英语语言学讲义Chapter2

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语言学教程02Chapter 2_sound(2)

If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音, as is the case of map.
In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the „broad‟ transcriptions.
3.3 Allophones 音位变体

Allophones---- the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

Velarization: clear l and dark l // [] / _____ V [] / V _____

Think about tell and telling!

Phonetic similarity发音近似性: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.

The word „phoneme‟音位 simply refers to a „unit of explicit sound contrast‟: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.

语言学教程 chapter2

Chapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Three main areas: Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production ofspeech sounds.Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical propertiesof speech sounds.Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with theperception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Begin by analyzing an individual language, then discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.1, how speech sounds are made?1, Speech organs: vocal tract-- pharynx, mouth, noseoral cavity-- mouthnasal cavity-- noseUpper part of the pharynx:Contents of the mouth: upper part-- the upper lip, the upper teeth, thealveolar ridge, the hard palate, thesoft palate, and the uvulaBottom part-- the lower lip, the lower teeth, thetongue, and the mandibleTongue: the tip, the blade, thefront ,the back, andthe rootThe vocal folds: apart-- the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voicelessclose together-- the airstream causes them to vibrateagainst each other and the resultantsound is said to be voicedtotally closed-- no air can pass between them 2, the IPA The International Phonetic AssociationMain principles: there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,and the same symbol should be used for that sound in anylanguage in which it appears.The diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with theconsonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of changein their pronunciation.2, consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way though the mouth or nose.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.1, ConsonantsManner of Articulation: the way in which the air passes through certainparts of the vocal tract. It refers ways in which articulation can beaccomplished1, stop(or plosive)-- [p, b, t, d, k, g]2, nasal-- [m, n, etc.]3, fricative-- [f, v, s, z etc.]4, approximant-- [w, j etc.]5, lateral-- [l]6, trill-- [r]7, tap and flap8, affricateThe Place of Articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing, or the obstruction of air1, bilabial-- made with two lips2, labiodental-- made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth3, dental-- made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth4, alveolar-- made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge5, postalveolar-- made with the tongue tip and the back of thealveolar ridge6, petroflex-- made with the front of the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridgeor the hard palate7, palatal-- made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate8, velar-- made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate9, uvular-- made with the back of the tongue and the uvula10, pharyngeal-- made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx11, glottal-- made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towardseach other2, V owels[ i: ]-- high front tensed unrounded vowel[ə: ]-- mid central tensed unrounded vowel[a: ]-- low back tensed rounded vowel[ɔ: ]-- mid back tensed rounded vowel[u: ]-- high back tensed rounded vowel[i ]-- high front lax unrounded vowel[e ]-- mid front lax unrounded vowel[æ ]-- low front lax unrounded vowel[ə]-- mid central lax unrounded vowel[ʌ]-- low back lax rounded vowel[ɔ]-- mid back lax rounded vowel[u ]-- high back lax rounded vowel3, the sounds of EnglishRP-- R eceived P ronunciationGA-- G eneral A merican3, from phonetics to phonology1, coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionsCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of twosuccessive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation-- the sound becomes more like the followingsound (lamb)Perseverative coarticulation-- the sound shows the influence of theproceeding sound (map)Broad transcription-- the use of a simple set of symbols in ourtranscriptionNarrow transcription-- the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail2, phonemesThe smallest unit that distinguishes meaning of words. a unit of explicitsound contrastMinimal pair-- a pair of words with different meanings which differ in onlyone sound.E.g. “pill” and “bill”Phonetics transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/ /), whilephonetic transcriptions are placed between squarebrackets([ ]).3, allophonesThe aspirated /p/ and the unaspirated /p/ have phonetic differece, but theyboth belong to the same phoneme /p/. Such variants are called allophones ofthe same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be incomplementary distribution because they never occur in the same context.This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation is called allophony orallophonic variation.To be allophones of the same phoneme, the phones must be phoneticallysimilar. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme mustbear some resemblance.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, ifthe substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form butmerely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then aresaid to be in “free variation”.4, phonological process, phonological rules and distinctive features 1, AssimilationInstances: nasalization, dentalization, velarizationTwo possibilities-- 1, if a following sound is influencing a precedingsound, we call it regressive assimilation2, the converse process, in which a preceding soundis influencing a following sound, is known asprogressive assimilationPhonological process-- three aspects: 1, a set of sounds to undergo theprocess2, a set of sounds produced bythe processs3, a set of situations in which theprocess appliesPhonological rules2, epenthesis, rule ordering and the elsewhere conditionA boyAn appleWe treat the change of a to an as an insertion of a nasal sound.Technically, this process of insertion is known as epenthesis.3, distinctive featuresFirstly developed by Roman Jacobson as a means of working out a set ofphonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects oflanguage sounds.Some major distinctions-- consonantal, sonorant, nasal, voiced.5, suprasegmentals1, the syllable structureMonosyllabic-- with one syllablePolysyllabic-- with more than one syllableA syllable must have a nucleus or peak.Open syllable-- a syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable-- a syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle-- the principle which states that when there is achoice as to where to place a consonant, it isput into the onset rather than the coda.2, stressStress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.3, intonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall- rise patterns, each ofwhich is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either onsingle words or on groups of words of varying length.4, toneIn Chinese tone changes are made in a different way, affecting themeanings of individual words.Languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.。

语言学简明教程Chapter 2

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What’s the properties of every speech sound? What state is the speech organ when a particular sound is produced? How many organs are concerned? How do speech sounds differ from each other? Properties of Consonants 1. The state of the vocal cords (voicing: voiced/voiceless): voiced: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ ] [ ] [ ] etc. voiceless: [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ ] [ ] [ ] etc. They are the only voiceless consonants in English (8), and vowels are all voiced. 2. The position of the velum (nasality: nasal/oral) In English, the three sounds [ ], [n], and [ ] are nasal. All the other sounds are oral.
②
③
④
approximants: [
], [w], [l], [r], [h].
The Description of English consonants
①
stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]; fricatives: [ ], [v], [s], [z], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ Forcing aair through a narrow passage,ofbut and ②. slowly ]; narrow passage. A combination ① release through

语言学教程Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. V elar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.In many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。

戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology

戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 2 Phonology●2.1语言的语音媒介●2.1.1语言的语音媒介定义：The limited range of sounds which are meaningful inhuman communication constitute the phonic medium of language在人类交流中有意义的、有限的声音构成了语言的语音媒介（就是人类可以用发音器官发出的，并且能在交流中起作用的那些声音）●2.1.2语音定义：The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds我们把其中单个的声音成为语音。

individual sounds 单个的声音语音the speech sounds●2.2语音学●2.2.1What is phonetics语音学phonetics 的定义●定义：Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.语音学是指对于语言的语音媒介进行得研究，它关注世界中的所有语音。

●2.2.2three branches of phonetics语音学被研究的三个角度●articulatory phonetics发音语音学●the longest history发展历史最悠久●auditory phonetics听觉语音学●acoustic phonetics声学语音学●recording the sounds waves on spectrograph用频谱仪记录声波●2.2.3 Organs of speech发音器官●the pharyngeal cavity咽腔--the throat喉咙●the oral cavity 口腔--the mouth嘴巴●speech organs发音器官●the tongue舌头●the uvula小舌●the soft palate or the velum软腭●the hard palate硬腭●the teeth ridge齿龈●the teeth齿●the lips唇●如何发音●舌和软腭阻塞-[k],[g]●硬腭和舌前之间的空间变窄--[j]●舌尖和齿龈之间的阻塞--[t][d]●前齿上部和舌尖部分阻塞--[θ][ð]●上唇和下唇阻塞--[f][v]●双唇之间阻塞--[m][n][ŋ]●the nasal cavity 鼻腔--the nose鼻子●鼻音化：鼻腔张开，让气流全部或部分通过，例如三个鼻辅音[m][n][ŋ]●通过声带震动产生的2个语音特征●voicing浊化●voiceless清音●2.2.4 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--broad and narrow transcriptions语言的正字法表征--宽式标音和严式标音●broad transcription宽式标音●国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet, 挑选出一个字母，用来代表一个语音●用代表字母的符号来标音the transcriptions with letter-symbols only transcription标音●narrow transcription严式标音●定义●“严式音标”用来记录“音素”，音标写在方括号 [ ] 之间。

语言学Chapter 2

II. Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
ord …
Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog… noun phrase: black ’bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…
2. Phone phoneme alloerm Phone Phoneme Property Transcription phonetic unit , [p]、[ph] specific phonological unit, /p/ abstract [p] + [ph]
Underline the words that end with a sound as required:
A fricative:
pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal: train bang leaf limb A stop: drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze

语言学chapter2

语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。

02Chapter 2_sound 语言学概论教学课件

The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.
One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
English consonants
The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:
[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.

语言学第二章chapter2

言语的产生，言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接。
2.1 Three branches of phonetics (p. 26)
1．Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学 Phonetics： 2．Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学 3．Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学
2. Phonetics (p. 25)
----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription。
The place of articulation：
• • • • • • • bilabial: [p], [b], [w] labiodental :[f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r] palatal: [ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] velar: [k], [g] glottal: [h]
k g h η
Fricatives 摩擦音 Affricates 破擦音
Nasals 鼻音 Liquids 流音
VL
VD
VL
VD
I
r
j
VD
VD
p b
f v θδ
t d
s z ∫З
k g
h
Classification of vowels 元音分类 English vowels can be divided into two large categories: • Monophthongs or pure/single vowels

英语语言学教程Chapter_2_PPT

Place of articulation (发音部位p. 31-32)

The point where a consonant is made Consonants may be produced at practically any place between the lips and the vocal folds.
（肺，气管，喉，鼻，口）
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
1.2 The IPA

In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.

The international phonetic alphabet (P.28)
2.2 Consonants and vowels (p. 29-37)
Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced. A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that „air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth and nose.” (Crystal, 1997: 154)

英语语言学Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

❖ Fricative: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. [f][v][ſ][ ][s][z][ ][ð][h]
❖ Nasals: when the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the throat and the air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. [m] [n] [ ]
5. Vowels
❖ Pure Vowels and Vowel glides: when the quality of the vowels remains constant throughout the articulation, the vowels are called Pure Vowels or Monophthong. When there is an audible change of quality during the articulation, the vowels are called Vowel Glides, which can be Diphthongs or Triphthongs.
Chapter 2
Speech Sounds
Speech Sounds
❖ 1. Speech production and perception ❖ 2. Speech organs ❖ 3. Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription ❖ 4. Consonants ❖ 5. Vowels ❖ 6. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription ❖ 7. Phonological analysis ❖ 8. Phonemes and allophones ❖ 9. Phonological processes ❖ 10. Distinctive features ❖ 11. Syllables ❖ 12. Stress

新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记

Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (Lead in)Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.Language is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing system. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:(Speech production-----------------speech transmission---------------speech perception)⏹Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）----from the speakers‟point of view, “how speakers produce speechsounds”⏹Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”⏹Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from oneto another.2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs, also known as V ocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The diagram of speech organs:1. Lips 7. Tip of tongue2. Teeth 8. Blade of tongue3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 9. Back of tongue4. Hard palate 10. V ocal cords5. Soft palate (velum) 11.Pharyngeal cavity6. Uvula 12. Nasal cavityThe important cavities:☆The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔---- the throatLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‟s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur. The larynx contains the Vocal folds, also known as Vocal cords or Vocal bands. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam‟s apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move to various positions. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, (c) totally closed.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced (V oicing): when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.☆The oral cavity 口腔---- the mouthThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification of the air stream. ([k]/[g], [t]/[d], [θ]/[δ], [f]/[v], [p]/[b])☆The nasal cavity 鼻腔---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized. If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--- broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）e.g. clear [l]Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] (Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.)E.g. : [l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic); [l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h表示送气)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:⏹V owels⏹ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤ Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥ Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [n], [η]By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]→(velar)②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the p alate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars软腭音:the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]Conclusion: Factors to describe a consonant(1) State of vocal cords (VL/VD)(2) Manner of articulation (MA)(3) Place of articulation (PA)2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.Highest Part of the tongue (front, central, back)Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:] [Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:][u] Openness of mouthRounded or unrounded lipsrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:].unrounded vowels: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.Length of the vowellong vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as [i:] and [ɑ:]short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e], [ə] and [æ].monophthongs: individual vowelsdiphthongs: produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. (集中/合口)2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsWhat does English phonetics deal with?English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how these sounds are produced and how they are described and classified.What does English phonology deal with?English phonology investigates the sound system of English. Different from English phonetics, English phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in the abstract aspects:A. the function of sounds--- whether a sound can differentiate the meanings of wordsB. their patterns of combination--- how sounds are combined to form a permissible sound sequence⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used toconvey meaning in linguistic communication.(Speaker‟s mind--- Mouth--- Ear--- Listener‟s mind)2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhoneme: minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language; a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit; not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment; the realization of phoneme in general. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‟t. For example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[t h a:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7 phones: [f],[i:],[ł], [l], [t h]. [t], [a:], but [ł] and[l] do not distinguish meaning, [t h] and [t] do not distinguish meaning as well.Allomophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme; realizations of a particular phoneme.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‟re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.E.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.E. g. mail vs. nail beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.⏹If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.⏹If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey thefollowing three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, screama) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.⏹The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ]are not to be followed by anothersibilants.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleAssimilation: articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more features.Nasalization: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/[-nasal]→ [+nasal]/_______ [+nasal]Dentalization: /ð/, /θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]V elarizatio n: /k/, /g/, / ŋ/: Word-final /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives/k, g/: ten cups; ten girls[-velar]→ [+ velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5 Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonationsegmental features（切分特征）--- the distinctive features which can only have an effect on one sound segment are called segmental features.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that involve more than single sound segments (larger than phoneme)2.3.5.1 StressWord stress⏹The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part ofspeech of a word:verb: im‟port; in‟crease; re‟bel; re‟cord …noun: …import; …increase; …rebel; …record …⏹Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the sameelements:compound: …blackbird; …greenhouse; …hotdog…noun phrase: black …bird; green …house; hot …dog…⏹The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms andnouns:modifier: …dining-room; …reading room; …sleeping bag…doer: sleeping …baby; swimming …fish; flying …plane…Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.2.3.5.2 T oneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.⏹English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used (first three types):falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the rise-fall toneHe is not ↘ there. What did you put in my ↗ drink, ↘ Jane?He is not ↗ there? What did you put in my ↘ drink, ↗ Jane?For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Ss exercise: Explain the meaning of the following words or phrases or sentences when marked with different stress or with different intonation.Assignments1. Ss complete the review questions during the classes.2. Ask students to do the exercises 1-10 on Page 30.。

自考英语语言学Chapter_2_Phonology

Chapter 2 Phonology音系学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Of two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of information conveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later in school.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介（2006填空；2001，32名词解释）This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics语音学2.1 What is phonetics? 什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

语言学概论 chapter 2

Three Phases in Production of a Plosive
1. Close: articulators coming together; 2. Hold: air compressed behind the closure; 3. Release: air released when the articulators forming obstruction come rapidly apart.
[p],
Labiodental:
Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals. [f], [v]
Interdental:
If the tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth, the sound produced is called interdental.
Alveolar:
When the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, the sound produced is described as alveolar. [t, d, n, s, z, r, l]
Palatal:
The sounds produced with the tongue against the palate (the highest part of the roof of the mouth) or near this area are called palatals.
Glottal:
Sounds produced with the vocal cords as the primary articulators are called glottals. [h]

语言学教程02Chapter 2_sound

It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.

One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
Chapter Two
Speech Sounds

As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.
Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918)
Black: IPA Red: English

The problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels.ve)