC IPifSpec. I’heI V(-s ) understand 中心词移动(40) Was the president lying ?CPC IPWasSpec. I’the presidentI V(was)lying移动后留下语迹trace(41) * Was the president is lying ?CPC IPWasSpec. I’the presidentI Vt (*is) lyingWH移动：(45) What languages can you speak?CPC’What languagesC IPcanSpec. I’youI VPt(can)V NPspeak t(what languages)空标句词C(51). *I’m sot sure [which senators has the president spoken to].CPC’Which senatorsC IPΦ(has)Spec. I’the presidentI VPtV PPspoken×P DPto t结构歧义(60)a. A car crusher which is a toy. b. A crusher for toy carDP DPD NP D NPa atoy N’N’Ncrusher N N N Ncar crusher toy car Similarly, we have (61):(61). The girl in the car with a blue bonnet.a. The car with a blue bonnet.DPDP PPDet N P DPDP PPDet N P DPThe girl in the car with a blue bonnetb. The girl with a blue bonnet.DPDP PPDP PP P DPDet N P DPDet NThe girl in the car with a blue bonnet(62). The boy saw the man with a telescope.a.. see…with a telescope.IPDP I’Det N I VP-edThe child VP PPV DP P DPDet N Det Nsee the man with a telescopeb. the man is with a telescope.IPDP I’Det N I VP-edThe child V DPsee DP PPDet N P DPthe man with Det Na telescopeEXERCISES( Most of the exercises below are adapted from Radford (2000), with some minor modifications ) Exercises IAnalyze the structure of the clauses in the examples below. That is, how many clauses each sentence contains? what the grammatical function of each clause is (e.g. main clause, complement clause, relative clause)? what type each clause is ( e.g. declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative)? what the constituents of each clause are? and what function each constituent serves within its containing clause (e.g. subject, predicate, complement, or adjunct)?1.The prisoners brutally attacked the guard who spotted them.2.Has anyone told the press the prisoners were carrying knives3.Which prison officer claimed the prisoners had secretly made keys?Exercises IIDraw the sub-trees for the italicized phrases in the following sentences with the X-bar format.1.Angry men in dark glasses roamed the streets.2.My aunt and uncle’s trip to Alaska was wonderful.3.The reporter realized that the senator lied.4. A stranger cleverly observed that a dangerous spy from CIA lurked in the house.Exercises IIIUsing one or more of the constituency tests ( i.e. stand alone, move as a unit, replacement by a pronoun) discussed in the chapter, determine which boldfaced portions in the sentences are constituents. Provide the grammatical category of the constituents.1.Tom found a lovely puppy in the house.2.The light in this room is terrible.3.Jack and Jerry are fighting over the bone.4.I gave a bone to Jack and to Jerry yesterday.5.I gave a bone to Jack and to Jerry today.6.Sam asked if he could play soccer.Exercises IVIn terms of C-selection restrictions, explain why the following sentences are ungrammatical:1.*Those women located.2.*Robert is fond that his children love animals.3.*The children laughed the man.4.*Lisa gave a book.Exercises VParaphrase and draw tree diagrams for each of the following sentences in two ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved.1.The student is a dirty street fighter.2.They said she would go yesterday.3.The magician touched the child with the wand.4.Anna threw the book that Mary had been reading in the study.5.Who would you like to visit?Exercises VIAnalyze the following sentences, showing their structure is built up in a pairwise fashion by successive merger operations.(Assume that don’t is a single word which belongs to the same category as words like must, might, etc., and that infinitival to sometimes (but not always)has a specifier/subject of its own).1.She is trying to solve the problem.2.I would imagine she has forgotten them.3.They don’t seem keen to approve the plan to cut the budget.4.They are expecting you to contact them.5.He wants to try to help others.Exercises VIIThe tree diagrams below representing the structures of a variety of different sentences. For each of the five numbered positions in each structure, say what kinds of item (overt or covert) can occupy the position, and what determines the choice of item occupying each position.(a). IPD I’(1) I VP(2) V IP(want) D I’(3) I VP(4) V DP(buy) D(5) N (car)(b). IPD I’(1) I VPmight V IP(2) D I’him I VP(3) V PP(4) P D(5) her.(c). IPD I’(1) I VP(2) V IPknows D I’he I VP(3) V PPrely P D(4) (5)(d). IPDP I’D NP I VP(1) N PP (4) V PPleaders P DP voted P DP(2) D N (5) D Nthe (3) the billExercises VIIIDraw a separate tree diagram to represent the structure of each of the following sentences, using arrows to show what has moved from where to where, discuss the role played by traces in accounting for the syntax of these sentences.(1)a. what did you say had happened to who ?b. *who did you say what had happened to ?(2)a. The neofascists, I wouldn’t want to win the election.b. *The neofascists, I wouldn’t wanna win the election.(3)a. How many people do you wanna invite to your party ?b.*How many people do you wanna come to your party ?SUGGESTED ANSWERS FOR Chapter 4Exercise IOmitted.Exercise IITTFFF, FTFTFExercise III1. grammatical,2. free,3. derivation,4. compound,5. affix,6. morphemes, inflectional,7. allomorphs, bound,8. Lexicon,9. coinage, 10. interruptible.Exercise IVa. be + friend + ed,b. en + dear + ment,c. holi + day,d. air + sick + ness,e. psycho + phys+ icsExercise Va---3, b---1, c---6, d---5, e---4.Exercise VIAccording to the words given in the data, we know the morphemes meaning plurality in this language is mes; while mo means your, no means my and i means his. Thus we have the answers for the questions: a---(2), b---(1), c---(2), d---(5), e---(1). Exercise VIIWrite the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part ofeach word in A.a---3, b---1, c---4, d---2, e---6.Exercise VIII[d] appears after a vowel or a voiced consonant,[t ] appears after a voiceless consonant,[id] appears after stop consonants [t] and [d].。
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercisesto Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard〞behaviour in using language, i.e. to tellpeople what they should day and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive;petence:Chomsky defines petence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human munication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.〞2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be bined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationshipbetween signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.3.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do bodylanguage and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is petence and performance an importantdistinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic petence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinitenumbers of sentences and to recognizegrammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’spetence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of petence, notperformance. The distinction of the two terms “ petence and performance〞represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say petence and performance is an importantdistinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditionalgrammar. The two are plementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[] voiced dental fricative2)[] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[] velar nasal4)[] voiced alveolar stop5)[] voiceless bilabial stop6)[] voiceless velar stop7)[] (alveolar) lateral8)[] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate;kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive []a voiced labio-dental fricative []a voiceless velar plosive []4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [] being velar while [] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology:Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of munication.Phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phonesPhoneme:Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. pare the words peak and speak, for instance.The // in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [] while the // in speak is unaspirated, phonetically[＝]. [ ,] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme //. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are calledSuprasegmental features.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited〞and “waded〞follows anotheralveolarplosive. [d] in “waved〞follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped〞follows voicelessconsonants, there being voicingassimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologicallyacceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl〞and “tritch〞4.Why can we not use the sequence [kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs pare the position of the stress. ment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the followingutterances as indicated by the bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard,snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g.the plural morpheme in “dogs〞.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.2.p lete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme〞is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressionand content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What isits relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Definethe following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. Theme:The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme:All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmaticrelations?As the relationbetween a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. Butthe main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g.the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular. Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes. Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy:a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic ponent: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one ofthem will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless〞, which has been replaced by “radio〞. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not be considered to besynonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle: in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds,a general principle which all participants are expectedto observe. He calls this guiding principle the Cooperative Principle, CPfor short.. It runs as follows: "make your conversational contribution such as isrequired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.〞Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to thelistener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and howhe violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle(CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin〞is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody“Can you open the door?〞he answered “Yes〞but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door〞is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes〞but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?〞he answers “Nothing.〞What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing〞will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing〞here means “Nothing interesting〞. If A adds after “Nothing〞“The workers are on strike today〞or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight〞, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
译通天下--现代汉语翻译稿
现代汉语一、课程简介《现代汉语》是高等学校汉语言文学专业、新闻专业基础课程之一，系统地讲授现代汉语的基础理论和基本知识，同时加强基本技能的训练，提高学生对现代汉语的理论水平和实际运用能力，为他们学习其他课程以及将来从事语言文字工作、语文教学工作和现代汉语的研究工作打好基础。
二、课时安排三、教材：黄伯荣、廖序东主编《现代汉语》四、分章大纲第一章绪论了解现代汉语的基本情况与基本特点，现代汉语共同语的标准与形成，现代汉语方言概况，现阶段语言文字工作的方针和任务，明确语言规范化的意义；提高进行语言规范的理论水平和行动的自觉性。
各节讲授重点第一节现代汉语概述第二节新时期语言文字工作的方针和任务第三节现代汉语的性质、内容和任务第二章语音明确语音的基本性质与基本概念，掌握普通话语音的发音原理，掌握普通话语音系统和音位系统，以及语流音变；提高学生的普通话发音水平和理论水平；具有初步的审音、记音能力；提高语音规范化的意识。
各节讲授重点第一节语音概说第二节声母第三节韵母第四节声调第五节音节第六节音变第七节音位第八节朗读和语调第九节语音规范化第三章文字掌握现代汉语书面符号系统――汉字的基础理论和系统知识，提高学生正确理解、分析及运用汉语汉字的能力，提高学生对汉字规范化的意识。
各节讲授重点第一节汉字概说第二节汉字的形体第三节汉字的构造第四节汉字的整理和标准化第五节正确使用汉字第四章词汇通过对词、词汇、词义等内容的讲授，使学生掌握词汇学的基本知识和基本理论，并能运用所学分析具体的词汇现象，提高析词、辨词、赏词、用词等词汇环节的语言素养和语言能力。
各节讲授重点第一节词汇和词汇单位第二节词义的性质和构成第三节词义的分解第四节词义的聚合――语义场第五节语境和词义第六节现代汉语词汇的组成(上)――词的总汇第七节现代汉语词汇的组成(下)――熟语的总汇第八节词汇的发展变化和词汇的规范化第五章语法掌握汉语语法的基本概念、基本单位、基本关系和分析的基本方法，提高对汉语语法特点的认识，提高对汉语语法规律的理性认识，增强语法意识；能够正确运用汉语语法规律，并能够对不合乎语法规范的现象作出理性的分析，提高语言运用能力。
语言学期末复习题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题Chapter 1I. Choose the best answer. (20%)5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. InterpersonalII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an exa mple of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentencesbased on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________theory.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)1. Design feature2. DisplacementV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda ratherthan the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth.A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems7.The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending9.The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)13.Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.18.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class wordV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）Chapter 4 SyntaxI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical9.The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinateII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%).16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verbphrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysisV.Answer the following questions. (20%)36.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.Chapter 5 MeaningI.Choose the best answer. (20%)5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above9.Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonymsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while thereference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.15.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 17.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.24.Words that are close in meaning are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.30.According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32. Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots36.What are the three kinds of antonymy?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter Six PsycholinguisticsChapter 7 Language, Culture and SocietyI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1._______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)34. SociolinguisticsSapir-Whorf HypothesisV. Answer the following questions. (20%)Summarize the features of the female languageChapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.。
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.
语言学练习
Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?2.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Chapter 2 Phonetics1. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?2. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;Chapter 3 Phonology1. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle2.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by thebold type:a) John wanted to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted todo this today.Chapter 4 Morphology1. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relat ionship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?2. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.Chapter 5 Syntax1. Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic and paradigmatic relations?2.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?3.What are the problems in IC analysis?4.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.Chapter 6 Semantics1. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, oneof them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?2. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runChapter 7 Pragmantics1. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?2. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.3. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?”he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.。
《新英语专业考研英语语言学考点测评(第二版)(北京环球时代学校》读书笔记模板
Linguistics
2020—2022年 度名校命题解 密
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这是《新英语专业考研英语语言学考点测评（第二版）（北京环球时代学校英语专业考研点睛丛书；全国英 语专业考研必读书）》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己的精彩内容摘录。
新英语专业考研英语语言学考 点测评（第二版）（北京环球
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01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 精彩摘录
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02 内容摘要 04 读书笔记 06 作者介绍
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语言学
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考点 语言学
外语教学
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内容摘要
内容摘要
《新英语专业考研英语语言学考点测评》是“北京环球时代学校英语专业考研点睛丛书”之一。本书是考研 必读红宝书《最新英语专业考研英语语言学考点测评》的修订版。修订版首次提供了2020-2022年度名校命题解 密。本书的章节划分以脉络清晰、兼收并蓄为目标，前五章基本上按照胡壮麟先生主编的《语言学教程》确定， 后五章在《语言学教程》的基础上根据目前试题的侧重点的不同而有所归并，每一章都提供考点总结、各典型高 校真题分析和大量的练习题。本书在统计和研究了数十所大学的考研真题的基础上编写，包括北京外国大学、上 海外国语大学、中山大学、天津外国语大学、四川大学等，是英语专业考研学生的必备参考书之一。
语言学期末复习题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题Chapter 1I. Choose the best answer. (20%)5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. InterpersonalII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an exa mple of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentencesbased on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________theory.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)1. Design feature2. DisplacementV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda ratherthan the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth.A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems7.The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending9.The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)13.Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.18.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class wordV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）Chapter 4 SyntaxI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical9.The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinateII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%).16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verbphrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysisV.Answer the following questions. (20%)36.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.Chapter 5 MeaningI.Choose the best answer. (20%)5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above9.Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonymsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while thereference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.15.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 17.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.24.Words that are close in meaning are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.30.According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32. Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots36.What are the three kinds of antonymy?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter Six PsycholinguisticsChapter 7 Language, Culture and SocietyI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1._______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)34. SociolinguisticsSapir-Whorf HypothesisV. Answer the following questions. (20%)Summarize the features of the female languageChapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
句法学
9
In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house) Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.) La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)
Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
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1.1 Number
Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
3
Traditional school (传统学派)
传统学派认为句子是词的序列。因此对句 子构造的研究涉及到了对词的大量的研究。 例如：词类是对词进行的分类，而主语、 谓语等是对词的功能的描写。
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1.Category （范畴）
The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units（语言 单位的特性）:
The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher （受语义 的影响，语序的不同，句义不同。）
Chapter 5, syntax, structure, idea
Chapter 5, Composed upon Westminster Bridge
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air. Never did sun more beautifully steep In his first splendor, valley, rock, or hill; Ne’er saw I , never felt, a calm so deep! The river glideth at his own sweet will: Dear God! the very houses seem asleep; And all that mighty heart is lying still!
Chapter 5, Those Winter Sundays
I‟d wake and hear the cold splintering, breaking. When the rooms were warm, he‟d call, and slowly I would rise and dress, fearing the chronic angers of that house, Notes: Splinter: break something such as wood into pieces Chronic: a problem and difficulty that you cannot get rid of or that keeps coming back
(2)
To the speaker, only the sun steeping silently in the valley, rock and hill is impressive and beautiful, he has never been aware that the beauty of the silent city could be so splendid. River is the only thing that moves in the poem, which flows quietly and smoothly. It strengthens the silence of the early morning. In the poem, the key word is “fair”, which is fully presented by the words: “majesty”, “silent”, “bare” “bright”, “glittering”, “smokeless”, “splendor” “calm”, “deep”, “asleep” ,“still”, which
语言学第四章句法学考研真题
Chapter Four: SyntaxI 名词解释1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）deep structure考点分析：考查深层结构的定义Answer: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.2. (中山大学2004，吉林大学2000年考题) category考点分析：范畴的定义Answer: The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in a narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 3. (华南理工大学2004年考题)constituent考点分析：考查成分的定义Answer: Constituent refers to a component element of a sentence.4. (中山大学2003年考题)immediate constituent analysis考点分析：考查直接成分分析法.Answer: Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.5. (南开大学2003年考题)endocentric construction考点分析：向心结构的定义Answer: Endocentric construction one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also known as a headed construction.6. (南开大学2001年考题) exocentric construction考点分析：离心结构的定义Answer: “Exocentric construction”, the opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole to the whole group; that is to say, there is no definable center or head inside the group.7.（武汉大学2003年考题）transformational roles考点分析：转换规则的定义Answer: In Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, transformational rules are those rules which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. A transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which is rewritten as another sequence according to certain convention.II 填空题1. (中山大学2003年考题）The category of ____ is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with sixdistinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative考点分析：考查格范畴在拉丁语中的特点Answer: case2. (中山大学2003年考题)____ construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase,predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.考点分析：考查哪些短语属于离心结构Answer: Exocentric3. (电子科技大学2002年考题)In the construction of the phrase “the girl”, the immed iateconstituents of it are _____.考点分析：直接成分及成分名称Answer: the determiner plus the noun phrase4. (苏州大学1997 年考题)Transformational rules are those which relate or transform ____ of a sentence into ____考点分析：转换规则的作用Answer: deep structure; surface structureIII 选择题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004 年考题）____refers to the relations holding between elementsreplaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.a. Syntagmatic relationb. Paradigmatic relationc. Co-occurrence relation考点分析：考查对横，纵组合关系定义的掌握Answer: b2. (东南大学2002年考题)According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ____contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.a. deep structureb. surface structurec. transformational rulesd. PS-rules考点分析：乔姆斯基标准理论中的观点Answer: aIV 问答题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004年考题）Distinguish the two pos sible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.考点分析：用直接成分分析法分析有歧义词组的结构Answer:more beautiful flowers more beautiful flowersAdj. Adj. N Adv. Adj. NNP2. (北京第二外国语大学200年考题) Tell is each of the following is endocentric or exocentric construction.1. take a break2. an extremely difficult book3. ladies and gentlemen4. at present5. swimming in the lake考点分析：分析短语属于离心结构还是向心结构Answer: 1. exocentric 2. endocentric 3. endocentric 4. exocentric 5. endocentric 3.（东南大学2001年考题）Explain and exemplify the following PS rules:NP → (D) N (S)AUX →t (M) (have-en) (being)考点分析：考查对某一短语结构的描述Answer:1) The first rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, a) the man who came to see me last night and b) Michael, who had never been there before.2) The second rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect tense (have-en), or be plus an ing of a verb. E.g.Aux --- t (M): May I read your paper?Aux --- t (have-en): Have you finished your paper?Aux --- t (being): Are you reading your paper?4.(大连外国语学院2001，2002年考题)Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations.1) Neg she past work last week2) Tag you past meet him3) policemen past be + en beat John4) Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON5) Q he past do SOMETHING6) Imp you pres will wash you7) [Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore]8) the girl [the girl pres be beautiful] pres be from China考点分析：讲深层结构转换为表层结构Answer:1) She didn’t work last week2) Y ou me t him, didn’t you?3) The policemen were beaten by John4) Why is the professor angry?5) What did he do?6) Wash yourself7) Mary didn’t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn’t go to the bookstore either8) The girl who is beautiful is from China5.(广东外语外贸大学2004年考题)On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.1) John walked slowly2) Tom talked with Jack very quickly3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early考点分析：实例分析，归纳副词短语和动词短语的结构规则Answer: Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP → (Deg) Adv (Deg stands for degree words)VP → V (NP) (VP) (AdvP)6. (苏州大学1997年考题)Draw a tree diagram according to PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:考点分析：用树形图分析句子的深层结构Answer:S∣∣∣NP VP∣∣-∣∣∣∣∣Det NP V NP adv∣∣∣∣∣The student wrote yesterday∣∣Det N∣∣a letter。
语言学 Syntax
Chapter 5: SyntaxLearning Objectives⏹I. Syntax the field⏹II. The Traditional Approach⏹III. The Structuralist Approach⏹IV. The Generative Approach⏹V. The Systemic Functional Approach⏹VI. The Textual ApproachI. Defining Syntax⏹The word comes from Ancient Greek - syn-, "together", and táxis, "arrangement")⏹The definition:❑The study of the internal structure ofsentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.⏹What is grammar?❑morphology + syntax = grammar Autonomy of syntax⏹Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹This is a very interesting sentence,because it shows that syntax can beseparated from semantics—that form canbe separated from meaning. The sentencedoesn’t seem to mean anything coherent,but it sounds like an English sentence.——Howard Lasnik,The Human LanguageClassification of sentences⏹ E.g.1 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹ E.g.2 *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.⏹ E.g.3 He walked quickly.Criteria:⏹ 1. Conforms to the grammatical rules of a specific language or not;(Grammaticality/well-formedness)⏹ 2. Conforms to the worldly common sense knowledge.Sentence classificationII. The Traditional Approach⏹ A Syntactic Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same orsimilar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or averb.⏹When words are grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, they arecalled syntactic categories.1. Lexical Categories⏹In grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditionalgrammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words, or more precisely lexicalitems.⏹Major lexical categories❑Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition⏹Minor lexical categories❑Determiner, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Infinitive, Negative2. Phrasal Categories⏹Word level categories can be extended to phrasal categories with heads :3. Syntactic Functions⏹Subject: in nominative case, doer of the action.❑ E.g. She slapped him.❑ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹Grammatical subject vs. logical subject⏹Object: accusative case, receiver or goal of an action.⏹ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹ E.g. I gave my sister a doll.Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.⏹ E.g. I gave a doll to my sister.Dir. Obj. Ind. Obj.Sentence division⏹Binary analysis:❑Predicate + Subject = Sentence⏹ E.g. The man is eating dinner.⏹ E.g. John broke the door.⏹ E.g. Alice must be out of her mind.⏹Predicator: verb included in a predicate4. Syntactic Features5．Sentence types:traditional approachsimpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundBasic sentence types by Bolinger⏹ 1. Mother fell.⏹ 2. Mother is young.⏹ 3. Mother loves Dad.⏹ 4. Mother fed Dad breakfast.⏹ 5. There is time.⏹Question: What are the abstract grammatical representations?Bolinger’s idea⏹Mother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)⏹Mother is young. (Nominal + copula + complement)⏹Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal)⏹Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)⏹There is time. (There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: Quirk⏹Seven sentence types:❑SVC❑SV A❑SV❑SVO❑SVOC❑SVOA❑SVOOQuirk’s idea⏹SVC Mary is kind. / a nurse.⏹SV A Mary is here. / in the house.⏹SV The child is laughing.⏹SVO Somebody caught the ball.⏹SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool.⏹SVOA I put the plate on the table.⏹SVOO She gives me expensive presents.III. The Structuralist Approach1. Syntactic Relations⏹Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:❑relations of position❑relations of substitutability❑relations of co-occurrenceRelations of Position⏹All languages have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases thatcan occur in a clause.⏹The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object⏹Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, r efers to the sequential arrangement of wordsin a language.⏹Question: If word order is not followed, what would happen?❑ungrammatical or nonsensical❑semantic change⏹The boy kicked the ball❑*Boy the ball kicked the❑*The ball kicked the boy⏹The teacher saw the students.⏹The students saw the teacher.⏹Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relationsobserved by F. de Saussure.⏹They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.⏹Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and arealclassifications) to classify languages in the world:❑SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.❑English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.Relation of Substitutability⏹The ________ smiled.menboysgirlsmonkeys⏹The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable foreach other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.⏹It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man❑The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.❑He went there last week.the day before.⏹This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure,and Paradigmatic Relations byHjemslev.❑To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.Relation of Co-occurrence⏹Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a wordof another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.⏹What are the co-occurred word sets for nominal phrases?❑preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)❑followed by a verbal phrase.⏹Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly toparadigmatic relations.2. Constituents and Phrase Structure⏹Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form aconstruction:❑the girl (NP)❑ate the apple (VP)❑the girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) by BloomfieldPhrase StructureTree diagramBracketing⏹Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representingthe constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Comparing IC analysis and PS analysis⏹beautiful girl’s dress“They can fish” is ambiguous⏹IC analysis⏹What are the possible phrase structure trees?3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions⏹Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to thatof one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.⏹Which constructions are endocentric?❑noun phrases❑Intransitive verb phrases❑adjective phrases⏹Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where noneof the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head”.⏹Which constructions are exocentric?❑basic sentence❑prepositional phrase❑predicate (verb + object) construction❑connective (be + complement) construction⏹The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as awhole.)⏹He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)⏹He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)⏹John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4. Coordination and Subordination⏹Constructions can also be categorized into two main types, depending on the relationbetween constituents: Coordination and SubordinationCoordination⏹Coordination:❑grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.❑Coordinated constituents have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally⏹Coordination of NPs:❑[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]⏹Coordination of VPs:❑[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]⏹Coordination of PPs:❑[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]⏹Coordination of APs:❑[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]⏹Coordination of Ss:❑[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination⏹Subordination：refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.❑The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently, they can be called modifiers.⏹two dogsHead⏹(My brother) can drink (wine).Head⏹Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head⏹(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.HeadSubordinate clauses⏹Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types ofsubordinate clauses:❑complement clauses❑adjunct (or adverbial) clauses❑relative clauses⏹ 1. John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complementclause)⏹ 2. Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)⏹ 3. The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)IV. The Generative Approach⏹Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)❑smile❑the smile❑the beautiful smile❑the beautiful smile to meWhat about the possible VP structure?⏹laugh⏹play in the garden⏹often play in the garden⏹often happily play in the garden (happily)The AP structure?⏹polite⏹very polite⏹very polite to youThe PP structure?⏹about⏹mainly about⏹mainly about the storySentence structure?⏹The wind blows.⏹The cat ate the fish.⏹The man came with a stick.Exercises: Please draw the phrase structure tress of the following sentences⏹ 1. The jet landed.⏹ 2. A journalist wrote the article.⏹ 3. Jerome is tired of his job.⏹ 4. He gave the Red Cross some blood.⏹ 5. The customer asked for a cold beer.⏹ 6. John will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra.1.2.4.5.“The man came with a stick”Structural Ambiguity“The man killed the boy with a knife”“The man killed the boy with a knife”More examples of ambiguity⏹ 1. Flying planes can be dangerous.❑ Flying planes is dangerous. ❑ Flying planes are dangerous.⏹ 2. Visiting scholars can be interesting.❑ Visiting scholars is interesting. ❑ Visiting scholars are interesting.Modifier: specify optionally expressible properties of headsWhat are the possible PStrees?⏹The data:❑The dog ate the bone happily.❑The dog happily ate the bone.❑Probably the dog ate the bone.⏹How to represent them with tree diagrams?“The dog ate the bone happily.”“The dog happily ate the bone.”“Probably the dog ate the bone.”Transformational Rules⏹The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?⏹The boy has slept. Has the boy slept?⏹The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?⏹The boy can sleep. Can the boy sleep?⏹The Rule:❑Move Aux❑Move the Aux to adjoin to SExercise⏹What is your comment on the rule “move the Aux to adjoin to S”?❑ E.g. You know those women.❑ E.g. Sara should be going to Chicago.❑ E.g. Anyone that can lift 500 pounds is eligible for our club.“The boy can sleep.”“Can the boy sleep?”“The boy picked up the book.”“The boy picked the book up.”“Some people who were wearing boots came in.”“Some people came in who were wearing boots.”Chomsky’s Generative GrammarLanguageFacultyUniversal Grammar⏹ Plato ’s Problem⏹ Poverty of the Stimulus--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------⏹ Features of First Language Acquisition❑ Uniformity❑ Rapidity⏹ Chomsky ’s Innateness Hypothesis:❑ The course of language acquisition is determined by a biologically endowedinnate Language Faculty within the brain, which makes it possible for children to acquire a language on the basis of their linguistic experience .⏹ Language Faculty must incorporate a theory of Universal Grammar / UG whichenables the child to develop a grammar of any natural language on the basis of suitable linguistic experience.⏹ UG is composed of Principles and Parameters .⏹ Children ’s Task?❑ Parameter setting ❑ Lexical learning⏹ Principles and Parameters Theory:❑ Government & Binding Theory ❑ The Minimalist ProgramV . The Systemic Functional Approach⏹ Systemic Functional Grammar has its roots in the work of the British linguist J. R.Firth . The mastermind behind the systemic-functional perspective is M. A. K. Halliday .⏹ SF Linguists are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures andpatterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.Language functionsTheoretically speakingEmpirically speaking Grammar of L Experience of L⏹ Three metafunctions:❑ Ideational function ❑ Interpersonal function ❑ Textual functionIdeational function⏹ The function in which we conceptualize theworld for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.⏹ Conceptualization of the world:❑ representation of the world❑ The bringing of the world into being linguisticallyData⏹ A. The man kicked the dog.⏹ B. The woman hated the old clothes. ⏹ C. David is homeless. ⏹ D. The girl laughed.⏹ E. The visitor said “Hello ”. ⏹ F. There is a cat over there.1. The man kicked the dog.⏹ KICK is a material process . Material processes are characterized by “doing ” verbs,such as running , dressing , climbing , etc.⏹ Halliday describes the man as the actor (the person responsible for the action), andthe dog as the goal (the thing which is acted upon).2. The woman hated the old clothes.⏹ The predicator has something to do with feeling and thinking, which is internalrather than external, thus the name mental process .⏹ Verbs such as hate , love , know , think and understand belong to this category. ⏹ Halliday: sensor + phenomenon3. David is homeless.⏹ It is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together. ⏹ Relational verbs are be , become , appear , etc. ⏹ Halliday: carrier + attribute4. The girl laughed.⏹ The predicator falls into a category of verbs such as cough , yawn , and smile whichHalliday calls them as behavioral .⏹ The behavioral processes are similar to material processes in that they describephysical actions of some kind but they are different in that the action isnotperformed on anything. ⏹ Halliday: behaver.5. The visitor said “Hello ”.⏹ Halliday calls this category as the verbal process .⏹ Verbal processes include words like say , report , claim , question , and explain . ⏹ Halliday: sayer + target6. There is a cat over there.⏹ Existential process . ⏹ Hailliday: the existentInterpersonal function⏹ Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations , and to expressthe language user ’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function is called interpersonal function. ⏹ The study of mood and modality.⏹ A. Pass the salt.⏹ B. Please pass the salt. ⏹ C. Can you pass the salt?⏹ D. Could you possibly pass the salt?⏹ E. You couldn ’t possibly pass the salt, could you? ⏹ A general rule:❑ The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be.Textual function⏹ If you find a bird outside the classroom window, which sentence would you use?❑ A. There is a bird on the tree. ❑ B. A bird is on the tree.⏹ Information structure:Transitivi ⏹ Material process(The man kicked the dog.) ⏹ Mental process (The woman hated the old clothes.) ⏹ Verbal process (The visitor said “Hello ”) ⏹ Behavioural process (The girl laughed) ⏹ Relational process (David is homeless.) ⏹ Existential process (There is a cat over there.)❑old information + new information⏹According to Halliday:❑theme + rheme⏹Theme: the first constituent, and it denotes the starting point of the clause—what itis going to be about.⏹Rheme: the rest of the clause; the information that is new.⏹1A. Gas explosion killed thousands.⏹1B. Thousands were killed by gas explosion.⏹2A. The rain came down.⏹2B. Down came the rain.⏹The propositional meaning is the same, but the thematic difference exists.❑1A. Theme: gas explosion—what the sentence is about❑1B. Theme: thousands—what the sentence is aboutVI. The Textual Approach⏹The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntaxbeyond the traditional sentence boundary.⏹Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraphor chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence o f text linguistics and discourse analysis.Sentential Connection⏹Hypotactic (cf. subordinate clauses):❑You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.❑We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.⏹Paratactic (cf. coordinate clauses):❑In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.❑He dictated the letter. She wrote it.❑The door was open. He walked in.Cohesion and cohesiveness⏹Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refersto relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.⏹Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:❑conjunction❑ellipsis❑lexical collocation❑lexical repetition❑reference❑substitution, etc.Some examples⏹“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)⏹“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. I can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)⏹He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight. (Reference)⏹“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)⏹I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late. (Logical connection)Exercise-IProduce the surface structures from the following deep structures.❖ 1. Neg she past work last week❖ 2. policemen past be-en beat John❖ 3. Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON❖ 4. Q he past do SOMETHING❖ 5. Imp you pres will wash you❖ 6. the girl [the girl pre be beautiful] pre be from ChinaReference Answer⏹ 1. She didn’t work last night.⏹ 2. The policemen were beaten by John.⏹ 3. Why is the professor angry?⏹ 4. What did he do?⏹ 5. Wash yourself.⏹ 6. The girl who is beautiful is from China.Exercise-IIComment on the following pair of sentences.❖ a. John is easy to please.❖ b. John is eager to please.Reference answer⏹The two sentences have similar surface structure, but the grammar of the two isdifferent. John has a different logical relationship to please in the two sentences.⏹The two sentences have different deep structures:❑ a. (Someone pleases John) is easy.❑ b. John is eager (John pleases someone).Exercise-IIIPlease draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.❖ 1. Maria never ate a brownie.❖ 2. That shelf will fall.❖ 3. The student lost the debate.❖ 4. The manager may offer a raise.❖ 5. A psychic will speak to this group.❖ 6. Mary could become quite fond of Larry.Exercise-IVThe following data are from Korean. You may ignore the nominative and accusative markers for the purposes of this question.❖ 1. Terry-ka ku yeca-lul coahanta.❖Terry-Nom that girl-Ac likes❖‘Terry likes that girl.’❖ 2. I noin-I hakkyo ey kassta.❖this man-Nom school to went❖‘This man went to school.’❖ 3. Sue-ka chinkwu eykey chayk-ul ilkessta.❖Sue-Nom friend to book-Ac read❖‘Sue read the book to a friend.’❖I. Based on this data, what is the XP rule for Korean?❖II. Draw the tree structure for each of the sentence.。
语言学重点
语言学重点选择题10个，填空题5个，术语翻译5个，判断对错10个，名词解释，并给例子！树形图。
1语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Language and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.Design features of languageIt was proposed by Charles Hochett in 1960.1,arbitariness 任意性，2 productivity 创造性 3 duality 双重性4 displacement 移位性 5 cultural transmission 文化传承性Functions of language : descriptive , expressive and social function.Jakobson six elements of speech are: addresser - emotive, addressee- conative, context-referential, message-poetic, contact- phatic communication, code-metalinguistic.M.A.K.Halliday in 1970 found child system contains the ideational.interpersonal. Textua.2 ,phonology 音位学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage. And it has three branches: articulatory phonetics 发音语言学, auditory phonetics 听觉学，acoustic phonetics 声学。
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Chapter 4 Syntax
Teaching aims: enable the students to understand and describe the internal structures of sentences
Focal points: different treatment of sentence structure by different linguistic schools
Teaching difficulties: IC analysis, deep structure, surface structure, tree diagram
Teaching procedure：
The outline of the chapter:
1 Syntax
2 sentence
3 Rules
3. 1 syntactic relations
3.1.1Positional relation
3.1.2Relations of substitutability
3.1.3 relations of co-occurrence
3.2 Grammatical constructionP86
3.3 RecursivenessP101
4 Syntactic function P92
5 Category P96
1 Syntax
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.
2 sentence
Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study. In this chapter, we introduce some of the representative approaches to syntax. The traditional approach is based on the earlier grammars of Latin or Greek (the traditional grammar is a grammar of prescription).
The trad itional view of a sentence:“a series of words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically complete expression of a single thought”. Lexical categories: part of speech.
e.g.: n, v, adj, det. etc.
Syntactic categories: usually refers to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function.
e.g. subject, predicate, object etc.
Grammatical category: a class or group of items which fulfil the same or similar functions in a language.
e.g. Number, gender, case: for nouns, pronouns.
Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
3 Rules
3. 1 syntactic relations
“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.
3.1.1“Positional relation”
“word order”, refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.
3.1.2“Relations of substitutability”
It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.
3.1.3 “relations of co-occurrence”
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.
3.2 Grammatical constructionP86
3.3 RecursivenessP101
4 Syntactic function P92
5 Category P96
Language is seen as consisting of three major parts: syntax, semantic, phonology. The syntactic component is made up of the base component and the transformational component. The base component: categories and lexicon
Category: a concept such as a sentence, a noun phrase, a verb. (That part of the base component of the grammar which specifies such syntactic categories as S, NP, VP.)。