中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划与策略”绝密资料_CHAP10
CH19 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
Measurement
Communication impact Sales impact
Media
Reach, frequency, impact Major media types Specific media vehicles Media timing Geographical media allocation
Evidence Scientific Evidence Technical Expertise Personality Symbol Slice of Life
Lifestyle
Typical Message Execution Styles
Fantasydoor
Advantages: Flexibility; high repeat exposure; low cost; low message competition
2000 Prentice Hall
Limitations: Little audience selectivity; creative limitations
Objectives
Developing & Managing an Advertising Program Deciding on Media & Measuring Effectiveness Sales Promotion Public Relations
2000 Prentice Hall
Direct Mail
Advantages: Audience selectivity; flexibility, no ad competition within same medium; allows personalization Limitations: Relative high cost; “junk mail” image
知觉 选择性注意 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
David G. Myers 心理学_7e 第六章知觉选择性注意知觉大约2400年以前，柏拉图就明智地指出，我们的大脑是通过感官来知觉物体的。
为了在头脑中构筑外部世界的景象，我们首先必须觉察环境中的物理能量，然后将其编码成神经信号（传统上，人们把这一过程称作感觉）。
不仅如此，我们还必须对感觉进行选择、组织和解释（这就是传统意义上的知觉）。
因此，我们不仅要感觉原始的光与声、味道与气味，还要对其进行知觉。
我们听到的可能不是仅仅由音高和节律所构成的声音，而是儿童的哭泣声；或者不是车辆的隆隆声，而是交响乐的高潮部分。
总之，我们能够将感觉转换成知觉，解释外界刺激对我们所具有的意义。
选择性注意预览：不论何时，我们的意识就像闪光灯的光柱一样，只能集中于我们的体验的有限方面。
我们的知觉无时不在，一种知觉消失，紧接着就会出现另一种知觉。
图 6．1就可以引起多种知觉。
图中的圆圈可以被组织到若干个连贯的图像中，它们在每一个图像中都合情合理，而由不同图像所形成的知觉却在不断变换。
对尼克尔（Neeker）立方体现象也许还存在其他的解释，但无论如何，在某一时刻你可能只关注其中之一。
这说明了一个重要的原则，即我们的有意识注意具有选择性。
选择性注意（selective attention）指的是，在任何时候，我们所意识到的只占我们所经历全部事情的一小部分。
有人曾经估计，我们的5种感觉每秒共可以接收11 000 000比特信息，而我们在意识状态下仅能加工40比特（Wilson，2002）。
不过，我们仍然能够利用直觉对剩余的10 999 960比特的信息进行充分利用。
在读到此处时，你可能并没有意识到鞋子对脚底的挤压或者鼻子正处于自己的视线之中。
现在一旦你突然将自己的注意焦点转移到这些事情上，你就会觉得自己的脚被包裹着，鼻子顽固地耸立在你和书本之间。
当你注意这几句话的时候，你可能已经将视野边缘的信息排除在意识之外了。
但你可以改变这一切，你可以在注视下面的字母X时，同时注意一下书周围的东西（书本的边缘、书桌上的东西等）。
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料_KOTLER01
Part I Understanding Marketing ManagementChapter 1 – Defining Marketing for the Twenty-First CenturyI. Chapter Overview/Objectives/OutlineA. OverviewMarketing is the organizational function charged with defining customer targets and the best way to satisfy needs and wants competitively and profitably. Since consumers and business buyers face an abundance of suppliers seeking to satisfy their every need, companies and nonprofit organizations cannot survive today by simply doing a good job. They must do an excellent job if they are to remain in the increasingly competitive global marketplace. Many studies have demonstrated that the key to profitable performance is to know and satisfy target customers with competitively superior offers. This process takes place today in an increasingly global, technical, and competitive environment.Marketing management is the conscious effort to achieve desired exchange outcomes with target markets. The marketer’s basic skill lies in influencing the level, timing, and composi tion of demand for a product, service, organization, place, person, idea, or some form of information.There are several alternative philosophies that can guide organizations in their efforts to carry out their marketing goal(s). The production concept holds that consumers will favor products that are affordable and available, and therefore management’s major task is to improve production and distribution efficiency and bring down prices. The product concept holds that consumers favor quality products that are reasonably priced, and therefore little promotional effort is required. The selling concept holds that consumers will not buy enough of the company’s products unless they are stimulated through a substantial selling and promotion effort.The marketing concept moves toward a more enlightened view of the role of marketing. The marketing concept holds that the main task of the company is to determine the needs, wants, and preferences of a target group of customers and to deliver the desired satisfactions. The four principles of the marketing concept are: target market, customer needs, integrated marketing, and profitability. The marketing concept places primary focus on the needs and wants of customers who comprise the target market for a particular product.Rather than coax customers into purchasing a product they may not find satisfying, the emphasis is on determining the types of markets to be satisfied, and creating the product that achieves this satisfaction objective. Choosing target markets and identifying customer needs is no small task; a marketer must dig beyond a customer’s stated needs. Once this is accomplished, a marketer can offer for sale the products that will lead to the highest satisfaction. This encourages customer retention and profit, which is best achieved when all areas/departments of a company become “customer-focused.”Beyond the marketing concept, the societal marketing concept holds that the main task of the company is to generate customer satisfaction and long-run consumer and societal well being as the key to satisfying organizational goals and responsibilities.Interest in marketing continues to intensify as more organizations in the business sector, the nonprofit sector, and the global sector recognize how marketing contributes to improved performance in the marketplace. The result is that marketers are reevaluating various marketing concepts and tools that focus on relationships, databases, communications and channels of distribution, as well as marketing outside and inside the organization.B. Learning Objectives∙Know why marketing is important to contemporary organizations.∙Understand the core concepts of marketing.∙Know the basic tasks performed by marketing organizations and managers.∙Understand the differences between the various orientations to the marketplace.∙Know the components of the marketing concept and why they are critical to successful marketing practice.∙Know why marketing is critical to different types of organizations and in different environments.C. Chapter OutlineIntroductionI.The New EconomyA.Focus on the digital revolution (Internet and related) and the impact onbusinesses and consumers in terms of capabilities.1.For Consumers - Multiple new capabilities related to increases in buyingpower, variety of goods and services available, information, interactivity,and product comparability.2.For Companies - Enhanced marketing reach, direct connectivity,information on all of the stakeholders and competitors, communications(internal and external), customized services and products, enhancedlogistics, and enhanced training.B.The Information Age Versus the Industrial Age1.Management has to recognize the potential quickly2.Marketing - “Meeting needs profitably”II.Marketing TasksA.Radical Marketing - Breaking the Existing Marketing Rules1.Firms are moving closer to the customer versus expensive research andmass marketing.2.Stages in marketing practice - entrepreneurial, formulated, andintrepreneurial.3.Focus on formulated marketing versus creative marketing.B.Scope of Marketing - Involves a Broadened View of Marketing1.Products - Anything offered for sale or exchange that satisfies aneed or want.2.Products can be goods, services, and ideas.3.Includes people, places, activities, organizations, and information.C.The Decisions That Marketers Make1.Focus on demand states and marketing tasks, along with the questionsthat marketers ask to remain aware and focused.2.Consumer markets and business markets each requires new tools andcapabilities to better understand and respond to the customer.3.Global Markets, Nonprofit markets, and governmental marketsbecoming more sophisticated in recognizing and dealing with marketingchallenges and decisions.III.Marketing Concepts and ToolsA.Defining Marketing1. A social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtainwhat they need and want through creating, offering, and exchangingproducts of value with others.B.Core Marketing Concepts1.Target Markets and Segmentationa)Every product or service contains features that a marketer musttranslate into benefits for a target market.b)The consumer perceives these benefits to be available in aproduct and directly impacts the perceived ability to meet theconsumer need(s) or want(s).2.Marketplace, Marketspace, and Metamarketa)Marketplace - physicalb)Marketspace - digitalc)Metamarket - cluster of complementary goods and servicesacross diverse set of industries. Includes metamediaries.3.Marketers and Prospectsa) A marketer is someone actively seeking one or more prospectsfor an exchange of values.b) A prospect is willing and able to engage in the exchange.4.Needs, Wants, and Demandsa)To need is to be in a state of felt deprivation of some basicsatisfaction.b)Wants are desires for specific satisfiers of needs.c)Demands are wants for specific products backed by an abilityand willingness to buy them.5.Product or offeringa)Value proposition - Benefits companies offer to satisfycustomer needs.b)Brand - An offering from a known source. Brand image isthe associations that are connected to the brand.6.Value and Satisfactiona)Customer value triad - Combination of quality, service, and price(QSP).b)Value is the consumer’s estimate of the product’s overallcapacity to satisfy his or her needs.c)Marketers respond by changes in the triad.7.Exchange and Transactionsa)Five conditions must be satisfied.b)An exchange means obtaining a desired product by offeringsomething desirable in return.c) A transaction is the trade of values (involves several dimensions).8.Relationships and Networksa)Relationship marketing seeks long-term, “win-win” transactionsbetween marketers and key parties (suppliers, customers,distributors).b)The ultimate outcome of relationship marketing is a uniquecompany asset called a marketing network of mutually profitablebusiness relationships.9.Marketing Channelsa)Reaching the target market is critical.b)Achieved via two-way communication channels (media-newspapers through the Internet), and physical channels (productand service).c)The marketer also must decide on the distribution channel, tradechannels, and selling channels (to effect transactions).10.Supply chaina)Refers to the long channel process that reaches from the rawmaterials and components to the final product/buyers.b)Perceived as a value delivery system.petitiona)Includes actual and potential rival offerings and substitutes.b) A broad view of competition assists the marketer to recognizethe levels of competition based on substitutability: brand,industry, form, and generic.12.Marketing Environmenta)The task environment includes: immediate actors in theproduction, distribution, and promotional environmentsb)The broad environments include: demographic, economic,natural, technological, political-legal, and social-cultural.13.Marketing Programa)Marketing mix - The set of marketing tools the firm uses topursue marketing objectives in the target market.b)Involves recognition and use of the four Ps (product, price, place,and, promotion) and the four Cs (customer solution, customercost, convenience, and communication) in the short run and thelong run.pany Orientations Toward the MarketplaceA.The Production Concept - Assumes consumers will favor those products that arewidely available and low in cost.B.The Product Concept - Assumes consumers will favor those products that offerthe best combination of quality, performance, or innovative features.C.The Selling Concept - Assumes organizations must undertake aggressive sellingand promotion efforts to enact exchanges with otherwise passive consumers.D.The Marketing Concept - Assumesthe key to achieving organizational goals consists of being more effective than competitors in integrating marketing activities toward determining and satisfying the needs and wants of target markets.1.Target Market - No company can operate in every market and satisfyevery need.2.Customer Needs - It is not enough to just find the market.a)Marketers must also understand their customer’s needs andwants. Not a simple task.b)Key marketer actions: Responsive marketing, anticipativemarketing, and creative marketingE.Integrated Marketing - When all a firm’s departments must work together toserve customer interests(a company-wide activity).1.Involves external and internal marketing.2.Profitability - The ultimate purpose of marketing is to help organizationsachieve their objectives.3.Hurdles to Adopting a Marketing Orientationa)Organized Resistance - Some departments see marketing as athreat to their power in the organizationb)Slow Learning - Despite efforts by management, learning comesslowly.c)Fast Forgetting - There is a strong tendency to forget marketingprinciples.4.The Customer Concept - Moving beyond the marketing concept—especially for firms with considerable customer informationF.The Societal Marketing Concept1.The organization’s task is to determine the needs, wants, andinterests of target markets.2.Also to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively andefficiently than competitors.3.And in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer’s and thesociety’s well-being.a)Cause-related marketing - Firms with an image act to enhancetheir reputation, etc., via causes.V.How Business and Marketing are ChangingA.Major new forces changing the way marketing process1.Customers expect more and better2.Rising brand competition3.Store-based retailers sufferingB.Trends of Company Responses and Adjustments1.Reengineering key processes versus functional depts.2.Outsourcing everything3.e-commerce trend4.Benchmarking based on world-class performers5.Alliances, supplier-partnerships, market-centered, global/local anddecentralized.C.Marketer Responses and Adjustments1.Focus on relationship marketing (versus transactional marketing)2.Creation of customer lifetime value orientation3.Focus on customer share marketing versus only market share4.Target marketing (versus mass marketing)5.Individualization of marketing messages and offerings6.Customer databases for data-mining7.Integrated marketing communications for consistent images8.Consideration of channel members as partners9.Recognition of every employee as a marketer10.Model and fact-based decision making versus intuition aloneVI.SummaryII. LecturesA. “Marketing Enters the 21st Century”The focus in this discussion is on the increasingly important role of the marketing processin the ever-changing domestic and global business environment.Teaching Objectives∙To explain the concepts related to understanding the role and potential of marketing in the larger business environment.∙To provide students a new and possibly different perspective on the role of marketing in business and society.∙To indicate areas where the marketing process and concept will be useful to the student in assessing business developments.DiscussionI NTRODUCTIONMany observers argue that all new or important directions in management thought and practice are marketing oriented. Marketing is no longer something done when a company has extra revenue to invest. It must be implemented for a business to survive.The marketing concept has changed dramatically over the last several decades, and recently the focus increasingly has moved to customers (versus products and selling), marketing globally, and the various technology issues that impact the market. In addition, there is renewed emphasis in marketing on creating and innovating with new and better products and services rather than just competing against other firms and following the marketing patterns established by competitors.The marketing concept is a matter of increased marketing activity, but it also implies better marketing programs and implementation efforts. In addition, the internal market in every company (marketing your company and products to and with the employees of the company) has become as challenging as the external marketplace due to diversity and many other social/cultural issues.C HANGES IN C ONSUMER B EHAVIORThere have been many major marketing shifts during the last few decades that have shaped marketing in the 21st century. There is a view among professional marketers that there is no longer the substantial product loyalty that existed over the last few decades. Product and brand loyalty, many argue, has been replaced by something more akin to a consumer decision that is based on the absence of a better product or service. In addition, there are major changes in the way customers look at market offerings. During the 1980s customers were optimistic, and in the early 1990s they were pessimistic. Later in the 1990s, consumers appeared rather optimistic, but still cautious at times. The following chart demonstrates some of the major shifts that have occurred to the present:1980s 1990s PresentConspicuous consumer Frugal consumer, becomingmore well-off Suspicious but generally well-off consumerImage driven Value and quality driven Highly eclecticTrusting Skeptical and cynical A “prove it” attitudeBrand loyal Does not exhibit loyalty Believes that there is alwayssomething betterEmotional buyer Informed buyer Highly informed and specialized Dreamers Escapists Focused on personal needs Overindulgent Health, wellness-conscious Health, wellness and someoverindulgence, withoutexpectation of costs orconsequencesOverworked Burnt-out, stressed out andplacing tremendous value onconvenience and time Reliant on technology and telecommunications to save time in making purchase decisionsIndustrious Baby Boomer Responsible Baby Boomer Unconvinced Generation Xer Increasingly it is clear that while the 4 Ps (product, price, promotion, and place) have value for the consumer, the marketing strategies of the 21st century will use the four “4 Cs” as added critical marketing variables:1.Care: It has replaced service in importance. Marketers must really care about theway they treat customers, meaning that customers are really everything.2.Choice: Marketers need to reassess the diversity and breadth of their offeringsinto a manageable good-better-best selection.munity: Even national marketers must be affiliated, attached toneighborhoods wherever they operate stores.4.Challenge: The task of dealing with the ongoing reality of demographic change.E ND OF THE M ASS M ARKETDuring the late 1990s, we witnessed the death of the concept of mass market. Regardless, some marketers continue to argue that database marketing will never replace mass marketing for most products. The view is that communicating with users by e-mail, Web site, mail, telephone, or fax will never become cost-efficient enough to justify the return. However, the success of the Internet provides considerable evidence that one-to-one marketing is and will be appropriate for many packaged goods and other high- and low-involvement products that in the past sold almost exclusively with brand advertising.Through the 1970s, only high-end retailers and personal-service firms could afford to practice one-to-one marketing. For the most part, they did it the old-fashioned way with personal selling and index-card files. In the 1980s, as the mainframe computer became more practical, airlines got into the act with a proliferation of frequent flyer programs. Frequency marketing programs such as these relied on monthly statement mailings and large, batch-processed databases of customer records.During the 1990s, bookstore chains, supermarkets, warehouse clubs, and even restaurants began to track individual purchase transactions to build their “share of the customer.”Many of these programs now run on PC platforms or workstation environments much more powerful than the most capable mainframes of the 1970s. It is possible today to track 5 or 6 million customers for the same real cost as tracking a single customer in 1950. With Internet-based databases and remote access, this capability literally has exploded in the last few years. The situation will become even more interesting as one-to-one marketing becomes even increasingly pervasive. With an increasingly powerful array of much more efficient, individually interactive vehicles, the options are virtually unlimited, including on-site interactivity, Web site connections, fax-response, e-mail, and interactive television.Most households today either have direct Internet access, or with TV sets that also provide real-time interactivity through the Internet. We are closing rapidly on the time where individuals will interact with their television and/or computer simply by speaking to it. Via various Web sites, computers work for us to enable us to remember transactions and preferences and find just the right entertainment, information, products, and services. Likewise, online capabilities enable providers to anticipate what a consumer might want today or in the future. Unfortunately, the system has been slower to protect consumers from commercial intrusions that they may not find relevant or interesting.The increasing level of market definition and refinement (and resulting opportunities for marketers) is possible through the massive social, economic, and technological changes of the past three decades. There is no longer a U.S. mass market because lifestyles have changed so dramatically. Some of the important demographic shifts have been:∙Increasing diversity of the population. The United States has always been an immigrant nation. However, large numbers of immigrants from Latin Americaand Asia have increased the proportion of minorities in the country to one inthree, up from one in five in 1980. This diversity is even more noticeable in theyounger market.∙Changing family and living patterns. There has been a substantial rise in the divorce rate, cohabitation, non-marital births, and increased female participationin the labor force. In addition, married couples with one earner make up only 15percent of all households. Dual-earner households have become much morecommon—the additional income is often necessary for the family to pay theirbills. Thus, the stereotypical family of the 1950s has been replaced by two olderand harried, working parents with much less time available.∙Emergence of a new children’s market. Minorities are over-represented in the younger age brackets due to the higher fertility and the younger populationstructure of many recent immigrants. The result is that one in three children inthe United States is black, Hispanic, or Asian. In addition, nearly all of today’schildren grow up in a world of divorce and working mothers. Many are doingthe family shopping and have tremendous influence over household purchases.In addition, they may simply know more than their elders about productsinvolving new technology such as computers.∙Income and education increases are two other important demographic factors impacting the marketing management arena. Generally, incomeincreases with age, as people are promoted and reach their peak earning years, and the level of education generally has increased over the last fewdecades. Family units today often have higher incomes because they may havetwo earners. Accordingly, there is an increased need for products and servicesbecause they likely have children and are homeowners.In sum, the need for market analysis and marketing decision-making, and managers to perform those tasks has never been greater. But, as the course will demonstrate, the complexities of, and analytical tools required for, these activities have never been greater. Be prepared for a challenging experience.B. “The Changing Image of Marketing”Focus: the changing perceptions of marketing in the contemporary business environment.Teaching Objectives∙To explain the concepts related to understanding the role and potential of marketing in the larger business environment.∙To provide students a new and possibly different perspective on the role of marketing in business and society.∙To indicate areas where the marketing process and concept will be useful to the student in assessing business developments.DiscussionI NTRODUCTIONWhat image comes to mind when you hear the word “marketing”? So me people think of advertisements or brochures, while others think of public relations (for instance, arranging for clients to appear on TV talk shows). The truth is, all of these—and many more things—make up the field of marketing. The Knowledge Exchange Business Encyclopedia defines marketing as “planning and executing the strategy involved in moving a good or service from producer to consumer.”With this definition in mind, it’s apparent that marketing and many other business activities are related in some ways. In simplified terms, marketers and others help move goods and services through the creation and production process; at that point, marketers help move the goods and services to consumers. But the connection goes even further: Marketing can have a significant impact on all areas of the business and vice versa.M ARKETING B ASICSIn introductory marketing you learned some basics—first the four P’s, and then the six P’s: ∙Product—What are you selling? (It might be a product or a service.)∙Price—What is your pricing strategy?∙Place or distribution—How are you distributing your product to get it into the marketplace?∙Promotion—How are you telling consumers in your target group about your product?∙Positioning—What place do you want your product to hold in theconsumer’s mind?∙Personal relationships—How are you building relationships with your target consumers?The sum of the above is called the marketing mix. It is important to have as varied a mix as possible in marketing efforts, since each piece plays a vital role and boosts the overall impact. Let’s take a closer look at the basic P’s of marketing and particularly at how they might affect what you do in business.▪ProductMarketers identify a consumer need and then provide the product or service to fill that need. The marketer’s job is to pinpoint and understand existing needs, expand upon them, and identify new ones. For example, because there are more singles and small families these days than in years past, marketers might see a need for products to be sold in smaller quantities and offered in smaller packages.How can this impact other professionals in the business/marketing process? Let’s say your company has developed a new product that generates enormous consumer demand. Your marketing department may ask you to find a way to speed up the workflow in order to crank out more products faster. A year after the product is introduced, however, the market might be flooded with cheap imitations. Since one marketing strategy is to keep products price-competitive, a marketer may then ask you to find a way to make the product less expensively. This relationship works both ways. There may be production and industrial engineers who may see a way to change the work process that would create additional options for consumers. Those engineers will also be instrumental in design and development of products for which human factors and ergonomics are important considerations. Maybe there’s room to add another product line. For instance, that product X is still blue but new product Y is red. You can suggest this to your marketing department; it, in turn, would do research to gauge potential consumer demand for the new line.▪PriceIdeally, a marketer wants to be proactive in setting price rather than simply react to the marketplace. To that end, the marketer researches the market and competition and plots possible price points, looking for gaps that indicate opportunities. When introducing a new product, the marketer needs to be sure that the price is competitive with that of similar products or, if the price is higher, that the consumers perceive they’re getting more value for their money.Various other technical professionals can have an important impact on marketers’ pricing decisions. Again, you may be asked to determine if productivity can be enhanced so that the product can be manufactured and then sold—for a lower price.▪Place or distributionWhat good is a product if you can’t get it to people who want to purchase it? When marketers tackle this issue, they try to figure out what the optimum distribution channels would be. Forexample, should the company sell the product to distributors who then wholesale it to retailers or should the company have its own direct sales force?Marketers also look at where the product is placed geographically. Is it sold regionally, nationally, and internationally? Will the product be sold only in high-end stores or strictly to discounters? The answers to all of these questions also help shape how a product can be distributed in the best way.Such distribution questions are potentially of great significance to many professionals, including industrial and other types of engineers in a company. For instance, whether a product will be marketed regionally or internationally can have enormous implications for package design as well as obvious areas of the supply chain: logistics, transportation, distribution, and warehousing.▪PromotionPromotion encompasses the various ways marketers get the word out about a product—most notably through sales promotions, advertising, and public relations.Sales promotions are special offers designed to entice people to purchase a product. These can include coupons, rebate offers, two-for-one deals, free samples, and contests.Advertising encompasses paid messages that are intended to get people to notice a product. This can include magazine ads, billboards, TV and radio commercials, Web site ads, and so forth. Perhaps the most important factor in advertising success is repetition. We’re all bombarded with an enormous number of media messages every day, so the first few times a prospective customer sees an ad, it usually barely makes a dent. Seeing the ad over and over is what burns the message into people’s minds. That’s why it’s good to run ads as frequently as possible.Public relations refers to any non-paid communication designed to plant a positive image of a company or product in consumers’ minds. One way to accomplish this is by getting the company or product name in the news. This is know n as media relations, and it’s an important aspect of public relations.As with price, changes in demand created by promotions can have a direct impact on the work of many other professionals.▪PositioningBy employing market research techniques and competitive analysis, the marketer identifies how the product should be positioned in the consumer’s mind. As a luxury, high-end item? A bargain item that clearly provides value? A fun product? Is there a strong brand name that supports how the image is fixed in the consumer’s mind? Once the marketer answers these kinds of questions, he or she develops, through a host of vehicles, the right image to establish the desired position.This, too, can affect the work you do. If an upscale image is wanted, the materials used in the product and packaging are likely to be different from those used in a bargain product—a fact that could make the workflow significantly more complex. On the other hand, with your engineering knowledge, you may be able to suggest alternative materials that would preserve the desired image but be easier or less expensive to use.。
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告学原理”绝密资料_kotler09exs
Lifestyle
– Activities – Interests – Opinions
Personality
Core values
©2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Age, race, gender Income, education Family size Family life cycle Occupation Religion, nationality Generation Social class
©2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
©2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Slide 2 in Chapter 9
Using Market Segmentation
Mass marketing is losing popularity
©2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Slide 10 in Chapter 9
Segmenting Consumer Markets
Multi-attribute segmentation via geoclustering combines multiple variables to identify smaller, betterdefined target groups
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告学原理”绝密资料_kotler01exs
Objectives
Learn how companies and marketers are responding to new challenges.
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition
Slide 2 in Chapter 1
The New Economy
Consumer benefits from the digital revolution include:
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 10 in Chapter 1
Core Marketing Concepts
Shopping can take place in a:
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 5 in Chapter 1
What Can Be Marketed?
Goods Services Experiences Events Persons
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 3 in Chapter 1
“鸡尾酒会现象”双耳分听 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
“鸡尾酒会现象”不被注意的信息的命运如果你已经选择性地注意了一个知觉呈现的子集——依赖于你自己的目标或刺激的属性——那么那些没有被你注意的信息会有什么结局呢?想像一下当你正在听一个讲座的时候，你的两边都有人在谈话。
你如何跟上讲座的进程?你会注意到交谈中的什么内容?是不是任何出现在谈话内容中的信息都会把你的注意从讲座上转移开?这些问题最早由布罗德本特(Donald Broadbent) (1958)研究，他把心理看成是一个通讯的通道——像一条电话线或计算机的连线——积极地加工和传播信息。
根据布罗德本特的理论，作为一个通讯的通道，心理只有有限的资源去执行全部的加工。
这个限制要求注意严格调整从感觉到意识的信息流。
注意形成了一个通过认知系统的信息流的瓶颈，把一些信息过滤掉，让另一些信息继续进入。
注意的过滤器理论表明选择发生在加工的早期，在获得输入的意义之前。
为了检验过滤器理论，研究者用双耳分听(dichotic lis- tening)技术，在实验室重建了有多重输入来源的现实场景。
在这种范式中，被试戴着耳机听同时呈现的两种录音信息——不同的信息呈现给不同的耳朵。
被试被要求仅仅把两种信息中的一种重复给实验者，而把另一耳中的信息都忽略掉。
这种程序被称为掩蔽注意信息(见图5．10) 。
研究者发现，当注意已经过滤了所有被忽视的材料使得回忆不可能发生时，有些被试仍能回忆一些信息，这使过滤器理论极端模型受到了挑战(Cherry，1953)。
例如，试想一下你自己的名字。
人们总是报告说在一个喧闹的房间里，即使在聊天的时候也能听到有人喊他们的名字。
这经常被称为鸡尾酒会现象。
图5．10 双耳分听任务被试听到在每只耳朵同时呈现的不同的阿拉伯数字：2(左)，7(右)，6(左)，9(右)，1(左)，和5(右)。
他报告听到正确的数列——261和795。
然而，当要求被试仅仅注意右耳的输入，他报告只听到795。
keller 战略品牌管理 01 中山大学吴柏林教授 广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)绝密资料
2
New Branding Challenges
Brands are important as ever
– Consumer need for simplification – Consumer need for risk reduction
Brand management is as difficult as ever
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
12
Strategic Brand Management Process
STEPS
Identify and Establish Brand Positioning and Values
KEY CONCEPTS
Mental maps Competitive frame of reference Points-of-parity and points-of-difference Core brand values Brand mantra Mixing and matching of brand elements Integrating brand marketing activities Leveraging of secondary associations Brand Value Chain Brand audits Brand tracking Brand equity management system Brand-product matrix Brand portfolios and hierarchies Brand expansion strategies Brand reinforcement and revitalization
schiffman15_im 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)”绝密资料
CHAPTER 15Consumer Influence and the Diffusion of InnovationsLEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter studying this chapter students should be able to:1.Define opinion leadership and explain the dynamics of the opinion leadership process.2.Describe viral marketing.3.Describe the dynamics of the opinion leadership process.4.Describe the motivations of opinion leaders and opinion receivers.5.Explain the four basic measurement techniques for measuring opinion leadership.6.Profile the opinion leader.7.Profile a market maven and its importance.8.Discuss how the situational environment, the interpersonal flow, and the multistep flowaffect opinion leadership.9.Describe how opinion leaders can be created.10.Describe the diffusion process including the four approaches for defining a new product.11.Identify the five characteristics that influence diffusion.12.Outline the channels of communication available to assist the diffusion process.13.Explain the importance of time and three interrelated elements of time to diffusion.14.Discuss the five stages in the consumer adoption process.15.Profile the consumer innovator.16.List and explain the personality traits of the consumer innovator.SUMMARYOpinion leadership is the process by which one person (the opinion leader) informally influences the actions or attitudes of others, who may be opinion seekers or merely opinion recipients. Opinion receivers perceive the opinion leader as a highly credible, objective source of product information who can help reduce their search time and perceived risk. Opinion leaders, in turn, are motivated to give information or advice to others in part because doing so enhances their own status and self-image and because such advice tends to reduce any postpurchase dissonance that they may have. Other motives include product involvement, “other” involvement, and message involvement.Market researchers identify opinion leaders by such methods as self-designation, key informants, the sociometric method, and the objective method. Studies of opinion leadership indicate that this phenomenon tends to be product-specific; that is, individuals “specialize”in a product or product category in which they are highly interested. An opinion leader for one product category may be an opinion receiver for another.Generally, opinion leaders are gregarious, self-confident, innovative people who like to talk. Additionally, they may feel differentiated from others and choose to act differently (or publicindividuation). They acquire information about their areas of interest through avid readership of special-interest magazines and by means of new-product trials. Their interests often overlap adjacent product areas; thus, their opinion leadership may extend into related areas. The market maven is an intensive case of such a person. These consumers possess a wide range of information about many different types of products, retail outlets, and other dimensions of markets. They both initiate discussions with other consumers and respond to requests for market information over a wide range of products and services. Market mavens are also distinguishable from other opinion leaders, because their influence stems not so much from product experience but from a more general knowledge or market expertise that leads them to an early awareness of a wide array of new products and services.The opinion leadership process usually takes place among friends, neighbors, and work associates who have frequent physical proximity and, thus, have ample opportunity to hold informal product-related conversations. These conversations usually occur naturally in the context of the product-category usage.The two-step flow of communication theory highlights the role of interpersonal influence in the transmission of information from the mass media to the population at large. This theory provides the foundation for a revised multistep flow of communication model, which takes into account the fact that information and influence often are two-way processes and that opinion leaders both influence and are influenced by opinion receivers.Marketers recognize the strategic value of segmenting their audiences into opinion leaders and opinion receivers for their product categories. When marketers can direct their promotional efforts to the more influential segments of their markets, these individuals will transmit this information to those who seek product advice. Marketers try to both simulate and stimulate opinion leadership. They have also found that they can create opinion leaders for their products by taking socially involved or influential people and deliberately increasing their enthusiasm for a product category.The diffusion process and the adoption process are two closely related concepts concerned with the acceptance of new products by consumers. The diffusion process is a macro process that focuses on the spread of an innovation (a new product, service, or idea) from its source to the consuming public. The adoption process is a micro process that examines the stages through which an individual consumer passes when making a decision to accept or reject a new product. The definition of the term innovation can be firm-oriented (new to the firm), product-oriented (a continuous innovation, a dynamically continuous innovation, or a discontinuous innovation), market-oriented (how long the product has been on the market or an arbitrary percentage of the potential target market that has purchased it), or consumer oriented (new to the consumer). Market-oriented definitions of innovation are most useful to consumer researchers in the study of the diffusion and adoption of new products.Five product characteristics influence the consumer’s acceptance of a new product: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability (or communicability).Diffusion researchers are concerned with two aspects of communication—the channels through which word of a new product is spread to the consuming public and the types of messages that influence the adoption or rejection of new products. Diffusion is always examined in the context of a specific social system, such as a target market, a community, a region, or even a nation.Time is an integral consideration in the diffusion process. Researchers are concerned with the amount of purchase time required for an individual consumer to adopt or reject a new product, with the rate of adoption, and with the identification of sequential adopters. The five-adopter categories are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.Marketing strategists try to control the rate of adoption through their new product pricing policies. Marketers who wish to penetrate the market to achieve market leadership try to achieve wide adoption as quickly as possible by using low prices. Those who wish to recoup their developmental costs quickly use a skimming pricing policy but lengthen the adoption process.The traditional adoption process model describes five stages through which an individual consumer passes to arrive at the decision to adopt or reject a new product: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. To make it more realistic, an enhanced model is suggested as one that considers the possibility of a pre-existing need or problem, the likelihood that some form of evaluation might occur through the entire process, and that even after adoption there will be postadoption or purchase evaluation that might either strengthen the commitment or alternatively lead to discontinuation.New-product marketers are vitally concerned with identifying the consumer innovator so that they may direct their promotional campaigns to the people who are most likely to try new products, adopt them, and influence others. Consumer research has identified a number of consumer-related characteristics, including: product interest, opinion leadership, personality factors, purchase and consumption traits, media habits, social characteristics, and demographic variables that distinguish consumer innovators from later adopters. These serve as useful variables in the segmentation of markets for new product introductions.CHAPTER OUTLINEWHAT IS OPINION LEADERSHIP?1.Perhaps the most important thing for marketers to understand about word of mouth (personalinfluence) is its huge potential economic impact.2.Opinion leadership (or word-of-mouth communications) is the process by which one person(the opinion leader) informally influences the actions or attitudes of others, who may be opinion seekers or merely opinion recipients.3.The key characteristic of the influence is that it is interpersonal and informal and takes placebetween two or more people, none of whom represents a commercial selling source that would gain directly from the sale of something.4.One of the parties in a word-of-mouth encounter usually offers advice or information about aproduct or service, such as which of several brands is best, or how a particular product may be used.a)This person is the opinion leader and may become an opinion receiver.b)Individuals who actively seek information and advice about products are sometimescalled opinion seekers.c)The terms opinion receiver and opinion recipient will be used interchangeably.5.Most studies of opinion leadership are concerned with the measurement of the behavioralimpact that opinion leaders have on the consumption habits of others.6.Influentials, opinion leaders are:a)Almost four times more likely than others to be asked about political and governmentissues, as well as how to handle teens.b)Three times more likely to be asked about computers or investments; andc)Twice as likely to be asked about health issues and restaurants.7.When an information seeker knows little about a particular product or service, a strong-tiesource will be sought.8.When the consumer has some prior knowledge of the subject area, then a weak-tie source isacceptable.Word of Mouth in Today’s Always in Contact World1.Today, many people find themselves, by choice, to be “always” available to friends, family,and business associates.2.An interesting phenomenon of the increased use of cell phones is the generation of youngerusers (consumers) who are the “thumb generation” because they use their thumbs to manipulate the functions on their cell phones. Does this make them unique?Viral Marketing1.Also known as “buzz marketing,” “wildfire marketing,” “avalanche marketing,” or any oneof a dozen other names, viral marketing describes any strategy that encourages individuals to pass on a marketing message to others, creating the potential for exponential growth in the message’s exposure and influence.2.Viral marketing is the marriage of e-mail and word of mouth.3.It is called “viral” because it allows a message to spread like a virus.DYNAMICS OF THE OPINION LEADERSHIP PROCESS1.Opinion leadership as a process is a very dynamic and powerful consumer force.a)As informal communication sources, opinion leaders are remarkably effective atinfluencing consumers in their product-related decisions.Credibility1.Opinion leaders are highly credible sources of information, because they usually areperceived as objective concerning the product or service information or advice they dispense.a)Their intentions are perceived as being in the best interests of the opinion recipients.Positive and Negative Product Informationrmation provided by marketers is invariably favorable to the product and/or brand.2.The very fact that opinion leaders provide both favorable and unfavorable information addsto their credibility.Information and Advice1.Opinion leaders are the source of both information and advice.a)They may simply talk about their experience with a product, relate what they knowabout a product, or, more aggressively, advise others to buy or to avoid a specific product.2.The kinds of product or service information that opinion leaders are likely to transmit include:a)Which of several brands is best.b)How to best use a specific product.c)Where to shop.d)Who provides the best service.Opinion Leadership Is Category-Specific1.Opinion leadership tends to be category-specific; that is, opinion leaders often “specialize” incertain product categories about which they offer information and advice.2.When other product categories are discussed, however, they are just as likely to reverse theirroles and become opinion receivers.Opinion Leadership Is a Two-Way Street1.Consumers who are opinion leaders in one product-related situation may become opinionreceivers in another situation, even for the same product.2.An opinion leader may also be influenced by an opinion receiver as the result of a product-related conversation.THE MOTIVATION BEHIND OPINION LEADERSHIPThe Needs of Opinion Leaders1.Motivation theory suggests that people may provide information or advice to others to satisfysome basic need of their own.a)Opinion leaders may be unaware of their own underlying motives.b)Opinion leaders may simply be trying to reduce their own postpurchase dissonance.2.The information or advice that an opinion leader dispenses may provide all types oftangential personal benefits, it may confer attention, imply some type of status, grant superiority, demonstrate awareness and expertise, and give the feeling of possessing inside information and the satisfaction of “converting” less adventurous souls.3.In addition to self-involvement, the opinion leader may also be motivated by productinvolvement, social involvement, and message involvement.4.Opinion leaders who are motivated by product involvement may find themselves so pleasedor so disappointed with a product that they simply must tell others about it.5.Those who are motivated by social involvement need to share product-related experiences.a)Individuals who are bombarded with advertising messages and slogans tend to discussthem and the products they are designed to sell.The Needs of Opinion Receivers1.Opinion receivers satisfy a variety of needs by engaging in product-related conversations.a)First, they obtain new-product or new-usage information.b)Second, they reduce their perceived risk by receiving firsthand knowledge from a userabout a specific product or brand.c)Third, they reduce the search time entailed in the identification of a needed product orservice.d)Moreover, opinion receivers can be certain of receiving the approval of the opinionleader.2.Research reveals that women and men differ with respect to the types of products andPurchase Pals1.Purchase pals serve as information sources that actually accompany consumers on shoppingtrips.2.Although purchase pals were used only 9 percent of the time for grocery items, they wereused 25 percent of the time for purchases of electronic equipment.3.Male purchase pals are more likely to be used as sources of product category expertise,product information, and retail store and price information.4.Female purchase pals are more often used for moral support and to increase confidence in thebuyer’s decisions.Surrogate Buyers Versus Opinion Leaders1.There are instances in which surrogate buyers replace opinion leaders in this role.2.For example, workingwomen are increasingly turning to wardrobe consultants for help inpurchasing business attire, most new drugs start out requiring a doctor’s prescription, and many service providers make decisions for their clients.MEASUREMENT OF OPINION LEADERSHIP1.In measuring opinion leadership, the researcher has a choice of four basic measurementtechniques:a)The self-designating method.b)The sociometric method.c)The key informant method.d)The objective method.2.In the self-designating method, respondents are asked to evaluate the extent to which theyhave provided others with information about a product category or specific brand or have otherwise influenced the purchase decisions of others.a)The self-designating technique is used more often than other methods for measuringopinion leadership because consumer researchers find it easy to include in market research questionnaires.b)Because this method relies on the respon dent’s self-evaluation, however, it may be opento bias.3.The sociometric method measures the person-to-person informal communication ofconsumers concerning products or product categories.a)Respondents are asked to identify:i)The specific individuals (if any) to whom they provided advice or informationabout the product or brand under study.ii)The specific individuals (if any) who provided them with advice or information about the product or brand under study.b)Individuals designated by the primary respondent are tentatively classified as opinionleaders.c)This approach has useful applications to the study of consumer behavior.d)Any intact community provides an opportunity to measure and evaluate the flow ofword-of-mouth communications concerning a new product and its subsequent impact on product trial.4. A key informant is a person who is keenly aware or knowledgeable about the nature of socialcommunications among members of a specific group.a)The key informant is asked to identify those individuals in the group who are mostlikely to be opinion leaders.b)The key informant does not have to be a member of the group under study.c)This research method is relatively inexpensive, because it requires that only oneindividual or at most several individuals be intensively interviewed, whereas the self-designating and sociometric methods require that a consumer sample or entire community be interviewed.d)The key informant method, however, is generally not used by marketers because of thedifficulties inherent in identifying an individual who can objectively identify opinion leaders in a relevant consumer group.e)The key informant method would seem to be of greatest potential use in the study ofindustrial or institutional opinion leadership.5.The objective method is much like a “controlled experiment”—it involves placing newproducts or new product information with selected individuals and then tracing the resulting “Web” of interpersonal communication concerning the relevant product(s).A PROFILE OF THE OPINION LEADER1.Just who are opinion leaders?a)Marketers have long sought answers to this question.b)If they are able to identify the relevant opinion leaders for their products, they candesign marketing messages that encourage them to communicate with and influence the consumption behavior of others.2.Consumer researchers have attempted to develop a realistic profile of the opinion leader.a)They reveal a keen sense of knowledge and interest in the particular product or servicearea, and they are likely to be consumer innovators.b)They also demonstrate a greater willingness to talk about the product, service, or topic;they are more self-confident; and they are more outgoing.3.Within the context of a specific subject area, opinion leaders receive more information vianonpersonal sources and are considered by members of their groups to have expertise in their area of influence.4.Mass media exposure or habits—opinion leaders are likely to read special-interestpublications devoted to the specific topic or product category in which they “specialize.”a)The opinion leader tends to have greater exposure to media specifically relevant to hisor her area of interest than the nonleader.b)Mass and targeted (special-interest) media like to point out the impact that theirparticular audience has on influencing the tastes and buying behavior of others.FREQUENCY AND OVERLAP OF OPINION LEADERSHIP1.Opinion leadership is not a rare phenomenon.a)More than one-third of the people studied in a consumer research project are classifiedas opinion leaders with respect to some self-selected product category.2.Do opinion leaders in one product category tend to be opinion leaders in other productcategories?a)The answer comes from opinion leadership overlap research.b)Opinion leadership tends to overlap across certain combinations of interest areas.c)Overlap is likely to be highest among product categories that involve similar interests.3.Market maven—these consumers possess a wide range of information about many differenttypes of products, retail outlets, and other dimensions of markets.a)They both initiate discussions with other consumers and respond to requests for marketinformation.b)Although they appear to fit the profile of opinion leaders in that they have high levels ofbrand awareness and tend to try more brands, unlike opinion leaders their influence extends beyond the realm of high-involvement products.c)Market mavens are also distinguishable from other opinion leaders because theirinfluence stems not so much from product experience but from a more general knowledge or market expertise that leads them to an early awareness of a wide array of new products and services.THE SITUATIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF OPINION LEADERSHIP1.Product discussions generally occur within relevant situational contexts (e.g., when a specificproduct or a similar product is used or serves as an outgrowth of a more general discussion that touches on the product category).2.Opinion leaders and opinion receivers often are friends, neighbors, or work associates, forexisting friendships provide numerous opportunities for conversation concerning product-related topics.3.Close physical proximity is likely to increase the occurrences of product-relatedconversations.THE INTERPERSONAL FLOW OF COMMUNICATION1. A classic study of voting behavior concluded that ideas often flow from radio and printmedia to opinion leaders and from them to the general public.2.This so-called two-step flow of communication theory portrays opinion leaders as directreceivers of information from impersonal mass-media sources, which in turn transmit (and interpret) this information to the masses.3.This theory views the opinion leader as a middleman between the impersonal mass mediaand the majority of society.Multistep Flow of Communication Theory1. A more comprehensive model of the interpersonal flow of communication depicts thetransmission of information from the media as a multistep flow.2.The revised model takes into account the fact that information and influence often are two-way processes in which opinion leaders both influence and are influenced by opinion receivers.a)This is presented as an illustration of the multi-step flow of communication theory.OPINION LEADERSHIP AND THE FIRM’S MARKETING STRATEGY1.Marketers have long been aware of the power that opinion leadership exerts on consumers’preferences and actual purchase behavior.2.Many marketers look for an opportunity to encourage word-of-mouth communications andother favorable informal conversations.3.New product designers take advantage of the effectiveness of word-of-mouth communicationby deliberately designing products to have word-of-mouth potential.a) A new product should give customers something to talk about.4.Proof of the power of word-of-mouth is the cases in which critics hate a movie and theviewing public like it and tell their friends.a)In instances where informal word of mouth does not spontaneously emerge from theuniqueness of the product or its marketing strategy, some marketers have deliberately attempted to stimulate or to simulate opinion leadership.Programs Designed to Stimulate Opinion Leadership1.Advertising and promotional programs designed to persuade consumers to “tell your friendshow much you like our product”are one way in which marketers encourage consumer discussions of their products or services.2.The objective of a promotional strategy of stimulation is to run advertisements or a directmarketing program that is sufficiently interesting and informative to provoke consumers into discussing the benefits of the product with others.Advertisements Simulating Opinion Leadership1. A firm’s advertisements can also be designed to simulate product discussions by portrayingpeople in the act of informal communication.Word-of-Mouth May Be Uncontrollablermal communication is difficult to control.2.Negative comments, frequently in the form of rumors that are untrue, can sweep through themarketplace to the detriment of a product.3.Indeed, a study by the White House Office of Consumer Affairs found that 90 percent ormore of unhappy customers would not do business again with the company that is the source of their dissatisfaction.a)Each dissatisfied customer will share his or her grievance with at least nine other people,and 13 percent of unhappy customers will tell more than 20 people about the negative experience.4.Some common rumor themes are:a)The product was produced under unsanitary conditions.b)The product contained an unwholesome or culturally unacceptable ingredient.c)The product functioned as an undesirable depressant or stimulant.d)The product included a cancer-causing element or agent.e)The firm was owned or influenced by an unfriendly or misguided foreign country,governmental agency, or religious cult.5.Some marketers have used toll-free telephone numbers in an attempt to head off negativeword-of-mouth, displaying an 800 number prominently on their products’ labels.6. A particularly challenging form of “negative”word-of-mouth can be generated today overthe Internet, when a dissatisfied consumer decides to post his or her story on a bulletin board for all to see.Creation of Opinion Leaders1.Marketing strategists agree that promotional efforts would be significantly improved if theycould segment their markets into opinion leaders and opinion receivers.2.Some researchers have suggested that it might be more fruitful to “create” product-specificopinion leaders.3.In one classic study, a group of socially influential high school students (class presidents andsports captains) were asked to become members of a panel that would rate newly released records.a)As part of their responsibilities, panel participants were encouraged to discuss theirrecord choices with friends.b)This study suggests that product-specific opinion leaders can be created by takingsocially involved or influential people and deliberately increasing their enthusiasm for a product category.DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS1.Consumer acceptance of new products and services is studied from the research perspectiveknown as the diffusion of innovations.a)This diffusion requires an understanding of two related processes:i)Diffusion process.ii)Adoption process.2.Diffusion is a macro process concerned with the spread of a new product (an innovation)from its source to the consuming public.3.Adoption is a micro process that focuses on the stages through which an individual consumerpasses when deciding to accept or reject a new product.4.In addition to an examination of these two interrelated processes, the chapter presents aprofile of consumer innovators.THE DIFFUSION PROCESS1.The diffusion process is concerned with how innovations spread, and how they areassimilated within a market.2.Diffusion is the process by which the acceptance of an innovation is spread bycommunication to members of a social system over a period of time.3.There are four elements to the definition:a)The innovation.b)The channel of communication.c)The social system.d)Time.。
keller 战略品牌管理 02 中山大学吴柏林教授 广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)绝密资料
Breadth of brand awareness
– Purchase consideration – Consumption consideration
WARMTH FUN EXCITEMENT SECURITY SOCIAL APPROVAL SELF-RESPECT
PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS & SECONDARY FEATURES PRODUCT RELIABILITY, DURABILITY & SERVICEABILITY SERVICE EFFECTIVENESS, EFFICIENCY, & EMPATHY STYLE AND DESIGN PRICE
History, heritage, & experiences
– Nostalgia – Memories
8
Judgment Dimensions
Brand quality
– Value – Satisfaction
Brand credibility
– Expertise – Trustworthiness – Likability
Performance
0.65
Judgment
0.49
Resonance
0.17 0.66
Imaings
Brand Salience
DEEP, BROAD BRAND AWARENESS
Sub-Dimensions of CBBE Pyramid
LOYALTY ATTACHMENT COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
论广告意识形态 中山大学吴柏林教授,广告心理学,清华大学出版社,绝密资料
识和心理状态的投影 。广告为 向大众消费者推销产
品 ,往往借大 众能接 受 的观念来展 开说服 工作 ,这 种
观念不会是无源之水 、无本之木与脱离现实的想象 ,
而是现实的 图画 。
广告之所以能 够成功地发挥这种意识形态作用 , 使消费者放松兽锡 ,丧失理性 思维能 力 ,甚 至产生对
表层意识形态把持着话语的权 力 ,它总是无所不 知、 一贯正确地 向人们灌输种种教条 ,教导人们该 如 何思想 、 如何生活 ,在智力和道德上似乎拥有凌驾于
知识 、 立场 、 观点 ,往往会被它的产生者 — 特殊的社 会群体有意或无意地普泛化 , 扩大到超 出特定范 围 , 具 有超常的适用性 和正确性 ,简而 言之 ,一种 话语 强
权。
当代广告 无疑 正上演 着这样一场 意 识形 态化 的 戏剧 一开始 ,广告生产着观点 、 知识 、 信仰 、 立场 与价 值 ,后来则借 助媒体帝 国的霸权之手 ,对不设防 的受 众进行天长 日久的渗透和包 围 , 以 图谋一场 精 神的 “ 和平演变 ”最终将某种隶属于特殊集 团的世界观和 ,
本来就 只是物 质世界 的推销 术 ,染指意识 形态 只是广
们消费 ,因此 ,无论广告再怎么天花乱坠 ,或者清静无 为 ,它都始终是为消费服务 ,以消费主义为中心的 。 因
此广告是一种消费文化 ,广告的深 层意识形态从根本 上说 ,其价值 内核就是消费主义 。广告表 层意识形态 的所有观点 、 法 、 说 立场是 以此 为 中心 建构起来 的种 种 “ 言语 ” 而消费主义则是隐藏在所有表 层表达之 , 下 ,生成表 层话语的最根本的深 层结构 。伴随 着以广 告为代表的消费意识形态的耳濡 目染 ,以消费主义为 中心 的意识形态 已经完成对 当代人 的脱胎换骨式 的 改造 ,使之建立起在消费中寻找价值和意义的生活方 式。 人们在 消费 中发现 自我 、 确证社会 身份 、 得社 取 会认 同 ,人们还在 消费 中找寻人生的方 向 ,更 习惯 了 用物质的 占有来标 生命价值的高度和效度 。 在广告 所建立 的物 质神话里 ,现 代人找 到 了安 身立命 、 立心
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料_KOTLER08
Chapter 8 – Dealing with the CompetitionI. Chapter Overview/Objectives/OutlineA. OverviewIn the marketplace, many companies develop effective products, channels, pricing, and advertising. However, many of these companies lose in the marketplace. There may be many reasons, but a critical variable may be an inability to understand the competitive environment and to gather and utilize data on that environment.To prepare an effective marketing strategy, a company must consider its competitors as well as its actual and potential customers. This is especially necessary in slow growth markets because firms generally gain sales by wining them away from competitors.A company‘s closest competitors seek to satisfy the same customers and needs and make similar product and service offers. A company should also pay attention to its latent competitors that may offer new and/or different ways to satisfy the same needs. The company should identify its competitors by using both an industry and market-based analysis.A company should gather information on competitor strategies, objectives, strengths, weak-nesses, and reaction patterns. The company should study and understand competitor strategies in order to identify its closest competitors and take appropriate action. The company should know the competitor‘s objectives in order to anticipate further moves and reactions. Knowledge of the competitor‘s strengths and weaknesses permits the company to refine its own strategy to take advantage of competitor weaknesses while avoiding engagements where the competitor is strong. Understanding typical competitor reaction patterns helps the company choose and time its moves.The firm should collect, interpret, and disseminate competitive intelligence continuously. Company marketing executives should be able to obtain full and reliable information about any competitor that could have bearing on a decision. As important as a competitive orientation is in today‘s markets, companies should not overdo their focus on competitors. Changing consumer needs and latent competitors are more likely to hurt a firm than the existing competitors. Companies that maintain a good balance of consumer and competitor considerations are practicing effective market orientation.B. Teaching Objectives∙Know the difference between the industry and market concepts of competition.∙Understand how to identify competitor strategies.∙Understand how to determine competitor objectives.∙Understand how to estimate competitor reaction patterns.∙Know how to design competitive intelligence systems.∙Know how to select competitors to attack or avoid.Understand what it means to balance a customer and competitor orientation.C. Chapter OutlineI.Introductionpetitive Markets and CompetitorsA.Market Attractiveness - Porter‘s Five Forces determine the attractiveness of themarket1.Three of the Porter forces emanate from threats related to competitors:intense segment rivalry, new entrants and substitute products.2.The other two forces respond to threats connected to the firm‘s moreimmediate market environment: Buyer bargaining power and supplierbargaining power.III.Identifying Competitors -Four levels: brand, industry, form, and genericA.Industry Concept of Competition - Changing with the Internet1.Number of Sellers and Degree of Differentiation (monopoly, oligopoly,monopolistic competition, and pure competition)2.Entry, Mobility, and Exit Barriersa)Ease of entry into market and various (existing and new)segmentsb)Exit and Shrinkage Barriers - Ease of exit and reduction in size.3.Cost Structure - Reducing largest costs and most cost efficient plant(s)4.Degree of Vertical Integrationa)Backward and forwardb)Integration from source through retail (degree of)c)Outsourcing to specialists to lower costs5.Degree of GlobalizationB.Market Concept of Competition1.Many companies make the same product2.Many companies pay attention to other companies that satisfy the samecustomer need.petitor AnalysisA.Strategies: Strategic groups – differs, depending on various key variables in anindustry.B.Objectives: What drives the competitors – constant monitoring.C.Strengths and Weaknesses – competitive positions in the market:1.Dominant, strong, favorable, tenable, weak, nonviable.2.The basis for evaluation of strengths and weaknesses:a)Share of marketb)Share of mindc)Share of heartd)Result: Those that make steady gains in mind and heart shareinevitably make gains in market share and profitability.D.Reaction Patterns1.Depends on competitive equilibrium2.Single factor critical and multiple competitive factorspetitive Intelligence SystemA.Designing the Competitive Intelligence System1.Four Main Steps:a)Setting up the systemb)Collecting the datac)Evaluating and analyzing the datad)Disseminating information and respondingB.Selecting competitors to attack and to avoid - major steps in customer valueanalysis are:1.Customer Value Analysis - Evaluating major attributes that customersvalue.a)Assess quantitative importance of the different attributes.b)Assess company and competitor performance on the differentcustomer values against their rated importance.c)Examine how customers in a specific segment rate thecompany‘s performance against a specific major competitor onan attribute-by-attribute basis.d)Monitor customer values over time.2.Classes of Competitors - following customer value analysis:a)Strong versus weakb)Close versus distantc)Good versus badd)Customer value analysis helps a marketer perceivecompany/product value to a customer relative to competitorproduct value(s).VI.Designing Competitive StrategiesA.Market-Leader Strategies1.Expanding the total market, with new users, new uses, and more usage.2.Defending market share, with position, flank, preemptive,counteroffensive, mobile, and contraction defensive strategies.3.Expanding market share (note Procter & Gamble and Caterpillar casestudies) - Line-extension, brand-extension, multibrand, etc., strategies.B.Market-Challenger Strategies1.Defining the strategic objective snd the opponents2.Choosing a general attack strategy (frontal, flank, encirclement, bypass,guerrilla)a)Marketing Skills: Guerrilla Marketing - Creative Thinking(maximum customer attention with minimal investment)3.Choosing a specific attack strategy (Price-discount, lower-price goods,prestige goods, product proliferation, product innovation, improvedservices, distribution innovation, manufacturing cost reduction, andintensive advertising promotion)C.Market-Follower Strategies1.Levitt: product imitation might be as profitable as product innovation2.Broad strategies: counterfeiter, cloner, imitator, adapterD.Market-Nicher Strategies1.The key is specialization2.They must constantly create new niches, expand and protect.3.High margin versus high volumeE.Balancing Customer and Competitor Orientations1. A firm should not become consumed by a competitor-centered strategy.2. A customer-centered company relies on customer developments andresearch and can better identify new opportunities and long runmarketing strategies.VII.SummaryII. LecturesA. “Competitive Intelligence”This discussion focuses on the uses of various sources of information for marketing. It is useful to update the examples so that students will be able to identify readily with this concept based on their general knowledge of the techniques, companies, and products involved in the lecture/discussion. There are many different approaches to competitor research. Marketers should consider the process and implications.Teaching Objectives∙To stimulate students to think about the need for and value of competitive analysis.∙To present points to consider in proceeding with development of a competitive analysis program.∙Recognize some of the better sources of information for various marketing questions.DiscussionI NTRODUCTIONIn the marketplace, many companies do a first class job of developing a great product, great channels, great pricing, and great advertising. You might say—Wow! That is great. However, many of these companies not only lose in the marketplace, but they lose big.The reasons may be management, financial, etc., but when we get right down to it the answer may be much more interesting. The critical variable may be the competitive intelligence that the firm failed to get at the right time, with the right detail. In this discussion, we will look at some of the issues and questions behind choosing the right sources as well as approaches that might be useful in preparing the competitive intelligence program that will do the job.First, the Kotler text gives some excellent examples of how to scan the competitive environment. As part of this framework, it also is useful to determine where to get the information, that the analyst is able to determine where and how to use the questions asked, and that the data developed is based on the marketing and strategic plans, not just collected in a random manner. This requires knowledge of a number of variables and then bringing it all together to be utilized in the firm‘s marketing positioning effort. Remember, to achieve an effective competitive analysis it is essential to place the process in perspective.C OMPETITIVE A NALYSISThe logical starting point for the strategy analysis is to understand effectively the competitive structure and attractiveness of the industry. It is important to recognize that some industries are and will be more profitable than others. It is important also to know the real strengths of the industry, and the firms within the industry, not only in overall terms but also in specific detail. Many times appearances can be deceiving. Consider, for example, companies that project a great public relations image but in reality are quite the opposite. (Enron could serve well as an example).A logical overview of this process comes from Porter‘s five basic forces of competition:∙Threat of new entrants∙Rivalry among existing competitors∙Bargaining power of suppliers∙Bargaining power of buyers∙Threat of substitutesWhat determines the strength of each of these five forces in the industry? The process is shaped by a number of underlying structural determinants. It is important to remember that any of the forces that undermine the structure of an industry likely will cause profitability to decline. A good example is the dot-coms that raced to steal markets from the existing well-organized physical retailers but had little to offer except investor hype. Their inability to show quality and superior results led to investor disenchantment and the loss of confidence that they could produce a profit against the existing competition. This, in turn, led to massive dot-com failures, consolidation in the industry, and finally the successful entrance of many major retailers with name, cash, and ability to stay the course.To begin this process, the firm should develop a complete evaluation of the competitive framework and the specific competition. This would include a detailed compilation of the competitors, both real and potential, along with their products, marketing capability,service, production strength, financial strength, and management. Next, you must detail where each firm, including your own, fits into the industry in terms of products, marketing capability, service, production strength, financial strength, and management. At this point, you should be able to develop a thorough analysis of the following, for the past, present, and future:∙Degree of industry concentration∙Changes in type and mix of products∙Market ―segments‖ in the firm and industry (and changes)∙Companies that have left and/or entered the industry (and why)∙Industry market share changes (and why – technology, substitution, etc.)∙Company market shares and share changes∙New technology substitution∙Each firm‘s vulnerability to new technologyIn addition to these specific competitive characteristics, the firm should focus on the various financial, economic, technological, and socio-political factors in the industry environment. This information is available through a variety of sources, including: ∙Company Web sites and literature∙Industry trade show observation and contactsOnline databases, including Lexis-Nexis, EBSCO, First Source, PROMPT, Trade & Industry, and Investext, along with various other online sources, such as the TV networks, Hoover, investment houses (Schwab, Merrill Lynch, etc.), The Wall Street Journal (WSJ), BusinessWeek (BW), etc.It is import ant to understand each firm‘s position within the industry. Companies in large or small industries have varying levels of profitability, and it is important to understand what it takes to be a superior performer in industry. Information that may assist in this process might include some or all of the following:∙How the industry might change, in the short to long term.∙How the competing firms within an industry differ in the way in which the competitive forces influence each of the competitors.∙Identify the companies that have the power to shape the industry. These companies could either make the industry or cause the demise.∙New product development potential within the industry and which firms have the ability to make it happen.This analysis should first provide a detailed and technical description of the products and services offered, including product mix, depth, and breadth of product line.This should lead to a clear understanding and listing of market position by product, citing product strengths and weaknesses individually and in the overall product line.Among the sources for this information are company Web sites, company product literature, WSJ, BW, and online databases including DIALOG, LEXIS-NEXIS, and Hoover.Another important area is R&D expenditures (industry and by company), analysis of each company‘s research and development expenditures and capabilities, along with a run down on technical personnel and expertise. Sources for this information include EBSCO, LEXIS-NEXIS, DIALOG, Hoover, PROMPT, Trade & Industry, and Investext.Next, it is important to understand clearly who holds which patents (current and pending), the product standards and specifications, including a quality and technical analysis. Some of the better sources for this could include: Claims, World Patent Index, Derwent, and IFI/Plenum Claims. Company Web sites and trade show industry contacts also can provide valuable clues in this part of the effort.The last piece of information needed in this section of the competitive intelligence analysis includes a new product introductions analysis (past, present, and expected). Some good sources for this information include press releases (company/industry Web sites), Predicast New Product Announcements, and sales force contacts. In addition, EBSCO, LEXIS-NEXIS, DIALOG, and various investor sources can provide valuable insight.M ARKETSOften, firms have a good overall understanding of the markets they are in or wish to compete in, but they tend to operate with the same attitude and perspectives that have existed in the company and industry for many years. To truly understand the market, the potential new competitor should have a solid grasp of the factors that make and drive the market for the product or service. For example, the firm should have a detailed compendium of the following, by firm within the industry:∙Market segmentation∙Customer base (markets targeted, regional sales analysis, penetration, importance to each firm)∙Profiles of markets and customers (including product mix and sales data by product line)∙Market growth and potential for future growth∙Market share by product line∙Market and geographic areas targeted for expansion∙Marketing tactics and strategies (4 Ps, especially price and promotion)∙Distribution network/channels of distribution∙Advertising/marketing/sales efforts including budgets and advertising / marketing firms usedAmong the sources that could be used on this activity are: PTS MARS, magazine ads, Prompt, Investext, Trade & Industry, SEC reports, Newspapers, Newswires, BW, Fortune, WSJ, company Web sites, etc.I NTERNATIONAL/G LOBALDepending on the expected competition and market activity, it is essential that the competitive intelligence effort include a foreign trade analysis. Without access to some expensive databases that provide specific product sales and market share information, it would be best to look at and evaluate recent order information, government contracts, and individual sales forces overseas (performance, experience, compensation, etc.). For U.S. firms, StatUSA provides an excellent data source, along with PIERS Exports & Imports, Commerce Business Daily, Newspapers (especially WSJ, NYT, BW), LEXIS-NEXIS, and DIALOG.S TRATEGY/D ECISION M AKINGIdentification of marketing and corporate strategies probably is one of the more important requirements of any competitive analysis. For this, most firms need experienced professional input, along with extensive use of the Internet, DIALOG, and other similar tools noted above. Below, we have established for each firm in the industry several important the intelligence needs, followed by selected sourcing:∙Apparent strategic (long-range) plans, including details of acquisition and divestiture strategy, etc. (SEC filings)∙New products on the horizon—with indications of a new direction for the company. (PROMPT, press releases, newspapers)∙Apparent strategic objectives: corporate/divisional/subsidiary company priorities; business unit/segment goals; basic business philosophy/targets.(Suppliers, employees, wholesalers)∙Analysis of company‘s decision-making process. Overall company image and reputation. Company‘s ability to change. How will the companylook/perform in the future? Anti-takeover measures instituted; the firm‘skey success factors? The key objective: Why has the firm been successful,overall? (Shareholder lawsuits pending, LEXIS-NEXIS)∙Corporate attitudes toward risk. (legal databases, employees, suppliers)∙Statements of plans to enter new markets, improve market position, and/or increase market share. (Trade journals, top executive speeches, PROMPT,marketing analysts).Following this exercise, the analysis should provide a clear understanding of the operation of the industry, and the competing firm should be able to utilize this information to provide an overall planning framework, strategy plan, and marketing plan to take advantage of current and future market opportunities.B. “Does Preemptive Marketing Work?”The focus here is on Porter‘s framework for preemptive strategy in a marketing settin g, and the role and value of this concept in the overall marketing process and strategy for the company. Many students will be able to identify readily with this concept based on their general knowledge of the companies and products involved in the lecture/discussion.The discussion begins by considering why a leader firm would consider preemptive strategy as a means of maintaining or increasing the firm‘s market position. This leads into a discussion of the implications for the introduction of a preemptive strategy for other firms in the industry in the medium and long-term.Teaching Objectives∙Stimulate students to think about the critical issues, pro and con, for a firm when it moves toward adoption of a preemptive strategy approach.∙To consider how to proceed with a preemptive strategy.∙To discuss the role of preemptive strategies in helping the firm achieve a position in the industry.DiscussionI NTRODUCTIONPreemptive marketing involves many different possibilities for the leader to assume a defensive or offensive position in the market and with competitors. The primary elements for a firm to consider in a preemptive action are that delay and/or position are critical and that nothing is forever. The firm must recognize that eventually it will be essential to conduct some type of preemptive action if it is to maintain control or partial control of the niche or share position.There are many reasons for a leader to adopt a preemptive strategy approach, but often it is a consequence of product maturity. The leader firm recognizes that another firm(s) has developed a superior capability in product or service. While it is possible for a challenger or other strategic planning firm to develop a preemptive position, the reasons tend to be more to disrupt the course of the industry in order to gain advantage against an entrenched leader. While this can be a very beneficial move, it has a tendency to convey a message to other firms in the industry that the firm could be posing a serious threat to all others in the industry. Firms that have done this, such as People Express, often find they are able to ride the crest of the wave of success only so far and so long, unable to sustain against the retaliatory moves of the industry in general. The primary preemptive objective of the leader or challenger is to maintain or occupy more of the critical or prime positions in the industry. This could include positioning their company or product in the mind of the consumers or distributors, preemptive control of the physical locations for retail facilities, preemptive control of critical raw materials, and/or preemptive control of other resources critical to success in the industry.IDENTIFYING PREEMPTIVE OPPORTUNITIESThere are many ways to succeed to achieve a preemptive advantage, but identification of a weak link in the commitment from one or more firms in the industry is a good starting point. Among the various positions that Porter demonstrates is the attempt to secure access to rawmaterials or components. This ploy has worked primarily in those industries where raw or primary industries are critical to operations or success.In like manner, programs to preempt production equipment have worked effectively. This situation works best where the production equipment involves proprietary processes or patents. Efforts to dominate supply logistics, such as brokers, transportation, or similar settings, have made an impact. (Note to the Instructor: There are many current examples of these and other preemptive approaches. Current examples, or examples the students may know, will enhance the discussion).Moving to the various functional area activities, in products and/or services, a number of other preemptive methods are utilized. For example, introducing new product lines and expanding production aggressively, such as IBM and many other firms have done, a competitor attempting to follow the lead of the leader can find it a very expensive and likely losing proposition.In the area of production systems, there have been in recent years some very good examples of firms able to develop proprietary production methods, expand capacity aggressively, and secure scarce and critical production skills. In addition, in the production systems area, firms that achieve some level of vertical integration with key suppliers can create a considerable barrier for competitors without the same economies of scale.In the 1980s, IBM, among others, applied the principle that if a firm provides the dominant product design in the industry it will be able to constantly keep the competitors as followers. Constantly expanding the scope of the product is another variation on this theme. A classic example of this approach is Merrill Lynch with the Cash Management Account of the late 1970s, and many others more recently.―Positioning‖ the product more effectively also can be an effective preemptive strategy. This can be an effective and relatively inexpensive strategy, given that there are many different types of positioning in the marketplace, including positioning in the mind of the consumer, distributors, suppliers, and others. (Note to the Instructor: There are and will be many current examples where firms have successfully achieved both challenger and leader positions with various positioning and re-positioning efforts).Other examples of preemption relate to situations where a firm is able to secure accelerated government agency approval because of strong technical capabilities and/or market recognition. This situation obviously occurs most often in medical and pharmaceutical products or other related areas where there are health and safety concerns.Keeping the competitors off balance by constantly adding to the market segments in the marketplace is another useful preemptive action. Coke achieved this effectively with New Coke. Even though the company had to return to the earlier formula and publicly back down from the decision, they were able to further fragment the market and take more share from the smaller competitors with fewer resources.Lastly, it is useful to consider the role of the preemptive in working with distributors. It is appropriate for the leader firm engaging in preemptive marketing to capture key accounts, occupy prime locations, develop preferential access/key distributors, control supply systems and distribution logistics, and insure access to superior service systems. In addition, one of the most important areas for great potential is to engage in educational and promotional activitiesthat are designed to develop the skills of the distributors. This could include a number of activities designed to enhance the capabilities for the distributors to better serve their customers. Note to the Instructor: In all of these examples there are many firms both winning and losing with this strategy. Clearly among the best examples are firms winning, but there are many situations where those losing can provide an interesting story.III. Background Article(s):Issue: Marketing in the High Tech EnvironmentA. Source:―Oracle vs. IBM,‖ BusinessWeek, May 28, 2001, p. 65.Ask Oracle Corp. CEO Lawrence J. Ellison what keeps him up at night, and the answer might surprise you. It‘s not his longtime nemesis, Microsoft Corp. It‘s not up-and-comer Siebel Systems Inc. It‘s IBM, the awakening tech giant that is vying for the No. 1 spot in the corporate-software world. ―He has stopped with that ‗Microsoft is the devil‘ stuff,‖ says Steve Mills, IBM‘s software head. ―He has moved on to us.‖With Good ReasonWhoever wins in this face-off will grab the lion‘s share of the $50 billion corporate-software market for years. For every Oracle product, IBM has a counterpunch: Databases, applications, and e-business foundation software. At the same time, the companies‘ philosophies are strikingly different. Oracle‘s strategy is to off er customers a complete and tightly integrated package of software—everything a company needs to manage its financials, manufacturing, sales force, logistics, e-commerce, and suppliers. In contrast, IBM top management backed a ―best-of-breed‖ approach in w hich it stitched together a quilt of business software from various companies, including itself.The outcome of this battle had huge implications for the software industry. If IBM‘s partnering strategy carries the day, it means there will be plenty of breathing room for major application makers such as SAP, Siebel, and PeopleSoft, and for countless upstarts that are bringing Internet programs to market. If Oracle gains the upper hand, it will be pushing its own applications, leaving less room for other players.To get ahead, IBM is targeted what it sees as Oracle‘s chief vulnerability: The Silicon Valley company competes in the applications market with the same software makers it relies on to help sell its databases. IBM has an advantage because it doesn‘t s ell applications of its own. So, by setting itself up as a neutral party, IBM is able to gain those companies as allies. That boosts its database sales, since application companies often recommend to customers which database they think should be used with their software. IBM‘s consultants then sew the software together.Analysts are split on whether the Oracle or IBM strategy will succeed long-term. They expect both companies to remain among the strongest players in the market. But competitive juices are flowing. Ellison has only disdain for the idea of corporations buying major software components from different suppliers and then hooking them together. ―You would never buy a car that way,‖ he says.。
市场伦理的经济学分析,中山大学吴柏林教授,广告策划：实务与案例,机械工业出版社,2010年版,绝密教学资料
关键词 伦理 道德 理性 公共物品 正义
〔中图分类号〕B82 - 053 〔文献标识码〕A 〔文章编号〕0447 - 662X(2004) 02 - 0051 - 07
我国在市场化改革过程中出现了普遍失信 和欺诈现象 。有人说 ,我国最为缺少的是商业诚 信这样的“精神资本”或“社会资本”①。对于这种 普遍失序现象的认识 ,大致可以归为四类 ,即 :由 于这种失序化和野蛮化过程与市场化过程确实 在时间上存在着相关性 ,因而认为这是市场惹的 祸 ,利用马克思主义和西方马克思主义一些思想 资源 ,把市场与反道德看成是同义语 ,认为市场 活动是一种极度异化的活动 ,是人类伦理的一场 灾难 。这种观点具有某种对市场经济本身怀疑 的倾向 。第二种虽则维护市场机制的合理性 ,但 同时也主张市场经济内在地存在着道德退化的 机制 ,并且引发了道德危机 ,因此 ,经济学要关注 道德问题 。第三种观点就是借用西方经济学的 实证主义理论把市场和伦理道德完全相剥离 ,认 为市场活动是人们纯粹的理性活动过程 ,完全与
在这两种方式中 , 第一种中签方式是一种 “纯粹的自利型”或“浮士德式”② 的行为模式 ,即 为了自己的利益都有权杀死对方 ,这种方式对应 于那些极端自私自利 、不择手段之徒 。第二种方 式就是那种“毫不利己 、专门利人”的“纯粹的利 他型”或“仁爱”的行为模式 ,即为了他人可以奉 献和牺牲自己的一切 ,博爱的上帝或仁爱的圣人 就代表了这一类典型 。假如双方都是“极端自私 型”,由于这两个人是完全势均力敌的 ,显而易见 两者火并的结果必然是两者都毁灭 。相反 ,假如 这两位都是“纯粹利他型”的圣人 ,那将出现什么 结局呢 ? 既然他们都是圣人 ,他们中就没有一个 人能接受另一个人的牺牲 。因为如果接受他人 的牺牲 ,那么他自己就已经不是一位圣人 。因而 两个圣人选择应该都是自我牺牲 。
广告与文化心理 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
杨荣刚等现代广告全书辽宁人民出版社沈阳：1994.9第十一章广告与文化心理每个消费者都在一定的文化环境中成长，并在一定的文化环境中生活着，其思想意识必然打上了深深的文化烙印。
因此，广告制作者必须十分重视对文化心理的研究，要了解社会文化对消费行为的影响，制定出合适的广告策略，以达到促销的目的。
否则，即使产品质量再好，广告宣传投资再多，也难免要遭冷落。
其原因之一是，商品和广告没有体现或者甚至违背了当地的风俗、习惯、信仰、价值观、语言文字、教育水平以及社会组织情况等因素—社会文化因素。
一、文化与消费行为1．文化及其特点文化一词是用来表达人类生存所积累的一切成就的概括。
有时也指社会意识，包括政治、思想、道德、艺术、语言文字、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观等诸多方面。
各个国家由于民族、历史、地理位置以及物质生活等方面的不同，产生了各自独特的文化。
在不同国家里成长的人，在风俗习惯、崇尚爱好、宗教信仰上都有明显的差异。
人们的饮食爱好，千差万别，中国人吃米饭、馒头，西方人却以面包为主食。
法国人把蜗牛尊为名菜，有些非洲人将蚂蚁奉为美撰。
颜色的爱憎也有很大的差异：我国人民一向认为红色吉利，丹麦人、捷克人和斯洛伐克人也都认为红色代表喜事，是一种积极的色彩；而美国人却认为红色有着许多令人讨厌的意思，如红色表示停止，帐目上叫赤字，是亏本的象征。
又例如，1982年以前，美国大多数人认为黑色是吊丧、晦气的象征，但1982年秋季开始，由于许多商人采用黑色作为商标和产品的主色，黑色一下就流行起来，黑色现在在美国被认为是高贵、典雅和精力旺盛的象征。
可见文化是在发展变化的。
我们这里所说的文化，是指一国中大多数人与消费有关的崇尚爱好和风俗习惯，如风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观、语言文字等，这些文化因素对消费者作出的购买决策会产生巨大的潜在影响。
从上面所举的例子我们可以看出，文化具有这样几个特点：①文化不是先天遗传来的，而是在后天的社会环境中形成的。
略论商业广告的伦理原则,中山大学吴柏林教授,广告策划：实务与案例,机械工业出版社,2010年版,绝密教学资料
1999年 第6期中山大学学报论丛S UPP LE ME NT T O THE JOURNA LOF S UN Y ATSE N UNI VERSITY N o16 1999 略论商业广告的伦理原则冯益谦 邹木兰随着社会主义市场经济的深入发展,人们已不知不觉地置身于广告的海洋之中。
不论你喜欢与否,广告总是以独特的方式,成为影响人们经济生活和精神生活的重要因素。
可是,在现实生活中,一些人为了获取最大利润,在商业广告中不时出现一些非道德行为,不但使消费者上当受骗,而且还污染了社会风气,对社会主义精神文明建设产生了不良的影响。
因此,大力提倡商业广告道德,对于促进两个文明建设,有着迫切的现实意义。
笔者认为,在当前商业广告宣传中,要注意遵循下列三条伦理原则。
(一)真实性原则广告是严肃的职业。
实事求是,真实地反映商品的本来面貌,是商业广告的生命,也是企业的生命。
所谓真实性原则,就是有一说一,有二说二,恰如其分地反映商品面貌,既不增大优点,也不缩小缺点,不故弄玄虚,不哗众取宠。
事实上,任何商品在款式、规格上都各有优点和缺点,对优点、缺点都要实事求是地介绍。
即使在资本主义社会中,不少企业、公司为了在社会上站稳脚根,以求发展,也都把广告真实性作为重要原则。
如以广告宣传为手段驰名世界的柯达(K odak)、可口可乐(C ocaC ola)等都十分注重商品宣传的真实性。
他们反对说假话,批判那种认为言过其实的广告是“无害的夸张”的观点,并禁止商业组织作带欺骗性的广告。
在社会主义市场经济条件下,我们更要自觉遵循商业广告宣传中的真实性原则。
然而,在当今漫天的商品广告中,失真的广告屡见不鲜。
有些谎话连篇,滥提口号,不讲分寸;把劣质产品吹嘘为“优质产品”;工艺不高的称为“全国先进”;本来不受欢迎的,也宣传是“畅销国内外”。
如1998年下半年,“学习的革命”的图书广告铺天盖地,风靡中国。
该广告称:这本书带来了学习的革命!这是一部卓有见识的行动指南,读了它会改变孩子一生的命运,就能拿到通向21世纪的个人护照。
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告心理学”绝密资料_schiffman07_tif
Chapter 7: Consumer LearningMultiple Choice Questions:1.Learning is all pervasive in our lives, but there are two different theories on howpeople learn – the _____ theories and the _____ theories.a.behavioral; affectiveb.cognitive; rationalc.behavioral; cognitived.emotional; affective(c; Difficulty 1, p. 206)2._____ theorists believe that people learn through mental processes.a.Behavioralb.Cognitivec.Affectived.Involvement(b; Difficulty 1, p. 206)3._____ theorists believe that people learn as a result of exposure to stimuli andreaction to those stimuli.a.Behavioralb.Cognitivec.Rationald.Most(a; Difficulty 1, p. 206)4.From a marketing perspective, _____ is the process by which individuals acquirethe purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior.a.attitude formationb.consumer learningc.motivational behaviord.perception(b; Difficulty 2, p. 207)5.Most learning theorists agree that in order for learning to occur, certain basicelements must be present. Which of the following is not one of those elements?a.motivationb.attitudec.cuesd.reinforcement(b; Difficulty 2, p. 207)6.Motives serve to stimulate learning in consumers, and _____ are the stimuli thatgive direction to those motives.a.responsesb.cuesc.attitudesd.sensory receptors(b; Difficulty 2, p. 208)7.Cues serve to direct consumer drives only when they are consistent withconsumer _____.a.responsesb.expectationsc.behaviorsd.feelings(b; Difficulty 3, p. 208)8.How individuals react to a drive or cue constitutes their _____.a.intentionb.responsec.attituded.cognitive behavior(b; Difficulty 3, p. 208)9.Behavioral learning theories are also known as _____ theories.a.stimulusb.stimulus-responsec.instrumentald.observational(b; Difficulty 1, p. 209)10.Classical conditioning theory of learning is a/an _____ theory.a.behavioralb.cognitivec.observationald.outdated(a; Difficulty 2, p. 210)11.Classical theorists regarded all organisms, human and animal, as _____ entitiesthat could be taught certain behaviors through repetition.a.passiveb.activec.intelligentd.involved(a; Difficulty 2, p. 210)12.Ivan Pavlov was the first theorist to describe the _____ theory as a learning model.According to his theory, learning occurs when a stimulus that is paired withanother stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the sameresponse when used alone.a.behavioral learningb.classical conditioningc.observationald.stimulus generalization(b; Difficulty 2, p. 210)13.If you usually listen to the 6 o’clock news while smelling dinner as it is beingprepared, you would tend to associate the news with dinner, and eventually the sound of the 6 o’clock news alone might cause your mouth to water even if dinner was not being prepared. This is known as _____.a.instrumental conditioningb.classical conditioningc.conditional learningd.behavioral learning(b; Difficulty 2, p. 210)14.According to some researchers, optimal conditioning, which is the creation of astrong association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditionedstimulus, requires all of the following except:a.repeated pairing of the CS and the US.b.backward conditioning, where the CS should follow the US.c. a CS and a US that logically belong together.d.all of the above(b; Difficulty 3, p. 212)15.Which of the following is not one of the three basic concepts derived fromclassical conditioning?a.repetitionb.stimulus discriminationc.stimulus generationd.stimulus generalization(c; Difficulty 3, p. 212)16._____ increases the strength of the association between a conditioned stimulusand an unconditioned stimulus.a.Involvementb.Conditioningc.Repetitiond.Positioning(c; Difficulty 1, p. 212)17.When individuals become satiated with numerous exposures to an ad, and bothattention and retention decline, this is known as _____.a.repetitionb.advertising wearoutc.reminder advertisingd.the three-hit theory(b; Difficulty 2, p. 212)18.Some marketers try to avoid advertising wearout by using _____ variations intheir ads, such as using different backgrounds, print types, or spokespeople.a.substantiveb.cosmeticc.superficiald.concealed(b; Difficulty 3, p. 212)19.Some marketers try to avoid advertising wearout by using _____ variations intheir ads by changing advertising content across different versions of anadvertisement.a.substantiveb.cosmeticc.superficiald.concealed(a; Difficulty 3, p. 212)20._____ is our ability to make the same responses to slightly different stimuli.a.Stimulus discriminationb.Stimulus generationc.Stimulus generalizationd.Classical conditioning(c; Difficulty 2, p. 214)21.Many “me too” products succeed in the marketplace because of people’s ability of_____.a.stimulus discriminationb.stimulus recognitionc.stimulus generalizationd.stimulus generation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 214)22.Manufacturers of private brands try to make their packaging closely resemble thenational brand leaders and people end up confusing them because of our natural ability of _____.a.stimulus discriminationb.stimulus recognitionc.stimulus generalizationd.stimulus generation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 214)23.The classical conditioning principle of _____ is applied by marketers to productline, form and category extensions.a.stimulus discriminationb.stimulus recognitionc.stimulus generalizationd.stimulus generation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 214)24.In _____, the marketer adds related products to an already established brand,knowing that the new products are more likely to be adopted when they areassociated with a known and trusted brand name; thus marketers take advantage of the principle of stimulus generalization.a.product form extensionb.product line extensionc.category extensiond.copycat marketing(b; Difficulty 2, p. 214)25.Offering Crest Whitestrips and Listerine PocketPaks as substitutes to the alreadyexisting whitening toothpaste and mouthwash allows marketers to take advantage of people’s stimulus generalization capabilities by offering a _____.a.product line extensionb.product form extensionc.category extensiond.“me too” product(b; Difficulty 2, p. 214)26._____ is the practice of marketing a whole line of company products under thesame brand name.a.Corporate marketingb.Family brandingc.Capital brandingd.Licensing(b; Difficulty 2, p. 216)27.Campbell’s Soup Company continues to add new food products to its product lineunder the Campbell’s brand name. This is known as _____.a.corporate marketingb.family brandingc.capital brandingd.licensing(b; Difficulty 2, p. 216)28._____ is allowing a well-known brand name to be affixed to products of anothermanufacturer.a.Corporate marketingb.Family brandingc.Capital brandingd.Licensing(d; difficulty 2, p. 217)29.Licensing is a marketing strategy that operates under the principle of _____.a.stimulus discriminationb.stimulus recognitionc.stimulus generalizationd.stimulus generation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 217)30.When a famous cartoon character is used by a manufacturer on t-shirts and caps inreturn for a fee, this is known as _____.a.capital marketingb.licensingc.family brandingd.product form marketing(b; difficulty 3, p. 218)31.All the following could be forms of licensing agreements except:a.“Always Coca-Cola” stamped on T-shirts.b.Godiva liquor products.c.Better Homes and Gardens gardening tools.d.Proctor and Gamble producing Tide tablets laundry detergent.(d; difficulty 2, p. 219)32.Counterfeit products are easier to sell because of the wide adoption of _____ inthe industry.a.product line extensionsb.product form extensionsc.licensingd.immorality(c; Difficulty 3, p. 219)33.Stimulus _____ results in the selection of a specific stimulus from among similarstimuli.a.generalizationb.recognitionc.discriminationd.selection(c; Difficulty 2, p. 219)34.The key to overcoming _____ is effective positioning. To be able to position aproduct in a way to differentiate it in our overcommunicated society.a.stimulus generalizationb.selective attentionc.stimulus discriminationd.boredom(c; Difficulty 3, p. 219)35.The product imitator hopes that the consumer will _____, whereas the marketleader wants the consumer to _____ among similar stimuli.a.discriminate; selectb.generalize; discriminatec.select; generalized.none of the above(b; Difficulty 3, p. 219)36.It is difficult to overthrow a brand leader once stimulus discrimination hasoccurred because the leader has had a longer period to teach consumers toassociate the brand name with the product. In general, the longer the period of learning:a.the less likely the consumer is to discriminate.b.the more likely the consumer is to discriminate.c.the more likely the consumer will generalize.d.none of the above(b; Difficulty 3, p. 219)37._____ learning theorists believe that learning occurs through a trial-and-errorprocess, with habits formed as a result of rewards received for certain responses or behaviors.a.Classical conditioningb.Behavioralc.Instrumental conditioningd.Cognitive(c; Difficulty 2, p. 221)38._____ is useful in explaining how consumers learn very simple kinds of behaviors;_____ is more helpful in explaining complex, goal-directed activities.a.Instrumental conditioning; repetitionb.Classical conditioning; instrumental conditioningc.Repetition; high involvementd.High involvement; classical conditioning(b; Difficulty 3, p. 221)39.Fear appeals in ad messages are a form of _____.a.positive reinforcementb.negative reinforcementc.classical conditioningd.behavioral conditioning(b; Difficulty 2, p. 221)40.Marketers of headache medicine, life insurance and mouthwash use fear appealsin their advertising. This is a form of _____.a.positive reinforcementb.negative reinforcementc.classical conditioningd.behavioral conditioning(b; Difficulty 2, p. 221)41.When a learned response is no longer reinforced to the point at which the linkbetween the stimulus and the expected reward is eliminated, it has reached the point of _____.a.decayb.extinctionc.being forgottend.reassessment(b; Difficulty 3, p. 222)42.Marketers can overcome consumer forgetting through _____, and can combatextinction through _____.a.enhanced customer satisfaction; learningb.repetition; enhanced customer satisfactionc.learning; triald.none of the above(b; Difficulty 3, p. 222)43.The objective of all marketing efforts should be to _____.a.create awarenessb.attract new customersc.maximize customer satisfactiond.promise highest quality levels(c; Difficulty 2, p. 223)44.Notifying customers of an upcoming sale, or the ability to call in a money transferand not have to come in the bank, are both forms of _____.a.relationship marketingb.product reinforcementc.illegal practicesd.negative reinforcement(a; Difficulty 3, p. 223)45.Marketers have identified three types of reinforcement schedules: _____, _____and _____.a.total; continuous; fixedb.continuous; systematic; variablec.systematic; fixed; randomd.fixed; variable; random(b; Difficulty 3, p. 223)46.A free after-dinner drink always served to patrons at a restaurant is an example ofa _____ reinforcement schedule.a.fixedb.totalc.systematicd.random(b; Difficulty 2, p. 223)47.Your local coffee shop gives you a free cup of coffee every tenth time you make apurchase. This is an example of a _____ reinforcement schedule.a.totalb.fixedc.randomd.variable(b; Difficulty 2, p. 223)48.Slot machines or gambling casinos operate on the basis of a _____ reinforcementschedule.a.fixedb.totalc.randomd.systematic(c; Difficulty 2, p. 223)49.Lotteries, sweepstakes, and door prizes are all examples of _____ reinforcementschedules.a.fixedb.totalc.randomd.systematic(c; Difficulty 2, p. 224)50.Reinforcement performed before the desired consumer behavior actually takesplace is called _____.a.timingb.learningc.shapingd.modeling(c; Difficulty 3, p. 224)51.Some car dealers realize that in order to sell new model cars, they must firstencourage people to visit their show rooms and test drive their cars. Many dealers offer small gifts, such as key chains and DVDs. This is a form of behaviorreinforcement known as _____.a.timingb.free samplingc.shapingd.modeling(c; Difficulty 3, p. 224)52.When advertisers want an immediate impact on the consumer, to introduce a newproduct, they generally use a _____ timing schedule to hasten consumer learning.a.distributedb.massedc.continuousd.random(b; Difficulty 3, p. 224)53.A distributed advertising schedule, with ads repeated on a regular basis, usuallyresults in more ____ learning.a.short termb.long termstingd.involved(b; Difficulty 3, p. 224)54._____ is the process through which individuals learn behavior by observing thebehavior of others and the consequences of such behavior.a.Shapingb.Modelingc.Reinforcementd.Recognition(b; Difficulty 2, p. 224)55.If a teenager sees an ad that depicts social success as the outcome of using acertain brand of shampoo, he or she will want to buy it. This is how advertisers use _____ to sell products.a.observational learningb.modelingc.shapingd.both a and b(d; Difficulty 3, p. 224)56.Consumer models with whom the target audience can identify are shownachieving positive outcomes to common problem situations through the use of the advertised product. This form of advertising is known as _____.a.shapingb.involvementc.observational learningd.classical conditioning(c; Difficulty 3, p. 225)57.Learning based on mental activity is called _____ learning.a.behavioralb.classicalc.observationald.cognitive(d; Difficulty 1, p. 226)58.Instead of stressing the importance of repetition or the association of a rewardwith a specific response, _____ theorists emphasize the role of motivation and mental processes in producing a desired response.a.behavioralb.conativec.observationald.cognitive(d; Difficulty 2, p. 226)59.Because information processing occurs in stages, it is generally believed that thereare separate and sequential “storehouses” in memory where information is kept temporarily before further processing. Which of the following is not one of the storehouses?a.sensory storesb.temporary storesc.short-term storesd.long-term stores(b; Difficulty 2, p. 227)60._____ is the stage of real memory in which information is processed and held forjust a brief period.a.Sensory storesb.Temporary storesc.Short-term storesd.Long-term stores(c; Difficulty 3, p. 228)61.The amount of information available for delivery from short-term storage to long-term storage depends on the amount of _____ it is given.a.processingb.attentionc.rehearsald.capacity(c; Difficulty 2, p. 228)62.When consumers are presented with too much information, called _____, theymay encounter difficulty in encoding and storing it.a.overcapacityrmation overloadrmation overflowd.bombardment(b; Difficulty 3, p. 229)rmation is stored in long-term memory in two ways: _____, by the order itwas acquired, and _____, according to significant concepts.a.episodically; dramaticallyb.semantically; episodicallyc.dramatically; semanticallyd.episodically; semantically(d; Difficulty 3, p. 230)64.Advertising messages are most effective when they link the product’s attributeswith the benefits that consumers seek from the product because consumers tend to remember the product’s _____ rather than its _____.a.advantages; disadvantagesb.attributes; benefitsc.qualities; priced.benefits; attributes(d; Difficulty 3, p. 230)65.The greater the number of competitive ads in a product category, the lower therecall of brand claims in a specific ad. This is due to _____, which causeconfusion with competing ads.a.encoding effectsb.contradicting cuesc.interference effectsd.repetition methods(c; Difficulty 3, p. 231)66.The basic premise of the split-brain theory is that the right and left hemispheres ofthe brain specialize in the kinds of information they process. This theory is also known as_____.a.behavioral conditioningb.hemispheral lateralizationc.cognitive dissonanced.passive learning(b; Difficulty 3, p. 232)67.According to the split-brain theory, the right hemisphere of the brain isresponsible for _____, and the left hemisphere of the brain is concerned with_____.a.cognitive activities; readingb.reading; speakingc.nonverbal information; cognitived.speaking; pictorial information(c; Difficulty 3, p. 232)68.The theory of central and peripheral routes to persuasion illustrates that for highinvolvement purchases, the (both) _____ route(s) to persuasion is(are) likely the most effective marketing strategy.a.peripheralb.centralc.central and peripherald.elaborative(b; Difficulty 2, p. 235)69.To ensure a high level of comprehension of the message, many marketers conduct_____ either before or after the advertising is actually run in the media.a.posttestingb.pretestingc.copytestingd.attitude tests(c; Difficulty 3, p. 241)70.The basis of _____ is to use another product’s brand equity to enhance theprimary brand’s equity.a.licensingb.product form extensionc.co-brandingd.umbrella branding(c; Difficulty 3, p. 245)True/False Questions:71.There are two major schools of thought concerning the learning process: thebehavioral school and the cognitive school.(True; Difficulty 1, p. 206)72.All learning is deliberately sought.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 207)73.Cues serve to direct consumer drives when they are consistent with consumerexpectations.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 208)74.Learning can occur even when responses are not obvious.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 208)75.Research suggests that there is no limit to the amount of repetition that aidsretention. The more repetition, the better the retention.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 212)76.Marketers agree that seven exposures to an advertisement is enough to aidretention.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 212)77.The effectiveness of repetition of advertising is not relevant on the amount ofcompetitive ads consumers are exposed to.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 212)78.Listerine PocketPaks and Crest Whitestrips are forms of product categoryextensions.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 214)79.Licensing is a marketing strategy that operates on the principle of stimulusgeneralization.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 217)80.The longer the period of learning – of associating a brand name with a specificproduct – the less likely the consumer is to discriminate and the more likely to generalize the stimulus.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 220)81.Repetition, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination are all majorapplied concepts that explain all behavioral consumer learning.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 220)82.When a learned response is no longer reinforced, it diminishes to the point ofbeing forgotten.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 222)83.Forgetting is often related to the passage of time. This is known as the process ofdecay.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 222)84.Marketers have identified three types of reinforcement schedules: total,continuous, and fixed.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 223)85.Slot machines operate on the basis of a variable reinforcement schedule. (True; Difficulty 2, p. 224)86.Reinforcement performed before the desired consumer behavior actually takesplace is called modeling.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 224)87.Massed advertising produces more initial learning, and a distributed advertisingschedule usually results in learning that persists longer.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 224)88.When advertisers want an immediate impact to counter a competitor’s blitzcampaign, they generally use a distributed advertising schedule.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 224)89.A distributed ad campaign, with ads repeated on a regular basis, results in morelong-term learning and is relatively immune to extinction.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 224)90.Short-term stores are where we receive fragments of information that last for asecond or two before we pass it into our long-term store.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 228)91.The amount of information available for delivery from the sensory stores to thelong-term storage depends on the amount of rehearsal it is given.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 228)92.All consumers pass through a complex series of mental and behavioral stages inarriving at any purchase decision.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 231)93.Hemispheral lateralization is also known as the split-brain theory.(True; Difficulty 1, p. 232)94.According to the spilt-brain theory, the left hemisphere of the brain is responsiblefor cognitive activities, such as reading and speaking.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 232)95.According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, as the message becomes morepersonally relevant, people are more willing to expend the cognitive effortrequired to process the message arguments.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 235)96.A recent study found that a brand name explicitly conveying a product benefit(Manhattan Mini-storage) leads to the same recall levels as a non-suggestivebrand name (Acme Storage).(False; Difficulty 3, p. 239)97.Brand loyalty is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 241)98.Attitudinal measures are used to measure brand loyalty through evaluatingconsumers’ overall feelings about the product and their p urchase intentions. (True; Difficulty 2, p. 241)99.Frequency of purchase is a definitive measure of brand loyalty.(False; Difficulty, p. 242)100.The greater the number of brands in the consumer’s evoked set, the greater the likelihood that the consumer will be brand loyal.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 243)Essay Questions:101.What is the theory of classical conditioning? Explain using an example.The theory of classical conditioning was first demonstrated by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning theorists regard all animals and humans as passive entities that could be taught certain behaviors through repetition. According to Pavlov, conditioned learning results when a stimulus that is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the same response when used alone.Here, students may cite Pavlov’s experiment with dogs, or any other example. (Difficulty 2, p. 210)102.How do some marketers make use of the concept of stimulus generalization? Some marketers introduce im itative “me too” products that succeed in the market. Consumers confuse them with the original product they have seen advertised. Also, private label manufacturers try to make their packaging closely resemble the national brand leaders in hope of confusing customers. Such products result in millions of lost sales for well-positioned and extensively advertised brands.(Difficulty 2, p. 214)103.Give one example of each of the following:a.product line extensionb.product form extensionc.product category extensiona.introducing new flavors of Dannon yogurtb.Crest Whitestrips as another option for whitening teethc.Neutrogena offers shaving creams to men(Difficulty 1, p. 214)104.What is licensing? What is the principle behind its success?Licensing is allowing a well-known name to be affixed to products of another manufacturer. The principle behind its success is stimulus generalization. The names of famous designers, characters, and manufacturers are attached for a fee to a variety of products enabling licensees to achieve instant recognition and implied quality for the licensed products.(Difficulty 2, p. 216)105.What are the three types of reinforcement schedules used by marketers to reward customers?Total or continuous reinforcement schedules are rewards offered to customers to provide satisfaction each time the product or service is used. An example would be a certain restaurant offering its customer one free drink after every meal.Systematic, or fixed schedules, provide reinforcement every nth time the product or service is purchased. Like getting a free coffee every 10th time they purchase a coffee. Random, or variable schedules, reward customers on a random basis or on an average frequency basis. Slot machines operate on a random reward program.(Difficulty 2, p. 223)106.When and why do marketers use massed or distributed learning schedules?Marketers will use a massed learning advertising schedule when they want to produce more initial learning. That usually is used when they want an immediate impact, when introdu cing a new product, or to counter a competitor’s campaign.Marketers will use a distributed learning schedule when the goal is long-term repeat buying on a regular basis. The distributed schedule results in more long-term learning and is relatively immune to extinction.(Difficulty 3, p. 224)107.Talk about the three systems or memory storehouses, and how information is stored.There are three stages where information processing occurs. They are three separate and sequential stages.The first is called the sensory store, in which all data comes through our senses which receive fragmented pieces of information and transmit it to the brain in parallel. The image of a sensory input lasts for a second or two in the mind’s sensory store. If it is not processed immediately, it is lost immediately.The second stage is the short-term store, which is known as working memory. This is the stage where information is processed and held for just a brief period. Information in the short-term store undergoes the process known as rehearsal, and then is transferred to the long-term store. This transfer process takes 2 to 10 seconds, and if the information is not rehearsed, it is lost in 30 seconds or less.The final stage is the long-term store which retains information for relatively long periods of time. Even though some information may be lost in a few minutes, most information that makes it to long-term stores lasts for extended periods of time, sometimes up to years.(Difficulty 3, p. 227)108.What is the split-brain theory?Also known as Hemispheral lateralization, the split-brain theory is based on the premise that the right and left sides of the brain specialize in the kinds of information they process. The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for cognitive activities such as reading, speaking, and attributional information processing. The right side of the brain is concerned with nonverbal, timeless, and pictorial information. Simply put, the left brain is rational, active, and realistic, and the right side is emotional, metaphoric, impulsive, and intuitive.(Difficulty 2, p. 232)109.What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?The ELM suggests that a person’s level of involvement during message processing is a critical factor in determining which route to persuasion is likely to be effective. For example, as the message becomes more personally relevant, people are more willing to expend the cognitive effort required to process the message arguments. Thus, when involvement is high, consumers follow the central route and base their attitudes or choices on the message arguments. When involvement is low, they follow the peripheral route and rely heavily on other message elements to form attitudes or make product choices.(Difficulty 2, p. 235)110.What is an evoked set of products and how does that relate to brand loyalty?An evoked set of products is a mix of brand names that are considered acceptable to an individual consumer; a set of brands that includes their final product choice. The greater the number of brands in the evoked set, the less likely the consumer is to be brand loyal to one specific brand.(Difficulty 3, p. 243)。
中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告学原理”绝密资料_kotler10exs
Chapter 10 Developing, Positioning, and Differentiating Products through the Life Cycle
PowerPoint by Karen E. James Louisiana State University - Shreveport
Consumer Adoption Process
People adopt new products at different rates
– Innovators – Early adopters – Early majority – Late majority – Laggards
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 9 in Chapter 10
2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management, 2nd Edition Slide 11 in Chapter 10
消费者的注意和理解 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告策划——实务与案例”绝密资料
Frank.R.Kardes．消费者行为与管理决策．北京：清华大学出版社．2003.6第二章消费者的注意和理解导言从直接经验获取产品知识从间接经验获取产品知识注意力限制在日常生活中，消费者可能遇到很多直接和间接信息，太多的信息使他们不可能逐个处理或思考所有与产品相关的数据。
如果消费者不得不仔细思考每一个广告、每一个包装的标签以及他们看到或听到的每一个市场营销方面的信息，那么他们就几乎不会有时间来处理其他事情。
这也就是说，消费者具有注意力限制（limits of attention）。
对于市场上提供的营销信息，他们仅对他们遇到的很少一部分信息注意。
准确地讲，人们能够处理多少信息？根据哈佛大学心理学家George Miller（1956）的理论，人们可以同时注意7个（加或减2个）单位的信息。
一个信息单位可以很小——例如单个数字、字母、词汇或概念，也可以很大——例如一连串的数字、字母、词汇或概念（Newell，Simon，1972）。
信息单位的大小取决于一个人的知识水平或经验水平：当知识增加的时候，信息单位也随之增加（Newell，Simon，1972）。
所以，与新手相比，专家注意并思考更大单位的信息。
由于人们只能同时注意7个左右单位的信息，太多的信息很容易使人们不知所措。
例如，杂货店可能销售12种或更多不同品牌的洗碟用清洁剂，而且清洁剂的包装可以是大包装（如32盎司）、中等包装（如16盎司）和小包装（如8盎司）。
如果这12种不同品牌的清洁剂都有大中小3种包装，消费者就会面对36种不同的选择。
将这36种选择尽其可能进行成对比较，消费者将不得不进行1 200多次比较[361／（36—2）!＝1 260]!大多数消费者是不愿意花费如此多的时间和精力，从36种可选商品中选出其中的一种晶牌。
但是，如果信息是以一种容易比较的方式提供，那么，对36种不同品牌的洗碟用清洁剂进行比较就会非常容易。
例如，可以将36种选择列成“汇总表”，最好的商品排在开始，较好的商品排在其后，接着排列第三好的商品，如此等等（Russo，1977；Russo，Staelin，Nolan，Russell，Metcalf，1986）。
schiffman15_tif 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)”绝密资料
Chapter 15: Consumer Influence and the Diffusion of Innovations Multiple Choice Questions:1._____ is the process by which one person informally influences the actions orattitudes of others.a.Advertisementb.Promotionc.Opinion leadershipd.Sales(c; Difficulty 1, p. 500)2.Opinion leadership is closest to which of the following concepts?a.advertisingb.word of mouthc.e-mail newslettersd.adoption process(b; Difficulty 1, p. 500)3.Which of the following is not one of the elements of opinion leadership?a.takes place between two or more peopleb.it is informalc.must be a face to face interactiond.it is interpersonal(c; Difficulty 2, p. 500)4.Which of the following does not fall into the category of opinion leadership?a. a classmate recommending a movie she saw last nightb. a friend just returning from vacation with pictures recommends you use apolarizing filter when taking photos for outdoor sceneryc. a family decides to ask the neighbors who already have a swimming pool whichcompany they should call to build oned.the local cellular phone store associate tells you about the latest model of Nokiaphones they just shipped in(d; Difficulty 1, p. 500)5.Individuals who actively seek information and advice about products are called_____.a.opinion leadersb.opinion receiversc.word of mouth communicatorsd.opinion seekers(d; Difficulty 1, p. 500)6.When an opinion seeker has no prior knowledge of the subject area (product orservice), then he is more likely to seek information from:a. a family member.b. a stranger.c. a salesperson.pany brochures.(a; Difficulty 3, p. 500)7.Which of the following is not one of the top three countries in the world inInternet usage?a.Japanb.the United Kingdomc.the United Statesd.Germany(b; Difficulty 3, p. 501, table 15-1)8.Which of the following countries is the last in terms of Internet usage?a.Japanb.Chinac.Russiad.Spain(d; Difficulty 3, p. 501, table 15-1)9.The majority of young Japanese receive their e-mail:a.at the office.b.at home.c.through their cell phones.d.through their PDAs.(c; Difficulty 2, p. 501)10.Which of the following is not another term used for viral marketing?a.buzz marketingb.wildfire marketingc.Web marketingd.avalanche marketing(c; Difficulty 2, p. 501)11._____ is the marriage of e-mail and word of mouth.a.Viral marketingb.Web marketingc.Internet marketingd.Modern marketing(a; Difficulty 1, p. 501)12._____ describes the strategy that encourages individuals to pass on a marketingmessage to others, creating the potential for exponential growth in the message’s exposure and influence.a.Internet marketingb.Buzz marketingc.Strategic marketingd.Global marketing(b; Difficulty 2, p. 501)13.Which of the following companies was a leader in usage of viral marketing?a.hotmailc.Nike(a; Difficulty 3, p. 501)14.Opinion leaders are highly credible sources because:a.they are usually highly educated.b.they dispense information that is positive.c.they are perceived as objective concerning the advice they dispense.d.all of the above(c; Difficulty 2, p. 503)15.Negative experiences are shared up to _____ times more than positiveexperiences with a product or service.a. 3b.7c.10d.20(c; Difficulty 3, p. 503)16.The most aggressive opinion leader will:a.tell you where to shop.b.tell you how best to use a product.c.tell you who provides the best service.d.advise you to buy or avoid a specific product.(d; Difficulty 2, p. 503)17.Which of the following is the most common category with opinion leaders?a.travelb.restaurantsputer hardware/softwared.automotive(b; Difficulty 3, p. 504, table 15-2)18.When does an opinion seeker most likely turn into an opinion leader in a specificproduct category?a.when they have started seeking information from company sourcesb.when they have bought the product and are experiencing postpurchase dissonancec.neverd.when they begin to ask opinion leaders for information and feedback(b; Difficulty 3, p. 505)19.Which of the following is not one of the motivations of opinion leaders?a.self-involvementb.postpurchase dissonancec.social involvementd.direct financial benefit(d; Difficulty 1, p. 505)20.Which of the following is a motivator of opinion receivers?a.reduce postpurchase uncertaintyb.gain attention or statusc.reduce search timed.feel like an adventurer(c; Difficulty 3, p. 506, table 15-3)21.Male purchase pals are used mostly as sources of all the following except:a.product category expertiseb.product informationc.price informationd.moral support(d; Difficulty 2, p. 507)22.Female purchase pals are used mainly for:a.price informationb.retail store informationc.moral supportd.all of the above(c; Difficulty 2, p. 507)23.Which of the following is not a characteristic of a surrogate buyer?a.has a high level of accountabilityb.search and screening of alternatives is very rigorousc.second opinion taken on rare occasionsd.likely to have used the product personally(d; Difficulty 3, p. 507, table 15-4)24.Which of the following is most likely not an example of surrogate buyer?a. a doctor’s medical prescriptionb.you take your car to a dealership for an oil changec. a wardrobe consultant for help in purchasing a new business wardrobed. a classmate telling you about a movie she saw last night(d; Difficulty 2, p. 507)25.Which method of opinion leadership measurement is most commonly used?a.the self designating methodb.the sociometric methodc.the key informant methodd.the objective method(a; Difficulty 2, p. 508)26.Which of the following methods of opinion leadership measurement measures theperson-to-person informal communication of consumers concerning products or product categories?a.the self designating methodb.the sociometric methodc.the key informant methodd.the objective method(b; Difficulty 2, p. 508)27.Which of the following methods of opinion leadership measurement is measuredby carefully selecting people who are keenly aware of or knowledgeable about the nature of social communications among members of a specific group?a.the self designating methodb.the sociometric methodc.the key informant methodd.the objective method(c; Difficulty 2, p. 508)28.Which of the following is not a key characteristic of opinion leaders?a.They have a keen sense of knowledge and interest in a particular area.b.They are likely to be more innovative than the rest of the population.c.They are more gregarious than the general population.d.They are usually highly educated.(d; Difficulty 2, p. 511)29.Approximately _____ percent of the people studied in a consumer researchproject are classified as opinion leaders with respect to some product category.a.10b.18c.33d.42(c; Difficulty 2, p. 511)30._____ posses a wide range of information about many different types of products,retail outlets, and other dimensions of markets.a.Opinion leadersb.Market mavensc.Innovatorsd.Opinion seekers(b; Difficulty 1, p. 512)31.Which of the following is not likely to be a characteristic of a market maven?a.They clip more coupons than the general population.b.They have a more favorable attitude toward direct mail.c.They have greater market expertise.d.Their influence is mostly limited to high involvement products.(d; Difficulty 3, p. 512)32.The _____ portrays opinion leaders as direct receivers of information fromimpersonal mass-media sources, who in turn transmit this information to themasses.a.two-step flow of communication theoryb.multi-step flow of communication theoryc.adoption process theoryd.three-step flow of communication theory(a; Difficulty 2, p. 513)33.Which of the following is a strategy used by marketers to stimulate opinionleadership?a. A company hired people to go to department stores and “talk up” certain productsto lingering customers.b. A company hired people to go to bars and order drinks made using their product,making the bartender think it was a fad drink.c. A company sent a talk show host a product to give to her studio audience.d.all of the above are methods used by companies(d; Difficulty 2, p. 514)34.According to the White House Office of Consumer Affairs, _____ percent ofunhappy customers will not do business again with the company that is the source of their dissatisfaction.a.40b.50c.75d.90(d; Difficulty 3, p. 515)35.A dissatisfied customer will share his or her grievance with at least _____ otherpeople.a. 3b. 6c.9d.13(c; Difficulty 2, p. 515)36.Which of the following rumors is least likely to cause negative word of mouth?a.The product was produced under unsanitary conditions.b.The product contained a culturally unacceptable ingredient.c.The firm is owned or influenced by an unfriendly foreign country.d.The firm is run by an inexperienced executive.(d; Difficulty 1, p. 515)37.The most dangerous negative word of mouth is spread fastest:a.at community events.b.through the Internet.c.via talk shows.d.in an editorial of a local newspaper.(b; Difficulty 3, p. 516)38._____ is the process of exploring consumer acceptance of new products andservices.a.Innovativenessb.The diffusion of innovationsc.Viral marketingd.Opinion leadership(b; Difficulty 1, p. 517)39._____ are those who are first to purchase a new product or service.a.Opinion leadersb.Innovatorsc.Early adoptersd.Market mavens(b; Difficulty 2, p. 517)40.Which of the following is not one of the basic elements of the diffusion ofinnovations process?a.the innovationb.the channels of communicationc.the social systemd.the political system(d; Difficulty 2, p. 517)41.A _____ definition of a product considers a product new if the company isproducing it for the first time.a.firmb.productc.marketd.consumer(a; Difficulty 1, p. 518)42.A _____ has the least disruptive influence on established patterns of consumption.It involves the introduction of a modified product rather than a totally newproduct.a.continuous innovationb.dynamically continuous innovationc.discontinuous innovationd.modified innovation(a; Difficulty 3, p. 518)43.A _____ is somewhat disruptive with regards to established patterns ofconsumption, but still does not alter established behavior patterns.a.continuous innovationb.dynamically continuous innovationc.discontinuous innovationd.modified innovation(b; Difficulty 3, p. 518)44.A _____ requires consumers to adopt new behavior patterns.a.continuous innovationb.dynamically continuous innovationc.discontinuous innovationd.modified innovation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 518)45.A _____ definition of a product considers a product new if the consumers haverecently been exposed to the product.a.firmb.productc.marketd.consumer(c; Difficulty 1, p. 518)46.A _____ definition of a product considers a product new if the product is new inthe eyes of the customer.a.productb.firmc.marketd.consumer(d; Difficulty 1, p. 519)47.Which of the following approaches to define a new product or service is mostfavored by researchers?a.product-oriented definitionb.firm-oriented definitionc.market-oriented definitiond.consumer-oriented definition(d; Difficulty 1, p. 520)48.The degree to which a product or service is perceived as superior to existingsubstitutes makes it a factor in accepting or rejecting it faster. This is known as _____.a.relative advantagepatibilityc.observabilityplexity(a; Difficulty 1, p. 521)49.The degree to which a potential consumer feels a new product is consistent withtheir present needs, values and practices, is a measure of its _____, which is a contributing factor in accepting or rejecting it faster.a.relative advantagepatibilityc.observabilityplexity(b; Difficulty 1, p. 521)50.The degree to which a new product is capable of being tried on a limited basis iscalled _____, which is a contributing factor in accepting or rejecting it faster.a.trialabilitypatibilityc.observabilityplexity(a; Difficulty 1, p. 521)51.The Gillette Mach3 razor was adopted quickly because of its:a.lower price.patibility.c.observability.plexity.(b; Difficulty 1, p. 521)52.Consumers hesitate to adopt technology products for four main reasons. Which ofthe following is not one of them?a.fear of technical complexityb.fear of obsolescencec.fear of social rejectiond.fear of price reduction(d; Difficulty 3, p. 521)53.The term _____ is used to describe the situation in which the increase ininformation and opinions available to the consumer is so great that it seriously impairs decision making.a.innovation overloadrmation overloadc.diffusion of innovationd.innovation complexity(a; Difficulty 2, p. 523)54.A modern social system will ease the diffusion of innovations. Which of thefollowing is not a characteristic of a modern social system?a. a positive attitude toward changeb. a general respect for education and sciencec. a system in which members see themselves in similar or parallel roles in thefutured.an emphasis on rational and ordered social relationships rather than on emotionalones(c; Difficulty 3, p. 535)55.Time is the backbone of the diffusion process. It pervades the study of diffusionin three distinct but interrelated ways. Which of the following is not a timediffusion factor?a.the amount of purchase timeb.the rate of adoptionc.the identification of adopter categoriesd.the rate of product disposal(d; Difficulty 3, p. 525)56.Purchase time refers to:a.the amount of time that elaps es between consumers’ initial awareness of a newproduct or service and the point at which they purchase or reject it.b.the amount of time that elapses between purchase cycles of a specific productcategory.c.where a consumer stands in relation to other consumers in terms of time.d.how long it takes a new product or service to be adopted by members of a socialsystem.(a; Difficulty 2, p. 525)57.Five adopter categories are cited as important to marketers. Innovators are thefirst _____ percent of people who are venturesome and eager to try new things.a..5b. 2.5c.13.5d.34(b; Difficulty 3, p. 527, table 15-9)58.Of the five adopter categories, the _____ are known to be deliberate. They adoptnew ideas after deliberating for some time.a.early adoptersb.early majorityte majorityd.skepticals(b; Difficulty 3, p. 527, table 15-9)59.The late majority of consumers in the adoption process comprise _____ percent ofthe population.a. 2.5b.13.5c.34d.16(c; Difficulty 3, p. 528, figure 15-9)60.Which adopter category contains the largest number of opinion leaders?a.innovatorsb.early adoptersc.early majorityd.none of the above(a; Difficulty 2, p. 527)61.The shortest adoption process would be the adoption of _____.a.fashionb.fadsc.product classesd.brands(b; Difficulty 2, p. 528)62.Which of the following products was adopted—by the first 10 percent of the massmarket—the quickest in the United Kingdom?a.telephonesb.fax machinesc.personal computersd.cable TV(c; Difficulty 3, p. 529, table 15-10)63.When Hewlett-Packard introduces its latest microchip at a very high price toconsumers who are willing to pay top dollar for the latest technology, thengradually lowers the price in a stepwise fashion to attract additional marketsegments, it is practicing a _____ strategy.a.market penetrationb.market skimmingc.diffusiond.product obsolescence(b; Difficulty 2, p. 529)64.According to the five stages of the adoption process, a consumer goes through thestages, starting out with the first stage which is _____.a.need recognitionb.awarenessc.interestd.trial(b; Difficulty 2, p. 531)65.The stages in the adoption process end:a.with consumer trial of the product.b.with consumer adoption of the product.c.with consumer rejection of the product.d.either b or c(d; Difficulty 2, p. 531)66.Personal and interpersonal sources become most important in the _____ stage ofthe adoption process.a.awarenessb.trialc.adoptiond.evaluation(c; Difficulty 3, p. 533, figure 15-12)67.Impersonal and mass media sources become most important in the _____ stage ofthe adoption process.a.awarenessb.trialc.adoptiond.evaluation(a; Difficulty 3, p. 533, figure 15-12)68.Which of the following is not a characteristic of the consumer innovator?a.dogmaticb.have a need for uniquenessc.are inner-directedd.are variety seeking(a; Difficulty 2, p. 535)69._____ is the degree of uncertainty or fear about the consequences of a purchasethat a consumer feels when considering the purchase of a new product.a.Perceived riskb.Variety seekingc.Inner directednessd.Venturesomeness(a; Difficulty 1, p. 535)70.Consumer innovators are likely to have all the following media habits except:a.they have a greater total exposure to magazines.b.they are more likely to read general interest magazines.c.they are less likely to watch television.d.all the above are characteristics of consumer innovators(b; Difficulty 3, p. 536)71.Demographics of consumer innovators are different from non-innovators. Whichof the following is not necessarily a characteristic of a consumer innovator?a.relatively youngb.more likely to be formally educatedc.are financially more secured.more mail than female(d; Difficulty 3, p. 538)True/False Questions:72.Opinion leadership and word of mouth communications are very different.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 500)73.Once an opinion leader, always an opinion leader, in any other product category.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 500)74.An opinion leader may be an opinion seeker in another product category at thesame time.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 500)75.Opinion leadership only takes place in a face to face setting.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 500)76.Viral marketing was named that because it allows a message to spread like a virus.(True; Difficulty 1, p. 501)77.Viral marketing is the marriage of e-mail and word of mouth.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 501)78.More men than women use instant messaging services.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 502, table 15-2)79.Opinion leaders never gain anything from dispensing advice.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 503)80.Opinion leaders only dispense positive product information.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 503)81.Opinion leaders are more likely to dispense positive product information.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 503)82.Opinion leaders only dispense information but do not give advice.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 503)83.Opinion leadership is brand specific.(False; Difficulty 2, p. 504)84.An opinion leader may become one in order to reduce any postpurchasedissonance they might be feeling.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 505)85.Female purchase pals are used more for moral support than for productinformation.(True; Difficulty 2, p. 507)86.The most popular measurement method of opinion leadership is the self-designating method.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 508)87.Opinion leaders usually belong to the same age group as their opinion receivers. (True; Difficulty 3, p. 511)88.Research shows that an unsatisfied customer will tell nine other people about theirgrievance.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 515)panies will go as far as creating opinion leaders to see their product succeed. (True; Difficulty 2, p. 516)90.The first set of people who purchase a new product are called early adopters. (False; Difficulty 1, p. 517)91.Researchers agree that a new product is considered new as long as it is new to anindividual consumer.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 517)92.A continuous innovation has the least disruptive influence on established patterns. (True; Difficulty 2, p. 518)93.A market oriented definition of a new product is when it has been on the marketfor a short period of time.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 518)94.All new products have equal potential for consumer acceptance.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 520)95.When the Gillette Mach3 razor was introduced, it lacked compatibility withexisting usage patterns.(False; Difficulty 1, p. 521)96.Consumer Reports are consulted more often when the product lacks trialability. (True; Difficulty 3, p. 523)97.The innovator adopter category contains the majority of opinion leaders. (False; Difficulty 2, p. 527)98.The first stage in the adoption process is need recognition.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 531)99.Personal sources of opinion leadership are more important during the awarenessstage than impersonal sources.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 533, figure 15-12)100.Innovators tend to view more television than non-innovators.(False; Difficulty 3, p. 537)101.Innovators in one product category tend not to be consumer innovators in another product category.(True; Difficulty 3, p. 538)Essay Questions:102.Opinion leaders are the source of information and advice. Give three types of product information they are likely to transmit during a conversation.1. Which of several brands is best2. How to best use a specific product3. Who provides the best service(Difficulty 1, p. 503)103.How is opinion leadership a two-way street?Consumers who are opinion leaders in one product-related situation may become opinion receivers in another situation, even for the same product. Also, an opinion leader may become influenced by an opinion receiver as the result of a product-related conversation.(Difficulty 2, p. 505)104.Talk about three motivations of opinion leaders and opinion receivers.Opinion leaders:1. To reduce post purchase dissonance2. To gain attention and status3. To feel like an adventurerOpinion receivers:1. Reduce the risk of making a purchase commitment2. Reduce search time3. Learn how best to use or consume a product(Difficulty 3, p. 506, table 15-3)105.What are three characteristics of opinion leaders and three characteristics of surrogate buyers?Opinion leaders:1. Have an informal relationship with end users2. Does not get paid for advice3. Likely to have used the product personallySurrogate buyers:1. Have a formal relationship with end user2. Usually hired and gets paid3. May have not used the product personally(Difficulty 3, p. 507, table 15-4)106.What is the key informant method of opinion leadership measurement?A key informant is a person who is keenly aware of or knowledgeable about the nature of social communications among members of a specific group. The key informant is asked to identify those individuals in the group who are most likely to be opinion leaders.The key informant does not have to be a member of the group under study. (Difficulty 2, p. 509)107.What are four characteristics of an opinion leader?1. Sociable2. Willing to talk3. Self-confident4. Innovative(Difficulty 3, p. 511, table 15-6)108.What are some common rumors that have plagued marketers in recent years in an unfavorable way? Talk about four of these types of rumors.1. the product being produced under unsanitary conditions2. the product containing an unwholesome or culturally unacceptable ingredient3. the product included a cancer-causing element or agent4. the firm being owned by an unfriendly foreign country, or religious cult (Difficulty 2, p. 515)109.What are the three product oriented definitions of a new product?1. A continuous innovation has the least disruptive influence on established patterns.2. A dynamically continuous innovation is somewhat more disruptive than acontinuous innovation but still does not alter the established behavior.3. A discontinuous innovation requires consumers to adopt new behavior patterns. (Difficulty 3, p. 518)110.The issue of complexity is especially important when attempting to gain market acceptance for high-tech products. What types of technological fear factors act as barriers to new product acceptance?1. Fear of technical complexity2. Fear of social rejection3. Fear of rapid obsolescence4. Fear of physical harm(Difficulty 3, p. 521)111.What is lacking in the stages of the adoption process?The traditional adoption model is simple and insightful. It does not adequately reflect the full complexity of the consumer adoption process. It does not adequately acknowledge that there is quite often a need or problem-recognition stage that consumers face before acquiring an awareness of potential options or solutions.Also, it does not adequately provide for the possibility of evaluation and rejection of a new product after each stage, especially after trial.Finally, it does not explicitly include postadoption or postpurchase evaluation, which can lead to a strengthened commitment or a decision to discontinue use.(Difficulty 3, p. 531)。
CH10 中山大学吴柏林教授,Philip Kotler 营销管理,绝密资料
PART III -- DEVELOPING MARKETINGSTRATEGIESC HAPTER 10--P OSITIONING A ND DIFFERENTIATING M ARKET O FFERINGSOVER THE L IFE C YCLEOVERVIEW:Positioning is the act of designing the company's offer and image so that the target understands and appreciates what the company stands for in relation to its competition The company's positioning must be rooted in an understanding of how the target defines value and makes choices among vendors. The positioning tasks. consist of three steps. Finally, the company has to identify possible product, services, personnel, and image differences that n-d be established in relation to competition. Second, the company has to apply criteria to select most important differences. Third, die company has to effectively signal to the target market how differs from its competition. The company's product-positioning strategy will then enable it to the next step, namely, plan its competitive marketing strategies.OVERVIEWProducts and markets have life cycles that call for changing marketing strategies over time. Every new need follows a demand life cycle that passes through the states of emergence, accelerating growth, decelerating growth, maturity and decline. Each new technology that emerges to satisfy that need exhibits a demand-technology life cycle. Particular product forms of a given technology also show a life cycle, as do brands within that product form.The sales history of many products follow an S-shaped curve made up of four stages. The introduction stage is marked by slow growth and minimal profits as the product is pushed into distribution. The company has to decide during this stage between the four strategies of rapid skimming, slow skimming, rapid penetration, or slow penetration. If successful, the product enters a growth stage marked by rapid sales growth and increasing profits. During this stage, the company attempts to improve the product, enter new market segments and distribution channels, and reduce its prices slightly. There follows a maturity stage in which sales growth slows down and profits stabilize.The company seeks innovative strategies to renew sales growth, including market, product and marketing-mix modification. Finally, the product enters a decline stage in which little can be done to halt the deterioration of sales and profits. The company's task during this period is to identify the truly weak products; develop for each one a strategy of continuation, focusing, or niching, and finally phase out weak products in a way that minimizes the hardship to company profits, employees, and customers.Not all products pass through an S-shaped PLC. Some products show a growth-slump-maturity pattern, others a cycle-recycle shape, and still others a scalloped shape. Some investigators have discovered over a dozen PLC shapes, including those describing styles, fashions, and fads. As a result of the globalization of the marketplace, an international PLC shape has also emerged. PLC theory has been criticized on the grounds that companies cannot predict the shapes in advance, orknow what stage they are in within a given shape, or predict the duration of the stages. Also PLCs are the result of chosen marketing strategies rather than independent of the chosen marketing strategies.Product life-cycle theory must be broadened by a theory of market evolution. The theory of market evolution holds that new markets emerge when a product is created to satisfy an unmet need. The innovator usually develops a product for the mass market. Competitors enter the market with similar products leading to market growth. Later growth slows down and the market enters maturity. The market undergoes increasing fragmentation until some firm introduces a powerful new attribute that consolidates that market into fewer and larger segments. This stage does not last, because competitors copy the new attributes. There is a cycling back and forth between market consolidation based on innovation and fragmentation based on competition. The market for the present technology will ultimately decline upon the discovery of superior technologies.,Companies must try to anticipate new attributes that the market wants. Profits go to those who introduce new and valued benefits early. 'Me search for new attributes can be based on customer survey work, intuition, dialectical reasoning, or needs-hierarchy reasoning. Successful marketing comes through creatively visualizing the market's evolutionary potential.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After reading this chapter students should:∙Understand the concepts of positioning∙Be able to identify competitive advantages of specific @ in the marketplace∙Be able to discern differentiation attributes∙Be able to review how different firms are trying to communicate their positioning strategy to the market∙Know how firms can choose an effective position in the market∙Know the concept of the product life cycle∙Know the stages of the product life cycle∙Understand the possible strategies to be used during each stage of the PLC Understand the concept and stages of market evolution∙Relate marketing strategy to market evolutionCHAPTER OUTLINE:I.IntroductionII.Tools for Competitive Differentiation - volume industry, stalemated industry, fragmented industry, specialized industry.A.Product differentiation1.Features - characteristics that supplement the product’s basic function.2.Performance quality - the level at which the product’s primarycharacteristics operate.3.Conformance quality - the degree to which all the produced units areidentical and meet the promised target specifications.4.Durability - a measure of the product’s expected operating life undernatural and/or stressful conditions.5.Reliability - a measure of the probability that a product will notmalfunction or fail within a specified time period.6.Repairability - a measure of the ease of fixing a product thatmalfunctions or fails.7.Style - the product’s looks and feel to the buyer.8.Design: The Integrating Force - the totality of features that affect how aproduct looks and functions in terms of customer requirements.B.Services differentiation1.Ordering Ease2.Delivery - speed, accuracy and care3.Installation - making a product operational4.Customer training - instruction on proper and efficient use5.Customer consulting - data, information systems and advising services6.Maintenance and repair - keeping products in good working order7.Miscellaneous services - finding other ways to add valueC.Personnel differentiation - competence, courtesy, credibility, reliability,responsiveness, communicationD.Channel DifferentiationE.Image Differentiation1.Identity versus image - company intentions versus consumer perceptions2.Symbols - logos, objects, people, colors3.Written and audiovisual media - to convey company or brand personality4.Atmosphere - physical space in which the organization produces ordelivers its products5.Events - sponsorshipsIII.Developing and Communicating a Positioning Strategy - Criteria for differentiation - price/quality, service, attributes, benefits, against competition, application, users, againstproduct category, etc.A.How many differences to promote - single v. double or triple benefit positioningB.Which differences to promote - with many ways to go, a firm still must choosemunicating the company's position - to all publics, both internal and external.Other marketing mix elements should help support the position, not detract fromit.IV.Product Life Cycle Marketing StrategiesA.The Concept of the Product Life Cycle1.Demand/Technology Life Cycle - to describe changing need levels aswell as the level of technology available to satisfy these changing needs.2.Stages in the Product Life Cycle - Introduction, Growth, Maturity,Decline3.Product-Category, Product-Form and Brand Life Cycle - the PLCconcept can be applied to any of these cycles4.Other Shapes of the Product Life Cycle - from six to seventeen differentpatternsa)Style, fashion, and fad life cycles5.The International Product Life Cycle - US manufacturers export product,foreign production starts, foreign production becomes competitive inexport markets, import competition begins.B.Marketing Strategies: Introduction Stage1.Marketing Strategies in the Introduction Stage - rapid-skimming, slow-skimming, rapid-penetration, slow-penetration2.Market Pioneers - research shows those first in the market gain thegreatest advantages, both consumer and producer oriented.petitive Cycle - sole supplier, competitive penetration, sharestability, commodity competition, withdrawalC.Marketing Strategies: Growth Stage1.Marketing Strategies in the Growth Stage - a wide variety availableD.Marketing Strategies: Maturity Stage1.Marketing Strategies in the Mature Stage - market modification, productmodification, marketing mix modificationE.Marketing Strategies: Decline Stage1.Marketing Strategies During the Decline Stage - identifying the weakproducts, determining decline marketing strategies (increasinginvestment, maintaining investment, decreasing investment, harvesting,divesting), the “drop” decisionF.The Product Life Cycle Concept: CritiqueII.Market EvolutionA.Stages in Market Evolution1.Emergence stage - latent market which consists of people who share asimilar need or want for something that does not yet exist. One companyenters to satisfy that need or want.2.Growth stage - new firms enter into what is now considered an attractivemarket3.Maturity stage - heavy competition causes market fragmentation and,with the emergence of new attributes, market consolidation4.Decline stage - either society’s total need level declines, or a newtechnology begins to replace the old.B.Dynamics of Attribute Competition - firms can discover new attributes through:customer-survey, intuitive, dialectical and needs-hierarchy processes.V.SummaryMarketing and Advertising1. As the ad in Figure 1 explains, Experian offers access to a large database of businesses for business marketers to prospect via direct mail. How does Experian differentiate its product relative to competing databases? Why do you think these differences are important? Explain Experian's value proposition in a single sentence, similar to the value proposition statements in Table 10.3.Answer: Experian differentiates its product by pointing to the high number of names and inclusion of new and small businesses. It also provides financial data to help business-to-business marketers identify good prospects. These differences are important because marketers do not want to waste money and effort reaching out to companies that are no longer in existence or are in serious financial difficulties. These marketers may also want to reach new and small businesses that need their goods and services. Experian's value proposition might be summed up as "The most accurate, comprehensive business database, complete with financial data." (Students may offer variations on this value proposition.)2. The ad in Figure 2 encourages consumers to seek out clothing made of pure Merino wool. What unique selling proposition is this ad promoting? Which of the nine product differentiation variables is being communicated in this ad? Why is this differentiation variable important to the target market? How does the ad use image to support the promoted differentiation?Answer: This Woolmark ad is promoting the unique selling proposition of wool as gentle and comfortable against the skin. This ad is communicating performance quality, the gentle feel of wool. This differentiation is important because consumers do not want to wear clothing that is scratchy or otherwise uncomfortable. The ad uses image to support this differentiation by showing the Woolmark symbol and by conveying a mood of comfort in the photo.Focus on TechnologyBeing first in the industry to offer a valuable new feature is one of the most effective ways for a company to compete—especially in high-tech industries such as computers, software, and consumer electronics, where the continual introduction of improved and innovative products is a fact of life. Identifying and selecting appropriate new features for these products is an art as much as a science, because customers often cannot articulate a need (or even recognize it) until they have been exposed to the new features. For example, the Apple iMac computer offers one-button access to the Internet, a feature that Web surfers might not have requested but very much appreciate.Select a high-tech product (such as a personal digital assistant, a mobile phone, or a DVD player) and use the Internet, ads, and other methods to research at least two features offered by a number of manufacturers. Also research a unique product feature offered by only one of the manufacturers. Why would customers value each of these features? How does the unique product feature help that company compete more effectively? Should the other competitors copy this unique feature? How long do you think it will take for this feature to become more commonplace (or even standard) on similar products throughout the industry? Be prepared to support your answers.Answer: Students' answers will vary, depending on the specific products they choose. Their answers should explain why the products' features are valued by customers. they should also be able to discuss how the one unique product feature differentiates that product from competing products. In general, if the unique feature offers considerable customer value, students may argue that rivals should copy it and it should become commonplace or standard in a fairly short period.Marketing for the MillenniumOver time, it is important to change the positioning of a company, product, or brand to keep pace with market developments. As discussed earlier, Monsanto has successfully made this transition. Founded in 1901, Monsanto steadily added products and divisions in plastics, chemicals, and related areas. Starting in 1985, however, the company began buying and selling products and divisions as it changed its positioning for the new millennium. By 1997, Monsanto had spun off its final chemical division, completing the evolution to a cutting-edge company specializing in life sciences products.To learn more about Monsanto's past, present, and future, visit its Web site (). Browse the sections about Monsanto, its products and the product pipeline, and the media center. In terms of the product life cycle, how does Monsanto's new positioning offer more opportunity for growth? How do the newer products (including those in the pipeline) support the company's new positioning?Answer: Monsanto's positioning as a life sciences company allows it more opportunities for growth through life sciences products. These go beyond the traditional plastics and chemicals products the company originally made and are in the early stages of the product life cycle, so they are far from maturity. The newest products, including those still in the development pipeline, are innovative and offer important new features and benefits for better health and living. These products therefore support Monsanto's life sciences positioning.YOU'RE THE MARKETER: SONIC MARKETING PLANIn the course of developing a marketing strategy, marketers must select and communicate an effective positioning to differentiate their offerings. They also have to plan appropriate marketing strategies for each stage of the product life cycle and the market's evolution.As before, you are working with Jane Melody on Sonic's marketing plan for shelf stereo systems. Review the company's situation and your work on previous sections of the marketing plan. Then answer these questions about positioning and marketing strategies for the stage(s) in the product life cycle that relate to Sonic's products (noting the need for further research where necessary):∙Which of the differentiation variables related to product, services, personnel, channels, and image are best suited to Sonic's situation, strategy, and goals? Include the rationale for yourselection.∙In developing your positioning, identify the benefits most valued by your target customers.Will you stress single-benefit or double-benefit positioning? In a sentence, what is the valueproposition for your product?∙In which stage of the product life cycle would you place Sonic's shelf stereo systems? What does this mean for Sonic's immediate marketing objectives and for its future product-development and management plans?∙Knowing the stage of Sonic's products in the life cycle, what are the implications for its marketing mix, product management strategy, service strategy, and R&D strategy?Once you have answered these questions and considered the effects on Sonic's marketing efforts, either summarize your findings and conclusions in a written marketing plan or type them into the Target Markets/Positioning, Marketing Strategy, and Product Development/Management sections of the Marketing Plan Pro software.Answer: Students may answer in different ways, depending on the answers and recommendations they offered in earlier chapters. In general, some of the key differentiation variables they might suggest for Sonic are: features and reliability (for product); maintenance and repair (for services); credibility and responsiveness (for personnel); coverage (for channels); and media (for image). Among the benefits most valued by the target segment are high quality and excellent repair service. High quality could be a good single-benefit positioning for Sonic, although students may make a good case for other benefits or even double-benefit positioning. They should be able to state the value proposition for shelf stereos in a single sentence.Shelf stereo systems are in the maturity stage of the product life cycle. This means that Sonic cannot expect huge increases in sales due to category growth. It also means that Sonic must use marketing to take sales away from competitors and maintain or grow its distribution network. Sonic may want to develop innovative new products that incorporate the latest technology desired by consumers if it wants to extend the product life cycle. Students should offer specific ideas about how to use the marketing mix to extend the product life cycle. They should discuss the need for new products and careful management of the product line to keep sales growing. Since service is a strength, Sonic should craft a service strategy that builds on that strength. And it needs an R&D strategy to bring new products into the pipeline and avoid obsolescence of the current product line.。
schiffman16_im 中山大学吴柏林教授 “广告心理学(清华大学出版社2010)”绝密资料
CHAPTER 16Consumer Decision Making and BeyondLEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter studying this chapter students should be able to:1.Describe a decision.2.Enumerate the three levels of consumer decision making.3.Explain the four models of consumer decision making discussed in the text.4.Outline a model of consumer decision-making.5.Discuss the three stages of consumer decision making in the process component of thedecision-making model.6.Outline the rules consumers use in decision making.7.Discuss purchase and postpurchase behavior as part of the consumer decision process.8.Explain consumer gifting behavior.9.Describe the elements of the consuming and possessing process.10.Explain the importance of relationship marketing.SUMMARYThe consumer’s decision to purchase or not to purchase a product or service is an important moment for most marketers. It can signify whether a marketing strategy has been wise, insightful, and effective, or whether it was poorly planned and missed the mark. Thus, marketers are particularly interested in the consumer’s decision-making process. For a consumer to make a decision, more than one alternative must be available. (The decision not to buy is also an alternative.)Theories of consumer decision making vary, depending on the researcher’s assumptions about the nature of humankind. The various models of consumers (economic view, passive view, cognitive view, and emotional view) depict consumers and their decision-making processes in distinctly different ways.An overview consumer decision-making model ties together the psychological, social, and cultural concepts examined in Parts II and III into an easily understood framework. This decision model has three sets of variables: input variables, process variables, and output variables.Input variables that affect the decision-making process include commercial marketing efforts, as well as noncommercial influences from the consumer’s sociocultural environment. The decision process variables are influenced by the consumer’s psychological field, including the evoked set (or the brands in a particular product category considered in making a purchase choice). Taken as a whole, the psychological field influences the consumer’s recognition of a need, prepurchase search for information, and evaluation of alternatives.The output phase of the model includes the actual purchase (either trial or repeat purchase) and postpurchase evaluation. Both prepurchase and postpurchase evaluation feed back in the form of experience into the consumer’s psychological field, and serve to influence future decision processing.The process of gift exchange is an important part of consumer behavior. Various gift-giving and gift-receiving relationships are captured by the following five specific gifting classification scheme: (1) intergroup gifting (a group gives a gift to another group); (2) intercategory gifting (an individual gives a gift to a group or a group gives a gift to an individual); (3) intragroup gifting (a group gives a gift to itself or its members), (4) interpersonal gifting (an individual gives a gift to another individual), and (5) intrapersonal gifting (a self-gift).Consumer behavior is not just making a purchase decision or the act of purchasing; it also includes the full range of experiences associated with using or consuming products and services. It also includes the sense of pleasure and satisfaction derived from possessing or collecting “things.” The outputs of consumption are changes in feelings, moods, or attitudes; reinforcement of lifestyles; an enhanced sense of self, satisfaction of a consumer-related need: belonging to groups; and expressing and entertaining oneself.Among other things, consuming includes the simple utility of using a superior product, the stress reduction of a vacation, the sense of having a “sacred” possession, and the pleasures of a hobby or a collection. Some possessions serve to assist consumers in their effort to create “personal meaning” and to maintain a sense of the past.Relationship marketing impacts consumers’ decisions and their consumption satisfaction. Firms establish relationship marketing programs (sometimes called loyalty programs) to foster usage loyalty and a commitment to their products and services. At its heart, relationship marketing is all about building trust(between the firm and its customers), and keeping promises made to consumers. Therefore, the emphasis in relationship marketing is almost always on developing long-term bonds with customers by making them feel special and by providing them with personalized services.CHAPTER OUTLINEINTRODUCTION1.This chapter takes a broader perspective and examines consumer decision making in thecontext of all types of consumption choices, ranging from the consumption of new products to the use of old and established products.2.It also considers consumers’ decisions not as the end point, but rather as the beginning pointof a consumption process.WHAT IS A DECISION?1.In the most general terms, a decision is the selection of an option from two or morealternative choices.2.If the consumer has no alternatives from which to choose and is literally forced to make aparticular purchase or take a particular action (e.g., use a prescribed medication), then this does not constitute a decision and is commonly referred to as a “Hobson’s choice.”b)In actuality, no-choice purchase or consumption situations are fairly rare.LEVELS OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.Not all consumer decisions receive or require the same amount of effort in the informationsearch.2.Researchers have identified three specific levels of consumer decision making: extensiveproblem solving, limited problem solving, and routinized response behavior.Extensive Problem Solving1.When consumers have no established criteria for evaluating a product, or have not narrowedtheir choices, then they are in extensive problem solving.2.At this level, the consumer needs a great deal of information to establish a set of criteria onwhich to judge specific brands and a correspondingly large amount of information concerning each of the brands to be considered.Limited Problem Solving1.At this level consumers have already established the basic criteria for evaluating the productcategory but haven’t established preferr ed categories.2.Their search for additional information is more like “fine-tuning;”they must gatheradditional brand information to discriminate among the various brands.Routinized Response Behavior1.At this level, consumers have some experience with the product category and a well-established set of criteria with which to evaluate the brands they are considering.a)They may search for a small amount of additional information.2.Just how extensive a consumer’s problem-solving task is depends on how well establishedhis or her criteria for selection are, how much information he or she has about each brand being considered, and how narrow the set of brands is from which the choice will be made.3.Routinized response behavior implies little need for additional information.MODELS OF CONSUMERS: FOUR VIEWS OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.The term models of consumers refer to a general view or perspective as to how and whyindividuals behave as they do.2.Four views will be examined:a)An economic view.b) A passive view.c) A cognitive view.d)An emotional view.An Economic View1.The consumer has often been characterized as making rational decisions.a)This model, called the economic man theory, has been criticized by consumerresearchers for a number of reasons.b)To behave rationally in the economic sense, a consumer would have to:i)Be aware of all available product alternatives.ii)Be capable of correctly ranking each alternative in terms of its benefits and its disadvantages.iii)Be able to identify the one best alternative.c)This perspective is unrealistic because:i)People are limited by their existing skills, habits, and reflexes.ii)People are limited by their existing values and goals.iii)People are limited by the extent of their knowledge.2.Consumers operate in an imperfect world, therefore the economic view is often rejected astoo idealistic and simplistic.A Passive View1.The opposite of the economic view is the view of the consumer as basically submissive to theself-serving interests and promotional efforts of marketers (i.e., the passive view).2.Consumers are perceived as impulsive and irrational purchasers, ready to yield to the armsand aims of marketers.3.The principal limitation of this model is that it fails to recognize that the consumer plays anequal, if not dominant, role in many buying situations by seeking information about product alternatives and selecting the product that appears to offer the greatest satisfaction.4.This view is largely unrealistic.A Cognitive View1.This view portrays the consumer as a thinking problem solver.2.The cognitive model focuses on the processes by which consumers seek and evaluateinformation about selected brands and retail outlets.3.Consumers are viewed as information processors, and this leads to the formulation ofpreferences, and ultimately, purchase intentions.4.In contrast to the economic view, this view recognizes that the consumer is unlikely to seekall possible information, but will only seek information until he/she has what is perceived as sufficient information to make a satisfactory decision.5.Consumers are presumed to use heuristics—short-cut decision rules to facilitate decisionmaking.a)They also use decision rules when exposed to too much information—informationoverload.6.This model depicts a consumer who does not have complete knowledge, and therefore cannotmake perfect decisions, but who actively seeks information and attempts to make satisfactory decisions.An Emotional View1.Although aware of the emotional or impulsive side of consumer decision making, marketershave preferred the economic or passive models.2.In reality, when is comes to certain purchases or possessions, deep feelings or emotions arelikely to be highly involved.3.Possessions may also serve to preserve a sense of the past and help with transitions in timesof change.4.When a consumer makes what is basically an emotional purchase decision, less emphasistends to be placed on searching for prepurchase information and more on the current mood or feelings.5.Unlike an emotion, which is a response to a particular environment, a mood is more typicallyan unfocused, pre-existing state—already present at the time a consumer “experiences”an advertisement, a retail environment, a brand, or a product.6.Mood is important to consumer decision making in that it impacts when consumers shop,where they shop, and whether they shop alone or with others.a)Some retailers attempt to create a mood for shoppers.b)Individuals in a positive mood recall more information about a product than those in anegative mood.A MODEL OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING1.The model looks at cognitive processes, problem solving, and to some degree, the emotionalaspects of consumer decision making as well.2.This is not an exhaustive review but a synthesis and coordination of relevant concepts into awhole.Input1.The input component draws on external influences that provide information or influence aconsumer’s product-related values, attitudes, and behavior.Marketing Inputs1.The firm’s marketing activities are a direct attempt to reach, inform, and persuade consumersto buy and use its products.2.The impact of a firm’s marketing efforts is governed by the consumer’s perception of theseefforts.3.Marketers should be alert to consumer perceptions by sponsoring consumer research, ratherthan to rely on the intended impact of their marketing messages.Sociocultural Inputs1.Sociocultural inputs consist of a wide range of noncommercial influences—comments of afriend, an editorial in the newspaper, a family member, and direct noncommercial sources of information.2.The unwritten codes of conduct communicated by culture indicate right and wrongconsumption behavior.3.The cumulative impact of each firm’s marketing efforts, the influence of family, friends, andneighbors, and society’s existing code of behavior are all likely to affect the how and what of consumer purchases.Process1.The process component of the model is concerned with how consumers make decisions.2.Psychological field—represents the internal influences—motivation, perception, learning,personality, and attitudes—that affect consumers’ decision-making processes.3.The consumer decision consists of three states: need recognition, prepurchase search, andevaluation of alternatives.Need Recognition1.Recognition of a need occurs when a consumer is faced with a problem.2.Among consumers there seem to be two different problem recognition styles.a)Actual state types—consumers who perceive that they have a problem when a productfails to perform satisfactorily.b)Desired state types—the desire for something new may trigger the decision process.Prepurchase Search1.Prepurchase search begins when a consumer perceives a need that might be satisfied by thepurchase and consumption of a product.a)The consumer usually searches his or her memory first.b)If no experience is present then he/she may engage in an extensive search of the outsideenvironment.c)Past experience is considered an internal source of information.i)The greater the relevance of past experience, the less of an external search.ii)The degree of perceived risk can also influence this stage.iii)High risk situations will lead to complex information gathering, low-risk, simple search and evaluation.2.The act of “shopping” is an important form of external information.a)According to a recent consumer study there is a big difference between men and womenin terms of their response to shopping.b)In addition to gender differences, research reveals that price considerations can alsoplay a role in determining the extent of the search process.3.An examination of the external search effort associated with the purchase of different productcategories (e.g., TVs, VCRs, or personal computers) found that, as the amount of total search effort increased, consumer attitudes toward shopping became more positive, and more time was made available for shopping.a)The less consumers know about a product category and the more important the purchaseis to them, the more time they will make available and the more extensive their prepurchase search activity is likely to be.4.The Internet has had a great impact on prepurchase search.a)Web sites can provide consumers with much of the information they need about theproducts and services they are considering.5.How much information a consumer will gather also depends on various situational factors.Evaluation of Alternatives1.When evaluating potential alternatives, consumers tend to use two types of information:a) A “list” of brands (the evoked set).b)The criteria they will use to evaluate each brand.2.Evoked set—evoked set refers to the specific brands the consumer considers in making apurchase in a particular product category.a)The inept set consists of brands the consumer excludes from purchase consideration asunacceptable.b)The inert set is those brands to which the consumer is indifferent because they areperceived as having no advantage.c)The evoked set consists of the small number of brands the consumer is familiar with,remembers, and finds acceptable.3.The five terminal positions in the model that do not end in purchase would appear to haveperceptual problems. For example:a)Brands may be unknown because of the consumer’s selective exposure to advertisingmedia and selective perception of advertising stimuli.b)Brands may be unacceptable because of poor qualities or attributes or inappropriatepositioning in either advertising or product characteristics.c)Brands may be perceived as not having any special benefits and are regardedindifferently by the consumer.d)Brands may be overlooked because they have not been clearly positioned or sharplytargeted at the consumer market segment under study.e)Brands may not be selected because they are perceived by consumers as unable tosatisfy perceived needs as fully as the brand that is chosen.4.The implication for marketers is that promotional techniques should be designed to impart amore favorable, perhaps more relevant product image to the target consumer.5.Criteria used for evaluation brands—the criteria consumers’ use for evaluating brands areusually expressed in terms of important product attributes.a)When a company knows that consumers will be evaluating alternatives, they sometimesadvertise in a way that recommends the criteria that consumers should use in assessing product or service options.b)Research shows that when consumers discuss such “right products,” there is little or nomention of price; brand names are not often top-of-mind; items often reflect personality characteristics or childhood experiences; and it is often “love at first sight.”6.Consumer decision rules—consumer decision rules are referred to as heuristics, decisionstrategies, and information-processing strategies, and are procedures used by consumers to facilitate brand choices.a)These rules reduce the burden of decision making.b)Compensatory decision rules—a consumer evaluates brand options in terms of eachrelevant attribute and computes a weighted or summated score for each brand.i)The computed score reflects the brand’s relative merit as a potential purchasechoice.ii)The assumption is that the consumer will choose the brand with the highest score.iii) A unique feature of a compensatory decision rule is that it allows a positive evaluation of a brand on one attribute to balance out a negative evaluation on someother attribute.c)Noncompensatory decision rules do not allow consumers to balance positiveevaluations of a brand on one attribute against a negative evaluation on some other attribute. Forms include:i)Conjunctive decision rule—the consumer establishes a minimally acceptable levelthat is established as a cutoff point for each attribute.a)If any particular brand falls below the cutoff point on any one attribute, thebrand is eliminated from consideration.ii)Disjunctive rule—this rule mirrors the conjunctive rule.a)The consumer establishes a minimally acceptable level as a cutoff point foreach attribute.b)In this case if a brand alternative meets or exceeds the cutoff established forany one attribute, however, it is accepted.iii)Lexicographic decision rule—the consumer first ranks the attributes in terms of perceived relevance or importance.a)The consumer then compares the various brand alternatives in terms of thesingle attribute that is considered most important.b)If one brand scores sufficiently high on this top-ranked attribute, it isselected, and the process ends.c)The highest-ranked attribute may reveal something about the individu al’sconsumer orientation.7. A variety of decision rules appear common. Nine out of ten shoppers who go to the store forfrequently purchased items have a specific shopping strategy for saving money.a)Practical loyalists—look for ways to save on those brands and products that they wouldbuy anyway.b)Bottom-Line Price Shoppers—buy the lowest-priced item, with little or no regard forbrand.c)Opportunistic Switchers—use coupons or sales to decide among brands and productsthat fall within their evoked set.d)Deal Hunters—look for the best “bargain” and are not brand-loyal.8. A synthesized decision rule, the affect referral decision rule, is the simplest, and is theconsumer remembering past evaluations from his/her evoked set and selecting the brand with the highest perceived overall rating.9.Going online to secure assistance in decision making—for the past several years researchershave been examining how using the Internet has impacted the way consumers make decisions.a)Three factors that have been researched are:i)Task complexity(number of alternatives and amount of information available foreach alternative).ii)Information organization (presentation, format, and content).iii)Time constraint (more or less time to decide).10.Lifestyles as a consumer decision strategy—a n individual’s or family’s decisions to becommitted to a particular lifestyle impacts their consumer behavior.a)Research suggests that 15 percent of Baby Boomers will be seeking a simpler lifestyle.11.Incomplete information and noncomparable alternatives—in many situations consumers faceincomplete information. They cope with this missing information in a number of ways.a)They may delay decision making until the missing information is available.b)They may ignore the missing information and work with available information.c)Consumers may change their decision-making strategy to accommodate the missinginformation.d)Consumers may infer or construct the missing information.e)Consumers may conclude that none of their choices offer sufficient benefits to warrantpurchase.f)Sometimes consumers use decision rules to compare dissimilar alternatives.12.A series of decisions—a purchase can involve a number of decisions rather than a singledecision.13.Decision rules and marketing strategy—an understanding of which decision rules consumersapply in selecting a particular product or service is useful to marketers concerned with formulating a promotional program.14.Consumption vision—a study found the attitudes and search behavior of a vision, “a mentalpicture or visual image of specific usage outcomes and/or consumption consequences.”a)Such visions allow consumers to imagine or vicariously participate in the consumptionof the product or service prior to making an actual decision.OUTPUT1.The output portion of the consumer decision-making model concerns two closely associatedkinds of postdecision activity: purchase behavior and postpurchase evaluation.2.The objective of both activities is to increase the consumer’s satisfaction with his or herpurchase.Purchase Behavior1.Consumers make three types of purchases: trial purchases, repeat purchases, and long-termcommitment purchases.a)Trial is the exploratory phase of purchase behavior in which consumers attempt toevaluate a product through direct use.i)When a trial is satisfactory, consumers are likely to repeat the purchase.b)Repeat purchase behavior is similar to brand loyalty.i) A repeat purchase usually signifies that the product meets with the consumer’sapproval and that the consumer is willing to use it again and in larger quantities.ii)This form is closely related to brand loyalty.c)Trial is not always feasible, such as with big-ticket items and durable goods. In that casethe consumer moves from evaluation directly to long-term commitment.Postpurchase Evaluation1.As consumers use a product, they evaluate its performance in light of their own expectations.2.There are three possible outcomes of such evaluation.a)Actual performance matches the standard, leading to a neutral feeling.b)Positive disconfirmation when the performance exceeds the standard.c)Negative disconfirmation when the performance is below the standard.3.An important aspect of the purchase process is reducing postpurchase cognitive dissonance,when consumers try to reassure themselves that their choice was a wise one.4.The degree of postpurchase analysis relates to the importance of the product decision and theexperience acquired in using the product.5.The consumer’s postpurchase evaluation feeds back as experience to the consumer’spsychological field and serves to influence future related decisions.CONSUMER GIFTING BEHAVIOR1.The amount of money spent and feelings generated by gifts make them an interesting part ofconsumer behavior.2.Gifting behavior is the process of gift exchange that takes place between a giver and receiver.a)It includes gifts given to (and received from) others and gifts to oneself, or self-gifts.3.Gifting is symbolic communication with implicit and explicit meanings.4.One of the models of gifting reveals the following five gifting subdivisions:a)Intergroup gifting.b)Intercategory gifting.c)Intragroup gifting.d)Interpersonal gifting.e)Intrapersonal gifting.5.Intergroup gifting occurs when one group exchanges gifts with another.6.Intercategory gifting is an individual giving a group a gift, or a group giving an individual agift.7.An intragroup gift is a gift that a group gives itself.8.Interpersonal gifts occur between two individuals.9.An intrapersonal gift is a self-gift.BEYOND THE DECISION: CONSUMING AND POSSESSING1.Historically consumer behavior studies have focused on the product, service, or brandchoices.2.We now see that the experience of possessing, collecting, or consuming things contributes toconsumer satisfaction and overall quality of life.3.Consumer choices might be viewed at the beginning of the consumption process rather thanat the end.a)The choice or purchase decision is the input of the process.b)The input stage includes a consumption set and a consumption style.c)The process stage consists of using, possessing, collecting, and disposing of things andexperiences.d)The output stage would include changes in feelings, attitudes, and behaviors, as well asreinforcement of a lifestyle.Products Have Special Meaning and Memories1.Consuming is a diverse and complex process.2.It includes utility of a product, the psychological use of the product, memories, etc.3.As a consequence, some possessions create personal meaning for consumers and/or helpthem maintain a sense of the past.4.Some people maintain their identity after major changes in their life by linking to their past.Relationship Marketing1.Many firms are pursuing relationship marketing in order to build loyal usage and acommitment to their company’s products and services.a)It is built on trust that grows from keeping promises.2.The goal of relationship marketing is to build strong, lasting relationships with a core groupof customers.3.The emphasis is on developing long-term bonds, making consumers feel good about thecompany, and giving the consumer some kind of personal connection to the business.4. A review of the composition of 66 consumer relationship marketing programs revealed threeelements shared by more than 50 percent of the programs.a)Fostering ongoing communication with customers (73 percent of the programs).b)Furnishing loyalty by building extras like upgrades and other perks (68 percent of theprograms).c)Stimulating a sense of belonging by providing a “club membership” format (50 percentof the programs).5.Like personal relationships between individuals who are willing to do favors for each other,“relationship”marketers offer loyal customers special services, discounts, increased communications, and attention beyond the core product or service, without expecting an immediate payback.a) A new form of relationship marketing has resulted as Internet usage has increased. Theterm used on the Internet is “permission marketing.”6.Although direct marketing, sales promotion, and general advertising may be used as part of arelationship marketing strategy, relationship marketing stresses long-term commitment to the individual customer.7.Ultimately, it is to a firm's advantage to develop long-term relationships with existingcustomers, because it is easier and less expensive to make an additional sale to an existing customer than to make a new sale to a new consumer.8.Research indicates that consumers today are less loyal than in the past, due to six majorforces:a)The abundance of choice.b)Availability of information.c)Entitlement (consumers repeatedly ask “What have you done for me lately?”).d)Commoditization (most products/services appear to be similar—nothing stands out).e)Insecurity (consumer financial problems reduce loyalty).f)Time scarcity (not enough time to be loyal).DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Compare and contrast the economic, passive, cognitive, and emotional models ofconsumer decision making.The economic view portrays consumers as making rational decisions. Clearly, this model is not characteristic of most consumption situations because consumers are rarely aware and knowledgeable of all the product alternatives in any given situation, and of all the features and benefits of the product offerings they can choose from. Thus, they are often unable to make rational decisions. The passive view depicts the consumer as basically submissive to the self-serving interests and promotional efforts of marketers. Consumers are perceived as impulsive and irrational purchasers, ready to yield to the arms and aims of marketers. The cognitive view depicts consumers as problem solvers where they cognitively process information, seek out products and services that fulfill their needs, form preferences, make choices, and engage in postpurchase evaluations of their selections. Such decision making is characteristic of consumption situations where consumers are highly involved with purchases and experience high levels of perceived risk. The emotional view states that consumers often have deep emotions or feelings regarding many purchases. This is typical of consumption situations where consumers place more emphasis on their current moods and feelings and less emphasis on prepurchase information. In such cases, a product is bought on an impulse。
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Let’s Discuss
Packaging as a Crucial Marketing Tool
10-12
Give specific examples how the following factors have contributed to the importance of packaging: Self-service Detergent Consumer affluence Company and brand image Opportunity for innovation
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
Personality Values Benefits
2001 Prentice Hall
Quick Quiz
10-7
Brand Equity
Define the following terms: Brand awareness Brand acceptability Brand preference Brand loyalty Customer equity Loyal customer lifetime value
Product Mix: all product lines offered
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
10-5
Product Line Decision
Product-line analysis Sales and profits Market profile Product-line lห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ngth Line stretching: upmarket stretch, downmarket stretch Line filling Line featuring and line pruning
10-9
Individual
brand names
Manufacture
r brand
Blanket
family name
Brand No brand
Distributor
(private) brand
Separate
family names Companyindividual names
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
10-2
Five Product Levels
Potential product Augmented product Expected product Basic product ```` Core benefit
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
10-8
2001 Prentice Hall
An Overview of Branding Decisions
Branding Decision Brandsponsor Decision Brandname Decision
Licensed
brand
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
10-10
More Branding Decisions
Brandstrategy Decision Brandrepositioning Decision
2001 Prentice Hall
10-11
Good Brand Names:
Become distinctive Are free from poor foreign language meanings Suggest product qualities Suggest product benefits Are easy to pronounce, recognize, remember
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
Do You Have Brand Loyalty?
Devoted to brand Values the brand Satisfied and switching cost Satisfied customer (no reason to change) No brand loyalty (customer will change)
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
10-4
Product Mix
Width: number of different product lines
Consistency
Length: total number of items within lines Depth: number of versions of each product
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
Quick Quiz
10-3
Product Classifications
As quickly as you can, list five products that are considered: a. Nondurable goods b. Convenience goods c. Shopping goods d. Specialty goods What is the difference between consumer goods and industrial goods? What is the difference between raw materials and manufactured materials?
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler 2001 Prentice Hall
Let’s Discuss
10-6
What Is a Brand?
Explain what is meant by each of the following levels of meaning for brands: User Culture Attributes
10-1
Chapter 10 Objectives
Identify and describe characteristics of products. Explain how a company can build and manage its product mix and product lines. Determine how a company can make better brand decisions. Describe how packaging and labeling can be used as a marketing tool.
Line extension Brand
extension
Multibrands New brands Cobrands
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
Repositioning No
repositioning
To accompany A Framework for Marketing Management by Kotler
2001 Prentice Hall
Quick Quiz
10-13
Labeling
List at least three things a product label does. What federal agency regulates labeling for food products? What is open dating? Unit pricing? Grade labeling?