Cognitive-Functional Linguistics– Some Basic Tenets II

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1.Cognitive Linguistics

Cognitive Linguistics: an overview
• • • •
Goals of module The struห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ture of this module Course Content Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction
Goals of this module
Some guidance
• These following "Ts" may help you to successfully and more efficiently organize your groupwork. In each neighbourhood, at least one student (or better, two) should be in charge of one of these "Ts" when working in groups: • Task (Stay focused on the task) • Teamwork (Make sure that all group members are involved) • Take notes (Write down your findings) • Time management (Make sure you are done with the worksheet within the time limit you have agreed on in the beginning) • Talk (Talk to each other and make sure to appoint one student to represent your group in the meeting with the lecturer)

Cognitive Linguistics

The development of CL
firmly rooted in CS primarily concerned with investigating the relationship between language, the mind and sociosocio-physical experience
Cognitive Semantics
key assumptions:
(1) no distinction between semantics and pragmatics (i.e., no distinction between core meaning and pragmatic, social or cultural meaning); (2) encyclopaedic knowledge is structured: the knowledge that words provide access to represent an organized inventory of knowledge;
Philosophical basis of the contemporary linguistic schools
CL和SFG之间存在互补关系（Langacker）。 CL和SFG之间存在互补关系（Langacker）。 SFG侧重语言的社会方面，主要从语言的社 SFG侧重语言的社会方面，主要从语言的社会功能和使用情景来研究语言，将语义置于中心位置，但也不排斥心理方面的研究（胡壮麟）。 CL更侧重语言的心理方面研究成果，强调认 CL更侧重语言的心理方面研究成果，强调认知方式在语义形成中的作用，同时也重视社会文化、百科知识对于语义理解的必要性。
Cognitive Semantics

谈认知-功能教学法在对外汉语教学中的应用

谈认知-功能教学法在对外汉语教学中的应用认知法是主张在外语教学中发挥学习者智力作用，尤其是在对语言规则的理解方面，重视学习者的主观能动性的一种教学法体系。

功能法是以语言功能为纲、注重培养学习者交际能力的一种教学法体系。

它们各有所长，是近半个世纪以来最有影响力的两种教学法。

我们综合这两种语言教学法，试图探索出一套更为有效且更有针对性的对外汉语教学方法。

一、认知法概述认知法（Cognitive Approach）又叫认知—符号法（Cognitive-CodeApproach），产生于20世纪60年代，代表人物是美国心理学家布鲁纳（J.S.Bruner）、卡鲁尔（J.B.Carroll）。

认知法主张发挥学习者智力的作用，通过有意识地学习语音、词汇、语法知识，理解、发现并掌握语言规则，从而能从听、说、读、写方面全面地运用语言。

它重新肯定了语法—翻译法（Grammer Translation Method），因此被称为“改进了的现代语法—翻译法”。

认知法的语言学理论基础是乔姆斯基（A.N.Chomsky）的转换生成语法理论，该理论认为语言是受规则支配的体系而不是习惯体系，人类学习语言绝不能仅靠模仿记忆，而是一种有意识的、创造性的运用过程。

心理学理论基础是认知心理学，该理论认为学习是一个感知、记忆、思维和想象的过程，是大脑抽象思维活动的结果，而不是简单的刺激—反应。

认知法的基本教学原则如下：1.外语教学要以学生为中心，调动学生的学习积极性和主动性，培养学生的自学能力。

2.在理解语言知识和规则的基础上操练外语，强调有意义的学习和有意义的操练。

3.主张听、说、读、写齐头并进，全面发展。

各种感觉器官综合运用，以求达到最佳效果。

4.适当地使用学生的母语。

教学时，适当地进行母语与目的语的对比，可使教学具有针对性和预见性。

5.学生出现错误在所难免，对于影响交际的错误要加以纠正，对于一般性错误不必有错必纠。

6.广泛运用直观教具和电化教学手段，使外语教学情景化、交际化。

认知语言学

知识的根本。
学科发展历程
认知语言学在20世纪70年代中期开始在美国孕育（朗奴·兰盖克提出空间语法），80年代中期以后开始成熟，其学派地位得以确立，其确立标志为1989年春由勒内·德尔文(ReneDirven) 组织的在德国杜伊斯堡(Duisbury) 召开的第一届国际认知语言学大会。此次大会宣布于1990年发行《认知语言学》杂志, 成立国际认知语言学( ICLA) , 出版认知语言学研究的系列专著，90年代中期以后开始进入稳步个特例。一个范畴或类别往往有个“原型”，是用以确定类别的参照标准，需要归类的目标与标准进行比较，符合标准所有特征的目标例示（instantiate）这一标准，不完全符合的目标是对标准的扩展（extension）。
经典范畴理论的如下特征 1 范畴划分由一组充分必要条件决定 2 特征是二元 3 范畴具有清晰边界 4 范畴成员之间地位平等。
eg2.钟书能阮薇. 认知与忠实——汉英上下位词翻译的认知视角『j』.韶关学院学报
3.上下位：
以基本层次范畴为中心范畴可以向上发展为上位范畴向下发展为下位范畴上位范畴依赖于基本层次范畴且物体的完形形象和大部分属性都来自基本层次范畴因此又被称为寄生范畴(parasiticcategory) 下位范畴也是寄生范畴它是在基本层次范畴的基础上更进一步细致的切分。
二、认知语言学的主要概念
原型范畴化、基本范畴、上下位命题模式、意象模式、隐喻模式、转喻模式意象图示
1.原型（prototype）：
是物体范畴最好、最典型的成员, 所有其他成员也均具有不同程度的典型性。
eg1. 在英语的世界图景中, 鸟的原型为画眉鸟;而对于母语为俄语的人而言则是麻雀; 麻雀在中国人的认知意义中也具有典型意义。

2013语言学导论期末复习提纲

2012-2013学年第2学期语言学导论期末复习提纲Part I Testing itemsThere are seven types of testing items:I. Define the following terms (10%)II. Fill in the blanks of the following sentences (20%)III. Multiple choices (15 points)IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false (10%)V. Draw a tree diagram (10%)VI. Briefly answer the following questions in three or four sentences (20%)VII. Discuss one of the following topics in about 200-300 words (15%)Part II Reviewing outlinesStudents in this course are supposed to know the following knowledge or questions about English linguistics.1. What is language?2. What are design features of language?3. What are the theories of the origin of language?4. How many functions does language have? What are they?5. What main branches is linguistics divided into?6. What is macrolinguistics?7. What are descriptive and prescriptive studies?8. What are synchronic and diachronic descriptions?9. What are langue and parole?10. What are competence and performance?11. What many branches is phonetics divided into?12. What do speech organs consist of?13. What is IPA?14. How do we classify consonants and vowels?15. What is minimal pair?16. What is coarticulation?17. What are phonemes?18. What are allophones?19. What is complementary distribution?20. What is assimilation? What is dissimilation?21. What is phonological rule?22. How do you understand distinctive features?23. How do you understand a syllabic structure?24. What is stress/ tone/ intonation?25. What is phonetics?25. What is phonology?26. What is word order?27. What are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?28. What is co-occurrence?29. What is immediate constituent?30. What is a tree diagram and how do you use it to analyze sentences?31. What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?32. What are coordination and subordination?33. What is number/ gender/ case?34. What is syntax?35. How many kinds of syntactic relations? What are they?36. What is agreement?37. What is phrase?38. What is clause?39. What is sentence?40. What is recursiveness?41. What are the seven types of English sentence patterns?42. What is conjoining?43. What is embedding?44. What is cohesion?45. What are the seven types of meaning?46. What is the semantic triangle in the Meaning of Meaning?47. What is the referential theory?48. What is synonymy?49. What is antonymy? How many types of antonymy do we have?50. What is hyponymy?51. What is sense?52. What is componential analysis?53. What is an integrated theory in sentence meaning?54. What is logical semantics?55. What is predicate logic?56. How do we write the predicate logical form?57. What is the truth value table?58. What is propositional logic?59. What is universal quantifier? What is existential quantifier?60. What is homophone?61. What is pragmatics?62. What is entailment?63. What is Speech Act Theory?64. What are performatives and constatives?65. What are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act?66. What is the Theory of Conversational Implicature?67. What is the cooperative principle (CP)? How do you understand those maxims?68. What is Relevance Theory?69. What are the Q- and Q-principles?70. What are the Q-, I- and M-principles?语言学导论复习资料一：名词解释(4个）ngue & Parole（语言与言语）Langue is the linguistic competence of the speaker,which is relatively stable and systematic and also the rule that the speaker should follow. Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, which is subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.2.Phonetics & Phonology （语音学与音位学）Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including three main areas: articulatory phonetics (发音语音学), acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), auditory Phonetics(听觉语音学). Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns. 3. Open-class word & Closed-class word（开放类词与封闭类词）Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. e.g. n. v. adj. adv. E.g. regarding / with regard to throughout, in spite of Closed words : their membership is fixed or limited. E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc. 4. Immediate Constituent Analysis（直接成分分析法）The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体）and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC. 5. Sense & Reference（意义与所指）Sense: The literal meaning of a word or an expression, independence of situational context. Reference: The relation between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for. 6. Metaphor & Metonymy （隐喻与转喻）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. E.g. All the world is a stage. Metonymy : in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. E.g. the crown can stand for a king, and the White House for the American government. 7. Performatives & Constatives（施为句与表述句）Performatives: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out. Constatives: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or false. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.二：问答题（3个） 1. What are the designed features of Language？“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication, including: 1. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 2. duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures. 3. creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(递归性）4. displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication. 5. Cultural Transmission means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker. 2. What is Iconicity（句法像似性）？How to analyze some language phenomena with Iconicity? In functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics, iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. We can analyze some language phenomena with the Iconic principles. Proximity principle: conceptual distance tends to match with linguistic distance, e.g. “give sb sth”and “give sth to sb” Quantity principle: conceptual complexity corresponds to formal complexity, e.g. “apple, tree”, “apple tree”and “apple trees”. Sequential order principle: the sequential order of events described is mirrored in the speech chain, e.g. “I came, I saw, Iconquered”. 3. What is prototype theory（原形范畴）? How to analyze some language phenomena with prototype theory? Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool. We can analyze some language phenomena with its three levels in categories. basic level: This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects”in the word.E.g, all categories of dogs are different, but they still share enough to be distinguished from cats, birds, snakes,etc. superordinate level: Superordinate categories are the most general ones. E.g, if someone asks you to think of a plant, you might think of a tree or a flower. subordinate level: They have clearly identifiable gestalts(完形）and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the differences between members od the basic level categories, like rain coat,apple juice and wheel chair.4. What is figure and ground theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with figure and ground theory? The figure within a scene is a substructure perceived as "standing out" from the remainder(the ground) and accorded special prominence as the pivotal(关键的）entity around which the scene is organized and for which it provides a setting. For example, you see words on a printed paper as the "figure" and the white sheet as the "background". It is believed that the selection and arrangement of the information in syntactic structure are decided by the degrees of salience of it. For example, “The car crashed into the tree”and “The tree was hit by the car”, in these two sentences, the meanings are the same, but by arranging the positions of the subject and object differently, the focus and prominence are different.5. How to analyze some language phenomena with Metaphor and Metonymy? We can analyze some language phenomena with metaphor through its three categories. 1. Ontological metaphor: e.g inflation is backing us to conner. In this sentence, regarding inflation as an entity allows human beings to refer to it, identify it, treat it as a case. 2. Structural metaphor imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, “Argument is war”leads to an English expression like “Your claims are indefensible”. 3. Orientional metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation. For example, “I’m feeling up”shows erect posture is related with a positive state, and vise versa.6. What is Speech Act theory? What is Illocutionary Act? What is Cooperative Principle? The speech act theory was originated with John Austin. A speech act is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, etc. Illocutionary act means when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces. Cooperative Principle refers to the “co-operation”between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner. 三．语言学家及其理论、作品配对 1. Saussure: Course in General Linguistics 结构主义历时研究diachronic study 2. Boas: discovered the framework of descriptive linguistics Handbook of American Indian languages 3. Sapir: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language 4. Bloomfield: stimulus-response theory Language(1993) 5. Malinowski: context of situation Coral Gardens and Their Magic 6. Trubetzkoy: Principles of Phonlogy7. Austin: speech act theory How to do things with words 8. Grice: the cooperative principle Logic and conversation 9. Halliday: systemic-functional grammar the theory of metafunctions of language(元语言功能理论）10. Chomsky: language acquisition device(LAD) generative grammar Syntactic Structures 11. Lakoff: cognitive linguistics Metaphors We Lived By 12. Leech: 7 types of meaning in his Semantics 13. Ogden & Richards: Semantic Triangle 四．选择题，判断题重点 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. 语言的起源：the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, the yo-he-yo theory. 3. 语言的功能:interpersonal function(人际功能），performative function(行事），emotive，expressive，phatic communication(寒暄），recreational，metalingual.4. 语言学的主要分支：phonetics[articulatory, acoustic(physical properties), auditory], phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.5. 语音属于言语，音位属于语言,音位（phoneme)是最小的语音单位，语素（morpheme)是语法意义中最小的语言单位，单词（word）是语言最小的自由单位。

国外类比翻译的例子

国外类比翻译的例子摘要：摘要类比型术语由于类比方法的特征及其扩展性，表现出语言符号的象似性。

从认知语言学和功能语言学来看，这样构成的术语义理与原词相通，翻译时可相互参照。

因此，通过类比型术语研究找出术语的某些相同构词特征可以提高翻译的效率与准确性。

一引言随着科技的不断发展，新学科成倍增长，术语在信息时代的不断涌现，可以用“爆炸”两字来描述。

据抽样统计，它们占科技英语文献的60%。

[1]术语翻译同样随着术语量的增长而成为科技翻译的一个重要部分。

找出术语的某些相同构词特征有助于提高翻译的效率与准确性。

类比(analogy)是一种特殊的比喻，是两类事物或两种情境(本体和喻体)之间扩展的或复杂的比喻。

它是把具有两个或多个相似点、义理相通的两个不同的事物并列进行平行比较，使其相互参照，来解释问题，阐明事理。

不论是作为修辞格还是生活中的普遍思维模式，类比“反映出人类最为普遍的思维方式”[2]，都有其扩展性和理据性。

在现代英语中，类比构词(word-formation by analogy)指仿照原有的同类词创造出其对应或近似词，[3]是一种实用而又活跃的构词方式。

在此笔者拟对类比型术语的构词特征、构词方法和翻译原则作一些探讨。

二类比构词的象似性特征西方学者指出，术语是语言符号[1]。

根据皮尔斯(C.S.Pierce)的符号学理论，语言符号具有高度的象似性。

认知语言学认为，人类在对现实世界感知体验和认知加工的基础上形成概念和概念结构，语言是现实世界经由人类认知加工而形成的结果。

认知先于语言，决定语言，是语言的基础，语言形式不仅与客观的现实之间，而且在许多方面与人们的经验结构、概念结构、所表意义之间存在映照性相似现象。

功能主义语言学家认为，语言的结构，如词的结构，既然要受一般认知有关的象似性支配，语言智能就不可能独立于其他认知智能，语言的构词部分也不可能独立于音系、词素、语义等其他部分。

语言学可以从采集到的语料中分析出语法规则、语音规则、以及语词的“组合”和“聚合”现象。

认知功能语言学

认知功能语言学——Defining cognitive linguistics 认知功能语言学认知语言学简介认知语言学的语言观及本质认知语言学的属性主要代表人物及流派认知方式——比较/范畴化一、认知语言学简介上世纪70年代，认知语言学研究兴起于美国西海岸，80年代开始活跃起来，继而扩展到西欧和全球，形成对乔姆斯基革命的又一场革命。

1989年国际认知语言学学会成立，每两年举行一次会议，1990年起开始出版期刊Cognitive Linguistics。

中国的认知语言学研究目前正方兴未艾。

几年前成立了中国认知语言学研究会，每两年举行一次会议。

二、认知语言学的语言观及本质语言观认知语言学崇尚体验哲学，以建设性心智主义、互动论和联通论为心理学基础。

它批判语言天赋说，坚持从体验性认知的角度来解释语言。

认知语言学认为，语言最重要的功能在于表达意义，语义必须置于语言研究的首位。

意义即概念化（conceptualization），是客观现实、身体体验、认知方式、知识框架等多种因素共同作用的结果。

它强调认知方式和主观性在语义形成中的作用，同时也重视社会文化和百科知识对于语义解读的必要性。

语言本质而是代表着一种或一组研究取向认知语言学并非专门的理论，。

该领域的学者对语言的本质有着共同的看法，至少在以下三个方面具有一致性。

（Taylor）认第一，质疑乔姆斯基语言学提出的语言专用模块（language-specific module）说，为语言能力内嵌于一般的认知能力和过程之中，心智（）中不存在独立的语言mind模块。

语形第二，认为语言是一开放的系统，由一系列符号单位组成，符号单位分为（）和语义phonological（semantic）两个极，相当于索绪尔的能指和所指，因此，认知语言学是向索绪尔符号系统说的回归。

第三，与第二点相联系，认为由语素组成的词项和词组成的短语，以及现时语法分都析中常见的主语和动词、修饰和被修饰、主从等关系也是符号单位或符号结构，是有意义的词法和句法结构都是符号。

湖南自考·英汉语言文化比较(词语)

诸论对比分析contrastive analysis 选词diction 转换conversion增补addition 省略omission 重复repetition替代substitution 变换variation 倒置inversion反说negation 拆离division 缀合combination阐释annotation 浓缩condensation 重组reconstruction对比语言学contrastive linguistics文化语言学culturallinguistics不同之处difference特殊之处peculiarity粘连性cohesion连贯性coherence认知-功能语法对比分析cognitive-functional approach明白explicit描写语言学descriptive linguistics语言学革命Chomskyan Revolution转换生成语法Transformational-Generative Grammar篇章语言学textlinguistics谁在何时用何种语言向谁说话Whospeaks what language te whom and when 社会语言学sociolinguistics跨文化交际学intercultural communication语言langue言语parole形式form机构structure理想化的人an idealizedman语法能力grammaticalcompetence社会的人a social man交际能力communicative competence文化圈的人cultural men文化背景cultural background语言文化的异同language and culture:Chinese cs.Foreign火辣的言辞fiery words双语人bilingualist双文化人biculturalist形式接应formal cohesion意念连贯semantic coherence言语交际verbal communication非言语交际nonverbal communication身势语body language无声语言silent language文化冲击culture shock和平队Peace Corps隐性文化covert culture跨文化意识cross-cultural awareness丑陋的美国人The Ugly American无声的语言The Silent language我们为何是丑陋的美国人Why are we Ugly Americans文化意识cultural literacy跨文化教育、训练和研究学会Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research 语言能力linguistic competence合乎语法grammaticality恰当/得体appropriateness接受acceptability美国外语教学协会American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages综合语与分析语变化形式（hereditary inflections）综合—分析语（synthetic-analytic language）语调（intonation）声调（tone）词缀变化（affixation）前缀（prefix）后缀（suffix）动词的变化(conjugation)副词的变化(declension)性(gender)数(number)格(case)时(tense)体(aspect)语态(voice)语气(mood)比较级(degree of comparison)人称(person)词性(parts of speech)我们的学校(our school)你看见了没有(have you see it)思维方式(relational thinking)爱能征服一切(love conquers all things)保持一致（S-V concord）结构性倒装(structural inversion)功能性倒装(functional inversion)语法关系一致(grammatical concord)英语里多作定语，少作谓语(heavy attribute, small predicate)汉语里则多作谓语，少作定语(small attribute, heavy predicate)头轻脚重(end-weight)让人印象深刻(each ismore impressive than the preceding)直线型（straight line）螺旋型（circular line）演绎式（deductive）归纳式（inductive）混合式（hybrid）其临摹性（isomorphism）直线式（linear）迂回式（cyclical）主题句（topic sentence）虚词（form words）结构词（structural words）功能词（function words）连接词（coordinators）从属连接词（subordinators）虚词（empty words）介词、助词（particles）虚词、实词（notion words或full words）语气助词（emotional particles）语调（intonation）声调（tones）语调（intonation）重音(stress)降调(falling tone) 升调(rising tone) 降升调(fall-rise) 升降调(rise-fall)平调(level) 降加升调(fall-plus-rise)双音节化和四音节化（predominance of disyllables and quadrisyllables over monosyllables and trisyllables）刚性与柔性两者协调一致（S－V concord）关系网络（connective nexus）聚集型（compactness）核心（kernel）动词造句的形式（verb pattern）主谓结构（subject-predicate）语法一致（grammatical concord）意义一致（notional concord）流散型（diffusiveness）话题(topic)说明(comment) 注重主语(subject-prominent)注重话题(topic-prominent) 形合（hypotaxis）意合（parataxis）话题+说明(topic+comment)语法功能灵活多变（flexibility of grammatical function）非逻辑表达方式（illogical expressions）晒太阳to bask in the sun.晒衣服to sun one’s clothes吃食堂to have one’s meals in the mess吃苹果to eat an apple还他的债to pay him one’s debts还他的钱to pay him back住四人four people live in …住旅馆to stay at a hotel在家养病to recuperate at home闭目养神to sit in repose with one’s eyes closed救火fire fighting救国to save the nation打扫卫生to do some cleaning打扫房间to clean the room补充缺额to fill a vacancy补充人力to replenish manpower恢复疲劳to get refreshed恢复健康to recover one’s healtheggplant(茄子) sweetmeat（是糖果、蜜线,不是甜的肉）quicksand(流沙) fill out(填写)a slim chance= a fat chance:渺茫的机会quite a lot= quite a few:相当多,不少burn dow(烧成平地) burn up(烧掉)hamburger(汉堡包) ham(火腿)The alarm went on(闹响) went off(闹响)boxing rings(拳击台) public bathrooms(公共厕所)baths(浴室) sweetbread（甜面包）drive on a parkway(公园大道上开车)a wise man(聪明的人) a wise guy(自以为是的人)overlook(忽视,忽略) oversee(监视,监督,看管)pineapple(菠萝) pine(松树)apple(苹果) Stars are out(能看见星星)Lights are out(看不见灯光)wind up my watch(让表开始走)wind up this article(不是开始写文章,而是文章写完了)完全句（full sentence）不完全句（minor sentence）破句（fragments）形式接应（formal cohesion）意念连贯（semantic coherence）显性（explicitness）刚性（rigidity）引性（implicitness）柔性（suppleness）形合与意合形合法（hypotaxins）意合法（Parataxis）显性接应（overt cohesion.）连接手段和形式（cohesive ties）简单介词(如with，to，in，of，about，between，through)合成介词(如inside，onto，upon，within，without，throughout)成语介词(如according to，along with，apart from，because of，in front of，on behalf of，with regard to)保持前后一致的关系(grammatical and notional concord)替补词(expletives)显性（explicit）逻辑-语法关系链接词语（logic-grammatical connector）低语境（low-context）作者责任型（writer-responsible）隐性连贯(covert coherence)严谨(preciseness)简洁(conciseness)隐性（implicit）高语境（high-context）读者责任型（reader-responsible）繁复与简短从属结构(subordination)又繁又长(1ong-winded)包孕式的复合句(complex sentences with embedded clauses)将几个从属子句相互衔接（dovetail several dependent clauses into each other）主谓核心协调(S-V concord)楼房建筑法(architecture style)关系联结(conjunctive nexus)旧时流行词语（outworn words and phrases）喜欢的长诗（lovely long words）闪烁其词（hedging）晦涩不清（obscurity）卖弄、表现（shou off）并列句（coordination）并列形式的复句（composite sentence）流水记事法(chronicle style)各个过程(streamline the thoughts)句首封闭、句尾开放（right-branching）末端重量（end-weight）顺线性向后扩展延伸（natural linear expansion）句首开放、句首收缩（left-branching）逆线性向前扩展延伸（reversed linear expansion）顺线性向后扩展延伸（natural linear expansion:right-branching）顺线性向前扩展延伸（reversed linear expansion:right-branching）关键词语（key word）主题句（topic sentence）结构（subordination）直线性（linearity）突显语序（salient order）领悟式的归纳型（because-therefore structure）螺旋式（circular/spirsl/indirect）自然语序（natural order）单调感(monotony)物称与人称拟人化(personification)无灵主语(inanimate subject)有灵动词(animate verb)填补词(expletive)先行词(preparatory “it”)非人称被动式(impersonal passive)施动者(doer或agent)客观(objective)客观(objective)婉转(roundabout)被动式(agentless passive)公文文体(bureaucratese)承担可能有错的责任(a pusillanimous shrinking from responsibility) 无主句(subjectless sentences)主语省略句(subject-omitted sentences)无形式标志的被动句(passives with no grammatical marks)非人称向（depersonalization）被动与主动表达习惯(passive habit)人称主语(vague pronoun subject)末端中心(end focus)末端重量(end weight)灵活多变（add variety to writing）信息性的(informative)客观叙述(impersonal activity seen objectively)翔实、冷静(calm fact—teller)罗唆(wordy)间接(indirect)无力(weak)隐晦(oracular)故弄玄虚(mysterious)而深不可测(impenetrable)被动的烟幕(passive smoke-screen)科技文章(technical writing)报刊文章(newspaperese)官方文章(bureaucratese)结构被动句(syntactic passive)意义被动句(notional passive)人称被动式(impersonal passive)双重被动式(double passive)examinee(=person examined) 受审查者；受试人；考生referee(=to whom a question is referred) 受委托者his astonishment(=he was astonished) 他感到惊讶the man’s trial(=the man was tried) 那个人受审问the imprisonment of the murderer(=the murderer was imprisoned) 凶手被监禁eatable(=fit to be eaten) 可吃的desirable(=to be desired) 想要的visible(=that can be seen) 可以看见的respectable(=deserving respect)值得尊敬的in one’s possession／in the possession of someone(= owned，held，kept or controlled by someone)为某人所有，在某人的控制之下under the influence (of alcoho1)(=drunk；affected by alcohol) 酒醉不幸语态(inflictive voice)不企望的事(unpleasant or undesirable)语用性位移(pragmatic movement)主题（topic）话题（theme）通称(generic person)It is said that… 有人说，据说，据云It is well known that… 大家知道，众所周知It is generally considered that… 人们普遍认为语态的限制（voice constraints）动词限制（verb constraints）宾语限制（object constraints）施事的限制（agent constraints）意义的限制（meaning constraints）频率的限制（frequency constraints）想象性的（imaginative）信息性的（informative）静态(stative)动态(dynamic)名词化(Nominalization)名词优势于动词的倾向(preponderance of nouns over verbs) 名词化表达法(nominal style)冗长(wordy)含糊(vague)缺乏活力(1ifeless)施事者(agentive noun)行为和动作(如realize—realization，complete—completion) 标题式短语(Headline phrase)刺激性的词语(stimulating words)名词作为前置定语（heavy premodification of nouns）信息负荷过重（unnecessarily overweighted）过分堆积名词（noun pileups）名词连用作修饰语（multiple noun adjunct）名词作定语（nounattribute）prestige university= prestigious university有名望的大学race hatred= racial hatred种族仇恨affluence society= affluent society富裕社会launch pad= launching pad发射台economy measure节约措施economic measure经济措施bankruptcy lawyer处理破产诉讼的律师bankrupt businessman破了产的商人efficiency expert 研究提高工作效率的专家fficient worker工作效率高的工人obesity specialist肥胖病专家obese specialist胖专家介词充斥(prepositionitis)乏味的名词(ponderous nouns)淡化(dilute)迂回(circumlocution)弱化表达法(debilitated style)啰嗦(wordy)累赘(verbose)缺乏生气(lifeless)平易(plain)活泼(lively)具体(concrete)直接了当的(direct)缺乏动态感（the least expressive verb）非矛盾律（Law of Noncontradiction）弱式动词(verbs of feeble phenomenality)虚化动词(empty verb)万能动词（general purpose verb of low communicative value）虚弱（weak）啰嗦（wordy）平淡无味(colorless)节约用词（word economy）包孕（dovetail）词化( lexicalization)抽象与具体抽象表达法(method of abstract diction)理论研究（abstract theorizing）尤其是抽象名词（nouny abstract style）高级思维(superior mind)文明人的一种象征(mark of civilized man)含混(cloudy)大字眼(pompous words)抽象词语(puzzling abstraction)时髦的词语(vogue terms)公式化套语生成表(Buzz-phrase Generator)抽象词语(puzzling abstraction)时髦的词语(vogue words)适者生存(Survival of the Fittest)所谓词话（lexicalization）拉丁语(Latinate abstracts)泛滥成灾(abstractitis)形合法（hypotaxis）非人称表达法（impersonal style）动词化表达法（verbal style）必要性（necessity）正确性（correctness）依赖性（dependence）现代化(modernization)抽象化（abstraction）长度（1ength）强度（intensity）爱国主义（patriotism）奴隶主义（slavishness）商品（commodity）毒品（narcotics）日用品（daily necessities）反义词组（antonymic binomes）长度（length）速度（speed）温度（temperature）宽度（width）深度（depth）距离（distance）重量（weighe）体积（size）具体(concrete)清晰(clear)语言形象(picturesque)措辞抽象(abstract)含义晦涩(obscure)词句冗长(1ong-winded)平易、朴实(Down-to-earth style)行为抽象名词(action-nouns)范畴词(category words)复杂性（complexity）相对论（relativity）显示器（display）腐蚀剂（corrosive）嫉妒心（jealousy）傲慢态度（arrogance）古怪行为（eccentricity）轻松愉快的心情（lightheartedness）肾结石切除术（lithonephrotomy）重力选矿法（gravity separation）具体化(figuration)土崩瓦解（disintegration）赤胆忠心（ardent loyalty）远见卓识（far-sightedness）水乳交融（perfect harmony）厚颜无耻，不要脸（impudence）深思熟虑（careful consideration）筋疲力尽（total exhaustion）画饼充饥（feed on fancies）如饥似渴（with great eagerness）伤风败俗（offend public decency）添砖加瓦（make a 1ittle contribution）危在旦夕（on the verge of destruction）望穿秋水（await with great anxiety）三天打鱼, 两天晒网（lack of perseverance）异化译法( foreignizing translation)空中捕鱼(水中捞月/缘木求鱼)——fish in the air洞中之鼠(瓮中之鳖)——rat in a hole筛子打水(竹篮打水一场空)——draw water in a sieve叫酒卖醋(挂羊头卖狗肉)——cry up wine and sell vinegar作床自卧(作茧自缚)——As you make your bed, so you must lie on it.不要教鱼游泳(不要班门弄斧)——Never offer to teach fish to swim偷剪羊毛反而头发被剪(偷鸡不着蚀把米)——go for wool and come back shorm归化译法( domesticating translation)一箭双雕、一举两得（to kill two birds with one stone ）雨后春笋（to grow like mushrooms）殊途同归(All roads lead to Rome)意译法( free translation)具体法( concretization)抽象法( abstraction)间接与直接委婉(Euphemism)装作正经( prude)彬彬有礼( gentle)死亡（pass away，go to one’s Maker，sleep with one’s fathers，join the great majority，pay the debt of nature，be with God，go to glory，go to a better world，sleep the final sleep，cross the Great Divide，climb the golden staircase等）上厕所（go to the restroom (washroom)，use the bathroom，wash one’s hands，relieve oneself，answer a call of nature）怀孕（be expecting，in a family way (美)，in the family way (英)，in an interesting condition）身体太胖（stout，on the heavy side）年老（senior citizen，elderly people，advanced in age）powder room代替ladies’room(女厕所)soiled linen代替dirty clothes(脏衣服)unpleasant odour代替nasty smell(难闻的气味)assault代替rape(强奸)nether garments/unmentionables/inexpressible 代替 trousers(裤子)官方英语(officialese)官僚英语(bureaucratese)五角大楼英语(Pentagonese)国务院英语(State-Departmentese)官腔英语(gobbledygook)市政府英语(urbanbabble)经济调整（econmic adjustment）未充分利用人才（underutilization）人力资源未充分开发（human resources underdevelopment）经济上处于不利地位者（the economically disadvantaged individuals）机遇不佳的人（the underprivileged）负数储蓄者（negative saver）内城区(inner city/ central city)不合规格的住房（substandard housing)改造所，教养院（house of correction/correctional facility）不大真实（less than truthful）收集情报（intelligence gathering）清算（liquidation）国际武装冲突(international armed conflict)空中增援（air support）越界飞行（overflight）压制对手（neutralize the adversary）生理节奏反常（circadian deregulation）退却(retreat)战败(defeat)战线调整(an adjustment of the front)战败(defeat)战略撤退(strategic withdrawal)威慑（deterrence）第一次打击能力（第一次打击能力）核子（nuclear）有益而一本正经（useful and businesslike meeting）认真而坦率的讨论（serious and candid discussion）通货紧缩（deflation）周期性重新调整（rolling readjustment）经济萧条（depression）“雾谷”(美国国务院)（Foggy Bottom）华盛顿官僚英语（Washingtonian bureaucratese）职业委婉语(occupational euphemism)悦耳动听、冠冕堂皇的委婉语（uplifting word or impressive title）sanitary engineer(=garbage man)垃圾清洁工meat technologist(=butcher)屠户prison officer(=gaoler)监狱看守mixologist=（bar-tender）调酒师/酒吧招待rodent operator(=rat catcher)捕鼠工landscape architect(=gardener)园丁/园艺工clairvoyant reader(=fortune teller)算命卖卜者research consultant(=file clerk)档案(卷宗)管理员funeral director(=undertaker)承办丧葬者，殡仪员plant superintendent，supervisor(=foreman)工头，领班aisle manager(=floorwalker)百货公司的巡视员、招待员proprietor of loan office(=pawnbroker)当铺老板public relations counselor(=press-agent)新闻广告员member of the oldest profession(=prostitute)妓女household executive /domestic manager=（housewife）家庭妇女beautician/cosmetician/hair stylist/tonsorial artist（=barber）理发师不浮夸（unflamboyant）智力逊常（subnormal）情况特殊的孩子（exceptional(special)child）predrive classic(= used car)用过的车color minority(= Negro)黑人industrial action(= strike)罢工memory garden(= cemetery)墓地facial dew(= sweat)汗水In the altogether(= naked)赤身裸体golden years(= old age)老年时期full figured(= well-developed,fl-grow)(妇女)丰满willowy(= slender)苗条,柳腰,婀娜多姿redirected fight(=hijack劫持飞机事件secret disease性病to be fond of the bottle爱喝酒/贪杯My cousins(country cousins) have come. 来月经了Let' s go to Reno.咱们去办离婚吧。

cognitive-functional model

cognitive-functional model是一个认知心理学的模型，它探讨的是人的心理功能与认知过程的关系。

这个模型认为，人的认知过程是通过心理功能对信息进行加工和处理，从而实现对外部世界的感知、理解和反应。

在这个模型中，认知过程可以看作是一个黑箱系统，输入信息进入黑箱后，经过一系列的加工和处理，最终输出处理结果，这个过程是由认知系统完成的。

认知系统是由一系列的认知元素组成的，每个认知元素都有自己的功能和作用。

cognitive-functional model的一个重要特点是它强调认知过程的灵活性和适应性。

它认为，人的认知过程不是固定的，而是可以根据不同的任务和环境进行灵活的调整和改变。

这个模型也强调认知过程与环境的交互作用，认为人的认知过程是人在与外部环境的交互作用中不断发展和变化的。

此外，cognitive-functional model还强调认知过程的多层面性，认为人的认知过程不仅涉及到大脑的神经生理层面，还涉及到语言、思维、情感等高级认知层面。

这些层面之间相互作用、相互影响，共同构成了一个复杂的认知系统。

总之，cognitive-functional model是一个综合性的认知心理学模型，它探讨的是人的认知过程和心理功能的关系，为人们深入理解人的认知过程提供了重要的理论框架和方法指导。

认知语言学

• 认知语言学代表人物
• 乔治· 雷可夫 (George P. Lakoff1941年-)：认知语言学的其中一位创立者，提倡比喻(隐喻)是日常语言活动中的必须认知能力。 • 朗奴· 兰盖克 (Ronald Langacker，1942年12月27日-)：认知文法的提倡者。 • 戴浩一：台湾国立中正大学语言学研究所教授，是少数专长于认知语言学的华人。 • 王士元：香港中文大学现代语言学系暨中研院院士，另一少数专长于认知语言学的华人。
• 3.上下位：
以基本层次范畴为中心，范畴可向上发展为上位，范畴向下发展为下位。
例如：Agriculture is the foundation of the national economy， We must follow the principle of combining。（农业是国民经济的基础，我们要坚持农林牧副渔相结合的方针）分析：第一个“农业”指的是农业经济，具有广泛意义，因此译“agriculture”；第二个 “农业”具有专指意义，所以要译成下位词 “farming”，才能准确地表达原意。
二、认知语言学的主要概念
• 原型 • 范畴化、基本范畴 • 上下位 • 隐喻模式、转喻模式
• 1.原型（prototype）：
原型范畴理论是认知语言学提出的重要观点 , 其哲学根源基于 “家族相似性 ”。它是物体范畴最好、最典型的成员, 而其他成员有的典型性显著，有的具有非典型性、处于范畴的边缘位置。如：在“鸟”这个范畴中，知更鸟是最典型的成员，因为它具有这个范畴的所有特性。而鸵鸟、企鹅、蝙蝠则处于“鸟”的范畴的边缘位置，它们和知更鸟共有的特性非常少。
• 四、认知语言学优与缺
• 1.优点
• • • • 提供自然的、符合人们语感的分析注重概念化对语法的影响对语言的共性和历史的成功解释常利用图解的办法，准确而简明地把一个复杂的语法范畴系统表达出来 • 洞察跨词类之间的共性 • 把动态的认知过程引入语法分析 • 确立语义和句法之间的“一对一”映射关系

generallinguistics普通语言学简介

Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。

包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。

这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。

功能语言学简介..

5.语法功能
语法功能是最具体的一种功能，它是纯理功能在语言系统中的体现形式。
五种功能的关系
纯理功能产生于宏观功能，宏观功能产生于微观功能，语法功能是纯理功能在词汇和语法层中的具体体现，人们平时对语言的实际运用，构成了一般意义上的语言功能。
系统功能语言学与语篇分析
功能语言学之所以不同于形式主义语言学的一个重要方面在于前者视语篇为语言研究的基本单位和出发点，而后者将语言研究的单位局限于句子的范围之内。系统功能语言学在研究句法结构时突破了句本位思想，重视对语篇的研究。Halliday（1994）明确地将系统功能语法称为“语篇语法”（discourse grammar）。认为语篇指的是任何长度的，在语义上完整的口头或书面的语段。
法国学派
Martinet Kristeva
三个独创之处：语言的双重分节；语言的经济原则；语言的现实主义原则。
Martinet认为尽管语言可以发挥表达、交际和审美等多种功能，但交际功能才是语言的“中心功能”，在语言研究的各个方面都应该贯穿功能主义。
她于 1967 年首先创造 “ 互文性 ” （intertextuality）这个术语，并把它引入文本分析和文学批评。所谓“互文”（intertext）指的是存在于其他语篇之间的语篇；所谓“互文性”指的就是不同语篇之间的这种相互关系。
Halliday的功能思想
3.宏观功能 macrofunction
宏观功能是儿童放弃原型语言向成人语言过渡时出现的语言功能。韩礼德认为宏观功能可以分为两种：一种是理性功能（mathetic function）,另一种是实用功能（pragmatic function）。
4.纯理功能

Cognitive Linguistic

Linguistic Coursework---Cognitive LinguisticsLinguistic course/work-----Cognitive LinguisticsIntroductionCognitive Linguistics is a new approach to linguistics which appeared in the late 1980s and it has grown rapidly at home and abroad, and has gradually turned into the major school of linguistics. To cognitive linguists, language not only enables communication, but also reflects mankind’s conceptual world. In other words, linguistic categories not only enable us to communicate, but also impose a certain way of understanding of the world. It integrates the research ways of language typology and functional linguistics, depicting and elaborating the constitution of human language.Cognitive Linguistics presents a forum for high-quality linguistic research on topics which investigate the interaction between language and cognition. Compared with linguistic structuralism, which sparked off substitution drills, and speech act theory, which initiated a complete reorganization of teaching strategies, the impact of cognitive linguistics is much less revolutionary. Yet the influence of cognitive linguistics may prove very valuable, because it lends theoretical support to a number of accepted teaching approaches in the fields of both vocabulary and grammar.The most influential linguists focusing centrally on cognitive principles and organization were Wallace Chafe, Charles Fillmore, George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, and Leonard Talmy etc. Masterpieces including: Handbook of Pragmatics、What Categories Reveal about the Mind、Metaphors we Live by、Foundations of Cognitive Grammar、An introduction to Cognitive Linguistics etc. At present, the study of cognitive linguistics is very active in Europe and the United States .Cognitive linguistics in the two research center in the United States has formed two different schools: Berkeley School( Lakoff、Fillmore、Kay、Sweetser) and San Diego School(Langacker、Fauconnier). The Foundations of Cognitive Grammar was written by Langacker, father of Cognitive Linguistics. This book introduces a new and fundamentally different conception of language structure and linguistic investigation.The central claim of cognitive grammar is that grammar forms a continuum with lexicon and is fully describable in terms of symbolic units (i.e. form-meaning pairings). In contrast to current orthodoxy, Langacker argues that grammar is not autonomous with respect to semantics, but rather reduces to patterns for the structuring and symbolization of conceptual content. "Understanding Langacker's grammar is made easier by the fact that, instead of using mathematical formalisms to prove his points, he uses common knowledge of language to persuade the reader. . . . The book is valuable for several factors in addition to its clarification of grammar. The insights into verbal thought and meaning are prime reasons for recommending the book to the semantically inclined."--Et ceteraI. Main theories of Cognitive LinguisticsOn the basis of non-objectivist philosophy, Cognitive Linguistics extensively assimilates the research findings and analytical methods of the disciplines studying humans ‘cognitive activities. Therefore, we need to have a better understanding of cognition and cognitive science.Cognition is the mental process caused in thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, clarifying etc. Cognitive science is a discipline which draws on research in linguistics, psycholinguistics, and cognitive psychology and Artificial Intelligence. Cognitive Science deals with the scientific study of thinking reasoning and intellectual processes of the mind. It is concerned with how knowledge is represented in the mind, how language is understood and with what the mental processes underlying, inferencing, learning, problem-solving and planning. Cognitive linguistics is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it. Because cognitive linguistics sees language as embedded in the overall cognitive capacities of man, topics of special interest for cognitive linguistics include: the structural characteristics of natural language categorization (such as prototypicality, systematic polysemy, cognitive models, mental imagery and metaphor); the functional principles of linguistic organization (such as iconicity and naturalness); the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics (as explored by cognitive grammar and construction grammar); theexperiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use; and the relationship between language and thought, including questions about relativism and conceptual universals. In this summary, Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study: Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics, separating semantics (meaning) into meaning-construction and knowledge representation. Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas. Cognitive phonology,dealing with classification of various correspondences between morphemes and phonetic sequences.II. Language study methods of Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive Linguistics grew out of the work of a number of researchers active in the 1970s who were interested in the relation of language and mind, and who did not follow the prevailing tendency to explain linguistic patterns by means of appeals to structural properties internal to and specific to language. Rather than attempting to segregate syntax from the rest of language in a 'syntactic component' governed by a set of principles and elements specific to that component, the line of research followed instead was to examine the relation of language structure to things outside language: cognitive principles and mechanisms not specific to language, including principles of human categorization; pragmatic and interactional principles; and functional principles in general, such as iconicity and economy. Cognitive Linguists began developing their own approach to language description and linguistic theory, centered on a particular set of phenomena and concerns. One of the important assumptions shared by all of these scholars is that meaning is so central to language that it must be a primary focus of study. Linguistic structures serve the function of expressing meanings and hence the mappings between meaning and form are a prime subject of linguistic analysis. Linguistic forms, in this view, are closely linked to the semantic structures they are designed to express. Semantic structures of all meaningful linguistic units can and should be investigated. These views were in direct opposition to the ideas developing at the time within Chomskyan linguistics, in which meaning was 'interpretive' and peripheral to the study of language. The central objectof interest in language was syntax. The structures of language were in this view not driven by meaning, but instead were governed by principles essentially independent of meaning. Thus, the semantics associated with morphosyntactic structures did not require investigation; the focus was on language-internal structural principles as explanatory constructs.III. Features and Controversy of Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is characterized by adherence to three central positions. First, it denies that there is anautonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and third, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use. Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. This stands in contrast to the stance adopted in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition. They thus reject a body of opinion in cognitive science suggesting that there is evidence for the modularity of language. They argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena —i.e., phonemes,morphemes, and syntax—is essentially conceptual in nature. Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms of conceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces. Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, in that language and cognition mutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users. However, there is significant peer review and debate within the field of linguistics regarding cognitive linguistics. Critics of cognitive linguistics have argued that most of the evidence from the cognitive view comes from the research in pragmatics and semantics on research into metaphor and preposition choice. They suggest that cognitive linguists should provide cognitive re-analyses of topics in syntax and phonology that are understood in terms of autonomous knowledge. There is also controversy and debate within the field concerning therepresentation and status of idioms in grammar and the actual mental grammar of speakers. On one hand it is asserted that idiom variation needs to be explained with regard to general and autonomous syntactic rules. Another view says such idioms do not constitute semantic units and can be processed compositionally.IV. Cognitive Linguistics in L2 teachingAt present, Cognitive Linguistics has been widely recognized in the world. There have been a large number of scholars and experts in cognitive linguistics, and a number of Cognitive Science Colleges have been established in the United States and other European countries. Cognitive Linguistics has made a positive contribution to the development of modern linguistics. Compared with other linguistic theories, cognitive linguistics is new and has had little influence on language teaching and learning .Yet it provides a new perspective on language, especially on vocabulary and grammar.In vocabulary teaching, it has slways been a golden rule that we should teach the words for basic level categories to the children first. Cognitive Linguistics reviews that we approach hierarchies of classifications from the center, that we concentrate on basic level categories such as dogs and cats and that our hierarchies are anchored in these basic level categories, These basic categories words correspond to the core vocabulary in a language, and they play an important role in daily life communication. There is a pitfall in English vocabulary learning, i.e. , some people pursue the quantity of vocabulary and neglect the quality of the core vocabulary learning. The result is that although these people can memorize a lot of difficult words, they still cannot read or wrote properly.The findings in cognitive linguistics are also useful in teaching grammar. We can choose a cognitive approach to grammar that is based on schemata, on prototypes or on basic level categories. One prominent characteristic shared by these approaches is that they all manage to bridge the gap between formal syntax and morphology on the one hand and the semantic aspects of grammar on the other by relating them both to a common conceptual basis. This liberation from the form/content division is probably the most important contribution that cognitive linguistics has made to pedagogicalgrammar and language teaching.V. ConclusionCognitive linguistics involves a wide range of disciplines,with abundant research content and novel subjects, and bears the unparalleled advantages compared with other linguistic theories.Therefore, we need not only comprehend its basic principles, but also apply them to analyze the branches of linguistics, directing at the hot issues which have just emerged in cognitive linguistics. Since this linguistic theory itself is in constant change, and because of its methodological problems and theoretical problems, there is a long way before it becomes a mature theory for language teaching and learning. Nevertheless it remains the most prospective and promising area of research.Reference1. Langacker, Ronald W. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press.2. Langacker, Ronald W. 1990. Concept, Image, and Symbol. The Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.3. Randal Holme. 2011 Cognitive Linguistics and Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press4. F.Ungerer&H.J.Schmid. 2008. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press5. George Lakoff.2007. Ten Lectures on Cognitive Linguistics by George Lakoff. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press。

认知语言学_Cognitive_Linguistics

Lecture 1认知语言学An Introduction to Cognitive LinguisticsⅠ. Introduction1.What is Cognitive Linguistics?Cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing. Cognitive linguistics is characterized by adherence to three major hypotheses as guiding the cognitive linguistic approach to language:1) Language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty; (语言不是自主的认知能力)2) grammar is conceptualization; （语法是概念化）3) knowledge of language arises out of language use.（语言知识来源于语言的使用）Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. This stands in contrast to the stance adopted in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition. They thus reject a body of opinion in cognitive science which suggests that there is evidence for the modularity of language. They argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena —i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax —is essentially conceptual in nature. However, they assert that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data is not significantly different from the storage and retrieval of other knowledge, and that use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities to those used in other non-linguistic tasks.Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms of conceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces.Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, （The linguistic relativity principle , also known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, is the idea that the varying cultural concepts and categories inherent in different languages affect the cognitive classification of the experienced world in such a way that speakers of different languages think and behave differently because of it.）in that language and cognition mutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users.2.认知语言学的诞生（The birth of cognitive linguistics）A．起始阶段（The initial stage）认知语言学兴起于20世纪70年代，20世纪80年代以后迅猛发展。

cognitive造句

cognitive造句【释义】cognitiveadj.认识的，认知的【短语】1Cognitive Science计认知科学;认识科学;认知迷信;认知学2cognitive dissonance认知失调;认识差距;认知不协调3Cognitive Psychology心理认知心理学;心理识别心理学;认贴心理学;感知心理学4Cognitive Bias认知偏差;认知偏误;认知偏见;认知的偏差5cognitive style认知风格;认知方式;认知类型6cognitive neuroscience认知神经科学;神经系统学;认知神经学;认知神经迷信7cognitive linguistics认知语言学;德国;书名8cognitive disorder认知障碍;认知功能障碍9cognitive deficit认知障碍;认知缺陷;认知赤字【例句】1As children grow older,their cognitive processes become sharper.随着孩子们长大，他们的认知过程也变得越来越敏锐了。

2They lack the cognitive and memory skills.他们缺乏认知和记忆能力。

3What kinds of cognitive abilities are we talking about?我们所说的是哪些类型的认知能力呢？4What people wear can affect their cognitive performance.人们的着装会影响他们的认知表现。

5Some of them are related to higher scores on cognitive tests.其中一些与较高的认知测试分数有关。

6For example,reasoning is a cognitive process,so is perception.例如，推理是一个认知过程，感知也是。