Prescriptive linguistics and descriptive linguistics
英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。
英语语言学导论《简明英语语言学概论》
Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonology vs. phonetics Both are related to the study of speech sounds Phonetics: of general nature, and interested in
all the speech sounds used in all human languages Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication
(two ways of how phonetically similar sounds are related) ◆minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal set.
(Chomsky) From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements
Spoken language precedes the written language everywhere in the world and most writing systems are derived from the vocal sounds.
(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论) Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。 5. Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说) Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. 语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。 6. Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论) Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. 语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of linguistics II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar III. Scope of linguistics 1. Microlinguistics 2. Macrolinguistics IV. Definition of language V. Origins of language
VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征) 【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】 1. Arbitrariness (任意性) This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog,
英语专业语言学复习试题
Morphology1.What is morphology?2.How are words classified?3.What is the relationship between word category and its meaning?4.How can you identify the meaning of a word?5.What is a morpheme?6.What is a morph and an allomorph?7.How many morphemes are there in each of the following words?a) superasegmental b) interactionistc) industrialization d) decentralized8.How many allomorphs does the plural morpheme ｛s｝have? What are they?9. How are morphemes classified?10. What is an inflectional morpheme? And what is a derivational one?11. How many inflectional morphemes does modern English have? What are they?12. How are the following words formed?antislavery; greenhouse;skin the apple; UFO; TESOL; medicare; adSyntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a syntactic category?3.What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?4.What are phrase structure rules like?5What are the three syntactic relations like?6. What is sentence rule like?7. What is IC Analysis?8. What are deep structures and surface structure?9. What are transformational rules?10. Are you able to analyze sentences with tree diagrams? Introduction: Language1. What’s your understanding of la nguage?2. What are the well-known theories about the origin of language?3. What are the design features of human language?4. What functions does language have?Introduction: Linguistics1. What is linguistics?2. What are the main branches of linguistics?3. Please describe the scope of research for each branch of linguistics.4. What are the interdisciplinary studies of language?5. What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?6. What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?7. What is the difference between langue and parole?8. What is the difference between competence and performance? Introduction: Language & LinguisticsI. Fill in the blanks.(1) Language, broadly speaking, is a means of human communication.(2) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is metalingual.(3) The theory that language arose from human beings instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the pooh-pooh theory.(4) Modern linguistics is descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.(5) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing.(6) The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.(7) Saussure put forward two important concepts. competence refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.(8) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limitedrules.This feature is usually termed Productivity/creativity.II.. Decide whether the following sentences are T or F.T(1) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.F(2) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.T(3)Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.F(4) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.T(5) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.T(6) By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.T(7) Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.F(8) Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.T(9) In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to studentsis basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’ communicative skills.F(10) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.F(11) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics.T(12) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Language and society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.speech community3.speech variety4.dialectal varieties5.Idiolect6.Register7.pidgin and creole8.bilingualism and diglossiaLanguage and culture1.What is culture?2.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)3.The significance of culture in language classroomsSemantics1. What is semantics?2. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?3. How many views are there concerning the study of meaning?4. What is sense and what is reference?5. What is componential analysis? Give an example to illustrate it.6. What is semantic field? Can you illustrate it?7. What are the major sense relations? Illustrate each type.8. What are the major types of synonyms in English? Illustrate each type.9. What are the major types of synonyms in English? Illustrate each type.10. How many semantic relations are there among sentences?Give examples.11. What is predication analysis?12. Fill in the blanks.(1)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguisticform?(2)Mean and frugal are said to be emotive synonyms.(3)We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as hyponymy.(4)“Words are names of labels for things.” This view is called namingtheory in semantic studies.(5)Cold and hot are a pair of gradable antonyms.(6)Bull: 〔BOVINE 〕〔MALE 〕〔ADULT〕is an example ofcomponential analysis.(7)“ John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die is a(an) contradiction.(8)The relation between sentence A “ My radio needs fixing.” andsentence B “ I have a radio.”is that A presupposes B/ B is a prerequisite of A.Pragmatics1. What is pragmatics? How does it differ from semantics?2. What is context?3. What is sentence meaning?4. What is utterance meaning?5. What is speech act theory?6. Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act through example?7. How are illocutionary acts classified?8. What is cooperative principle?9. What is conversational implicature?10. Can you illustrate the violation of the maxiams of the CP through some examples?11. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.F(1) A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s inten tion. F(2) Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.F(3) John Austin found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperative principle.F(4) Y’s utterance violates the maxim of manner.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks? Second Language Acquisition1.Theories of language acquisition2.Which theory do you think is more convincing and reasonable? Why?3.the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).4.Contrastive Analysis5.Interlanguage6.Error analysisprehensible Input Hypothesisphonetics1. What is the phonic medium of human language?2. What does phonetics concern?3. How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?4. What do speech organs include?5. How can the speech sounds be recorded?6. What are broad transcription and narrow transcription? How are they manifested in IPA?7. How are consonants different from vowels?8. In which ways may consonants be classified? And how are they classified in each way?9. How do phoneticians classify vowels? And how are they classified in each way?10. Describe the 48 speech sounds of English.Phonology1.To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?2.Please use examples to explain the definitions of phones, phonemes and allophones.3. What do minimal pairs refer? Use an example to illustrate this linguistic phenomenon.4. What is contrastive distribution? Give an example to illustrate it.5. What is complementary distribution? Give an example to illustrate it.6. What is free variation? Give an example to illustrate it.7. Are the phones in minimal pairs different phonemes?8. Are the phones in contrastive distribution different phonemes?9. Are the phones in complementary distribution different phonemes?10.Are the phones in free variation different phonemes?11. Illustrate the sequential rule with an example.12. Illustrate the assimilation rule with an example.13. Illustrate the deletion rule with an example.14.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?15. Fill in the blanks.(1). Articulatoy phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech.(2). Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless , while all vowel sounds are voiceless .(3). The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and the lips.(4). Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without obstruction .(5). In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating minimal pairs .(6). In English there are a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(7). Assimilation/Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.(8).Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments.。
语言学名词解释
名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。
规定性的研究以制定语言使用的规范和标准为主要目的，即为使用者指出语言的标准用法，什么是正确的用法，什么是错误的用法，为语言使用者提供典范。
ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。
大学语言学考试1-7章-试题和答案
大学语言学考试1-7章-试题和答案(总28页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--12maximal?onset?principle? states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant. it is put into the onset rather than the coda. . The correct syllabification of the word country should be第一章，填空1. The study of the meaning of lingustic words, phrases is called semantics.2. Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wild range of things free from barriers caused by4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.6. Chomsky defines“competence” as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.7. Language is a means of verbal communication. It is informative in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.8. The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of9. Language is distinguished from traffic lights in that the former has the designing feature of duality.10. In linguistics research, both quantity and quality approaches are preferred.判断：11. The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech, thus there are still many languages in today's have no .... √12. According to Chomsky, the word “competence” is not limited to the ability ofan ideal native speaker to construct and recognize.×13. Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design features ofhuman language.×14. Chomsky's competence' and performance are similar in meaning to Saussure’s langue and parole.√15,An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the“best authors”for language usage √16. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a of reasons.√17. Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.×chochronic共时的18. Langue and parole is the fundamental distinction discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory ofdistinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Parole and language. √20. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been √选择:1. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior, it is said to be descriptive2. I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago. This shows that language has the design feature of displacement.3.“Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” this is an example of prescriptive rules.4.Which of the following is most referred to as a branch of t he study of meaning in5.The synchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.6. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called pragmatics.7. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is A?没照下图片arbitrary8.The descriptive of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.9.题目没照下来。
语言学的重要区分
• 共时语言学就是研究一种或多种语言 在其历史发展中的某一阶段的情况， 即语言状态(language state)，而不考 虑这种状态究竟如何演化而来,又称静 态语言学(static linguistics).
• 历时语言学集中研究语言在较长历史 时期所经历的变化，又称演化语言学 （evolutionary linguistics）
• Langue refers to the abstract linc system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
• langue is the set of conventions and rules which lg users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the applications of the rules.
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
Contents
• Descriptive vs Prescriptive • Synchronic vs Diachronic • Langue vs Parole • Competence vs Performance • Speech vs Writing
• Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)
prescriptive语言学定义
prescriptive语言学定义Prescriptive语言学定义语言是人类交流的重要工具，它随着时间的推移而发生变化，这种变化可能是自然的，也可能是人为的。
在语言学中，我们将语言分为两种类型：描述性和规范性。
描述性语言学主要关注现有的语言形式和用法，并试图解释其发展和演变的原因。
规范性语言学则更多地关注如何使用正确的语法、词汇和拼写来表达思想。
Prescriptive语言学定义涉及到规范性语言学中一个重要概念：规范性。
该术语指的是一种对于正确使用某种语言形式或用法的建议或指导。
Prescriptive语言学定义通常被认为是一种“正确”的方式来使用某种特定的自然语言，它强调了标准化、正式化和逻辑性，并试图消除不合适或不恰当的用法。
Prescriptive 与 Descriptive 之间区别与描述性方法相比，Prescriptive方法更加倾向于明确规定一门自然语言应该如何被使用。
在这种方法中，人们试图建立一个标准来衡量正确和错误之间的差异，并给出明确的建议来帮助人们避免犯错。
例如，在英文写作中，Prescriptive语言学定义可能会规定不同的标点符号使用方式，如逗号、分号和冒号等，以及其他一些常见的用法和语法规则。
相比之下，描述性语言学更关注实际的语言用法。
它不试图规定正确或错误的用法，而是提供了对于自然语言的描述和解释。
这种方法通常通过调查和研究自然语言中存在的实际用法来完成，并试图理解这些用法背后的原因。
Prescriptive 与 Proscriptive 之间区别尽管Prescriptive方法强调了正确使用自然语言的标准，但它并没有禁止任何特定类型或形式的语言使用。
相反，Proscriptive方法则致力于禁止某些特定类型或形式的语言使用。
例如，在某些社交场合中可能会禁止使用粗俗、辱骂性或歧视性词汇。
在Prescriptive方法中，人们通常会给出建议和指导来帮助人们避免犯错。
这种建议往往是基于一系列公认的标准和规则，并旨在帮助人们更好地理解如何正确地使用自然语言。
北航2008年英专综合考试
北京航空航天大学2008年硕士研究生入学考试试题综合英语I. Define the following terms (20, 2x10)1. embedding2. morphology3. lingua franca4. minimal pairs5. synchronic linguistics6. interlanguage7. adjacency pairs8. componential analysis9. mode of discourse10. code-switchingII. Briefly answer the following questions (20, 4×5)1. What is linguistic determinism?2. What is sociolinguistics?3. What are the major concerns of the Prague School theory?4. What are the crucial features or criteria of diglossia in the narrow sense of the term?5. What are the unique features of Halliday’s systemic linguistics?III. Answer the following questions. (20, 4x5)1. Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic andparadigmatic relations?2. A speech act consists of three related acts according to J. L. Austin’s Speech Act theory. Whatare they? Analyze the following conversation in the light of Speech Act theory.Customer: Waiter! There’s a fly in my soup.Waiter: Don’t worry, there’s no extra charge.3. Words are in different sense relations with each other. What sense relation is illustrated in eachof the pairs of words below? Add one more example to each pair.(a) casual-informal (b) intelligent-stupid(c) steal-steel (d) animal-dog4. What do you think is the difference between descriptive linguistics and prescriptive linguistics?Give your reasons.5. Think of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle proposed by P. Grice, and explain theviolation of maxims in the cases below.(1) A: Have you seen my watch?B: Look in the drawer.(2) A: Reno’s the capital of Nevada.B: Yeah, London’s the capital of New Jersey.(3) A: I really liked that dinner.B: I’m a vegetarian.(4) A: Let’s dine out with the kids this weekend.B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.IV. Write a short paper of your understanding of the following questions. (30, 10x3)1. What do you think is the relationship between the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign and the way language is used to classify reality? Illustrate your view with examples.2. Eskimos have many different words for different types of snow, Aborigines for different types of sand, and in Arabic one must choose from a whole range of words which are subsumed under the Western category CAMEL. Can you explain these phenomena with you linguistic knowledge?3. Which linguistic school or approach do you think will develop rapidly in China? Elaborateyour view in no less than 100 words.附表：1合作经营协议书甲方：乙方：经甲乙双方友好协商，就中石油煤层气保德区块地面工程合作经营事宜，自愿达成如下协议，以资信守：一、合伙宗旨：共同合作、合法经营、利益共享、风险共担。
高级英语bo1Unit11补充练习和答案
Unit 11But what’s a Dictionary for?I.VOCABULARYDirections:Complete the following sentences with the best expression from the four choices.1.The newspaper received a deluge of letters about the article.A. scarcityB. floodC. overloadD. moderation2.The committee is reportedly unhappy about the discrepancy in numbers.A. inconsistencyB. unpredictabilityC. dissimilarityD. disparity3.She resigned when she was relegated to a desk job.A. residedB. postponedC. suspended D quit4.The teacher interposed herself between the two snarling boys.A. introducedB. interferedC. impededD. obstructed5.This century has witnessed environmental destruction on an unprecedented scale.A. unparalleledB. unremarkableC. unexceptionalD. inconspicuous6.Reforms are being undermined by the all-pervasive corruption in the country.A. intensifiedB. consolidatedC. sustainedD. destabilized7.King Edward VIII abdicated the British throne in 1936 so that he could marry Mrs. Simpson,a divorced woman.A. resignedB. took upC. undertookD. recognized8.His change of mind was recent and sudden, the inference being that someone had persuadedhim.A. postulationB. deductionC. associationD. supposition9.Small businesses have proliferated in the last ten years.A. multipliedB. declinedC. shrankD. developed10.He was probably the most prolific songwriter of his generation.A. productiveB. destructiveC. criticalD. essential11.The government claims to be doing all it can to eradicate corruption.A. eliminateB. fight againstC. tackle D challenge12.She is continually abusing her authority by getting other people to do things for her.A. maltreatingB. neglectingC. insultingD. misusing13.High winds significantly hampered the plane's acceleration.A. speeding upB. motivationC. cruiseD. balance14.If the team loses again they may be relegated from the Premier League to the First Division.A. transferredB. assignedC. promotedD. demoted15.We need a dynamic expansion of trade with other countries.A. apatheticB. droopyC. forcefulD. moving16.Many software companies have popular programs to the new operating system.A adapted B. excerpted C. produced D. programmed17. Over the years her work has compelled universal admiration and trust.A. requiredB. obligedC. constrainedD. produced18. He was eliminated in the third round of the competition.A. reducedB. removedC. abolishedD. promoted19. The translator has obviously adhered very strictly to the original text.A. stuckB. boundedC. associatedD. adjourned20. Membership to this club is restricted chief executive officers.A. toB. forC. withD. uponII. CONTENTS AND FIGURES OF SPEECHDirections: Complete the following sentences with the best one from the four choices according to what you’ve learnt this term.1. What does “gentlemen from Springfield” in the text refer to? .A. Noah WebsterB. Editors of TimesC, Editors of Washington PostD. Makers of Webster’s third international Dictionary2. Gettysburg Address was delivered by _______.A. Abraham LincolnB. Martin LutherC. J. F. KennedyD. W. Churchill3. Between the appearance of these two editions of dictionary, the science of _______, has comeinto being.A. prescriptive linguisticsB. Descriptive LinguisticsC. Comparative LinguisticsD. Historical Linguistics4. Modern linguistics gets its charter from ______.A. Language by SapirB. Language by BloomfieldC. Linguistics by F.D SaussureD. Semiotics by Pierce5. Even in so settled matters as spelling and pronunciation, a dictionary cannot always be absolute because____.A. it has to record language factsB. it can establish principles for language usingC. all languages are staticD. it should stick to words6. Which of the following are the broad general findings of descriptive linguistics except_____.A. Languages are sets of natural laws.B. Each language is specific in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.C. all languages are in constant changes.D. Languages are systems of human conventions.7. A dictionary is good only when _____.A. it establishes new standards for language users to followB. it is unique in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.C. it describes exactly and accurately the current usage of a certain language.D. it prescribes exactly and accurately the current usage of a certain language.8. “a concept of how things get written that throws very little light on Lincoln but a great deal onLife” this sentence indicates_____.A. The editors of Life are literate enough to suggest writing with a dictionary as a model.B. The editors of Life didn’t think that Lincoln wrote his Address using the SecondInternational as model.C. The editors of Life are illiterate enough to suggest writing with a dictionary as a model.D. The editors of Life know clearly how to make their publication a best seller.9. Noah Webster was______.A. famous American lexicographer who first published The American Dictionary of theEnglish Language in America.B. famous British lexicographer who compiled the first real sense modern English dictionaryin EnglandC. famous American writer who wrote the book “Elements of Style”D. famous American lexicographer who compiled The Third International.10. Bloomfield was_____.A. famous American linguist who was regarded as “father of modern linguistics”.B. famous British lexicographer who published the first real sense modern English dictionaryin EnglandC. famous American writer who wrote the book “Elements of Style”D. famous American linguist who wrote the book “Language”.11. The figure of speech used in the sentence “But neither his vanity nor his purse is any concernof the dictionary’s.” is_____.A. metaphorB. metonymyC. synecdocheD. simile12. The figures of speech used in the sentence “Between the much-touted SecondInternational and the much-clouted Third International…” are _____.A. irony and metonymyB. sarcasm and hyperboleC. antithesis and ironyD. antithesis and assonance13. The figures of speech used in the sentence “A concept of how things get writtenthat throws very little light on Lincoln but a great deal on life” are _____.A. hyperbole and alliteration B euphemism and alliterationC. metaphor and alliterationD. sarcasm and alliteration14. The figure of speech used in the sentence “What of those sheets and jets of airthat are now being used, in place of old-fashioned oak and hinges to screenentrance exits”is ____.A. metaphorB. metonymyC. synecdocheD. personification15. The figure of speech used in the sentence “The issue of New York Times …hailthe Second as the authority… and the Third as a scandal…” is____.A. metaphorB. metonymyC. ZeugmaD. personificationIII. PARAPHRASEDirections: Explain the following sentences with your own words without changing the meaning of the sentence.1. So monstrous a discrepancy in evaluation requires us to examine basic principles2. They doubted that "Lincoln could have modeled his Gettysburg Address" on it3. a concept of how things written that throws very little light on Lincoln but a great deal on Life.4. the public – and the stockholders – have reason to be grateful that the writers on these publications are more literate than the editors.5. who can't be relegated to any department and don't dream of accepting established categories and procedures just because they' re established6.But neither his vanity nor his purse is any concern of the dictionary’s; it must record the fact7. All languages are dynamic rather than static8. lexicography, like God, is no respecter of persons9. Even in so settled a matter as spelling, a dictionary cannot always be absolute.10. The writer takes the plain, downright, a man-in-the-street attitude.IV. TRANSLATOINSECTION A. Sentence TranslationDirections: Translate the following sentences into English using the words in brackets.1. 这支足球队本赛季由于表现不好被降级了（relegate）。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。
linguistics distinctions
Some important distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs. Descriptive（规定性与描述性）Synchronic vs. Diachronic(共时性与历时性)Speech vs. Writing（口头语与书面语）Langue vs. Parole（语言与言语）Competence vs. Performance（语言能力与语言行为）Modern Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar（现代语言学与传统语法）Design Features of Human Language1) ArbitrarinessThe arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity3) Duality4) Displacement5) Cultural transmissionPhonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology is language-specific. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a specificlanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Supra-segmental featuresstress (重音)tone (音调)intonation (语调)What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.Deep structure / D-structure深层结构: syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure表层结构: the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformationsWhy English is rich in synonyms:---native words: originally used in the speech of the native inhabitants of the British Isles: the Anglo-Saxons (migrants from northern Europe)---borrowed (loan) words: French, Latin, Greek, Italian, GermanEnglish pairs or triplets of words: subtle differencesComplete synonyms are rare。
语言学2017-知识点总结
语言学2017-知识点总结Unit 1一：.Important distinction in linguistics1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.(should be)2:synchronic and diachronic (共识的和历时的）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3.speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.ngue and parole (语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Competence and performance （语言的能力和表现）competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学）二.Design features of language●arbitrariness(任意性）：it means there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.●productivity（生产性）:language is productiveor creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.●duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.●displacement(替代性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.●cultural transmission（文化传递): it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Unit 2（重点）一：the speech organslips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位的对立，互补的分布，最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology形态学Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function.Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必须与其他连用-s.-erDerivational morpheme:改变词意[n→adj] Inflectional morpheme:不改变词性[改变时态-ed]Compounds 合成词3.Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, AP[adjective phrase], PP[prepositional phrase]XP rule: XP→(sp ecifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P representcomplementPhrase elements:a. Specifiers--determiner, qualifier, degree words b. Complements--provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.c. Modifiers 修饰语5.Semantics 语义学→meaningThe naming theory 命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, such as joy and impulse, can not be named. The conceptualist view 概念论: linked through themediation of concepts inthe mind and can name theabstract notion semantic triangle/ triangle of significance 语Refer ent(t Symbo l/for Thought/ref意三角(suggested by Ogden and Richards)Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth): meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context--elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield): situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and reference[sense意义: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境./reference所指: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在)b.major sense relations:①synonymy近义词[dialectal synonyms方言同义词--used in different regional dialects e.g.BritishEnglish(autumn)&AmericanEnglish(fall)//stylistic synonyms语言的文体同义词，正式程度不同--differing in style e.g.dad, father//synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同e.g.collaborator, accomplice//collocational synonyms搭配不同 e.g.accuse, accuse..of//semantically different synonyms语义不同e.g.amaze, astound]②polysemy多义词:have more than one meaning③homonymy同音异义词④hyponymy下义词 e.g. superordinate上义--general meaning(animal)//hyponyms下义--specific words(dog, cat)⑤antonymy反义词[gradable antonyms等级反义词 e.g.middle-aged, elderly//complementary antonyms互补反义词e.g.male,female//relational opposites关系反义词e.g.patient,doctor]句与句之间的关系:synonymous同义/inconsistent自相矛盾/entails or entailment上下义，一个句子意思包含另一个句子/presupposes or prerequisite预设前途/contradiction一句话前后自相矛盾/semantically anomalous语义异常Analysis of meaning:ponential analysis成分分析[a way to analyze lexical meaning]:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male//b.pre dication analysis述谓分析[[a way to analyze sentence meaning]:predicate谓词+argument论源(除动词以外的)6.Pragmatics语用学Definition:it is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference--whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredContext: it determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s, and constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Speech act theory:a.Austin’s model of speech acts:①made a distinction[constatives陈述--were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable//performatives表达--were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable] ②three acts: locutionary act言内行为(本身意义literal meaning), illocutionary act言外(弦外之意expressthe speaker’s intention), perlocutionary act言后(带来的后果resulting from saying something)b.Searle’s classification of speech acts:when people are speaking a language, they are doing sth, or performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequenceof acts.Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives阐述directives指令commissives承诺expressives表达declarations声明宣告c.Indirect speech acts: primary speech act--the speaker’s goal of communicationsecondary speech--the means by which he achieves his goalsPrinciple of conversation会话原则[by Grice]: conventional implicature规约含义(是一个群体的规范惯例，说话时大家都能理解)//particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(当新的信息出现，寻找特殊会话含义)Cooperative Principle(CP)[by Grice]:The maxim of quantity数量原则:make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredThe maxim of quality质量原则: do not say whatyou believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceThe maxim of relation关系原则:be relevantThe maxim of manner方式原则:avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/ be brief/ be orderlyChapter7 Language ChangeLexical and semantic change:词汇和语义变化Addition of new words1)Coinage新造字及词语（Kodak）2)Clipped words省略词（gym-gymnasium）3)Blending合成词（smog=smoke+fog）4)Acronyms首字母缩写（CEO=chief executive officer）5)Back-formation逆构词（to donate-derived from donation）6)Functional shift词性转变7)Borrowing借用（外来语）●Loss of words（beseem-to be suitable）●Semantic changes1)Semantic broadening词义变宽（holiday）2)Semantic narrowing词义变窄（meat）3)Semantic shift词义变化（lust）The causes of language change●The rapid development of science and technology●Social and political changes and political needs●Women have taken up activities●The way children acquire a language●“Economy of memory”which results in grammar simplificationChapter8 Language and SocietyThree types of speech variety:话语群体\共同体Regional dialects, sociolects, registersVarieties of language语言变体●Dialectal varieties1)Regional dialect方言变体2)Sociolect社会方言3)Language and gender4)Language and age5)Idiolect个人习语6)Ethnic dialect种族方言●Register语域Halliday’s register theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.分类：field of discourse语域、语场tenor of discourse 语旨mode of discourse 语式Eg: a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific Tenor: teacher-students(formal-polite) Mode: oral(academic lecturing)Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, this constitutes the situation of bilingualism.Diglossia: in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter9 Language and CultureThe relationship between language and cultureLanguage symbolizes cultural reality.Diachronically, any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself, its technological achievements, monuments and works of art; synchronically, its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.Culture also affects a discourse community’s imagination, or common dreams which aremediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life.The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.Three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation.Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.文化适应，外来文化有力量，自己适应外来的。
2021年语言学知识点总结
Unit 1一：.Important distinction in linguistics1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use ，it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language，it is said to be prescriptive.(should be)2:synchronic and diachronic (共识和历时）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3.speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.ngue and parole (语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Competence and performance （语言能力和体现）competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.t raditional grammar and modern linguistics (老式语法和当代语言学）二.Design features of language●arbitrariness(任意性）：it means there is no logical connection between meaning andsounds.●productivity（生产性）:language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.●duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.●displacement(代替性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.●cultural transmission（文化传递)：it is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning.Unit 2（重点）一：the speech organslips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value，and it is a abstract unit.抽象概念Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位对立，互补分布，最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes，they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology形态学Morpheme：the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function. Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme，they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必要与其她连用 -s.-er Derivational morpheme:变化词意[n→adj] Inflectional morpheme:不变化词性[变化时态-ed] Compounds 合成词3.Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP，VP，AP[adjective phrase]，PP[prepositional phrase]XP rule：XP→(specifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P represent complementPhrase element s:a. Specifiers--determiner，qualifier，degree wordsb. Complements--provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied bythe meaning of the head.c. Modifiers修饰语5.Semantics语义学→meaningThe naming theory命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato)：the words used in a language aresimply labels of the objects they stand for，but this theory seems applicable to nouns only andabstract notion，such as joy and impulse，can not be named.The conceptualist view概念论：linked through theabstract notionsemantic triangle/ triangle of significance语意三角(suggested by Ogden and Richards)Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth)：meaning should be studied in terms of situation，use，context--elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield)：situation in which the speaker utters it and the responseit calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and reference[sense意义：is concerned with the inherentmeaning of a linguistic form，the collection of all its features；it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境./reference所指：means what a linguistic form refers to in thereal，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在)b.major sense relations:①synonymy近义词[dialectal synonyms方言同义词--used in different regional dialects e.g.British English(autumn)&American English(fall)//stylistic synonyms语言文体同义词，正式限度不同--differing in style e.g.dad，father//synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同 e.g.collaborator，accomplice//collocational synonyms搭配不同 e.g.accuse，accuse..of//semantically different synonyms语义不同e.g.amaze，astound]②polysemy多义词:have more than one meaning③homonymy同音异义词④hyponymy下义词 e.g. superordinate上义--general meaning(animal)//hyponyms下义--specific words(dog，cat)⑤antonymy反义词[gradable antonyms级别反义词 e.g.middle-aged，elderly//complementary antonyms互补反义词e.g.male,female//relational opposites关系反义词e.g.patient,doctor]句与句之间关系:synonymous同义/inconsistent自相矛盾/entails or entailment上下义，一种句子意思包括另一种句子/presupposes or prerequisite预设前程/contradiction一句话先后自相矛盾/semantically anomalous语义异常Analysis of meaning:ponential analysis成分分析[a way to analyze lexical meaning]:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components，called semantic features. e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male//b.predication analysis述谓分析[[a way to analyze sentence meaning]:predicate谓词+argument论源(除动词以外)6.Pragmatics语用学Definition:it is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference--whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredContext：it determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s，and constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Speech act theory:a.Austin’s model of speech acts:①made a distinction[constatives陈述--were statements that either state or describe，and were thus verifiable//performatives表达--were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state，and were not verifiable] ②three acts：locutionary act言内行为(自身意义literal meaning)，illocutionary act言外(弦外之意expressthe speaker’s intention)，perlocutionary act言后(带来后果resulting from saying something)b.Searle’s classification of speech acts:when people are speaking a language，they are doing sth，or performing acts；and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequence of acts.Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives阐述directives指令commissives承诺expressives表达 declarations声明宣布c.Indirect speech acts：primary speech act--the speaker’s goal of communic ationsecondary speech--the means by which he achieves his goalsPrinciple of conversation会话原则[by Grice]：conventional implicature规约含义(是一种群体规范惯例，说话时人们都能理解)//particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(当新信息浮现，寻找特殊会话含义)Cooperative Principle(CP)[by Grice]:The maxim of quantity数量原则:make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredThe maxim of quality质量原则：do not say what you believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceThe maxim of relation关系原则:be relevantThe maxim of manner方式原则:avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/ be brief/ be orderlyChapter7 Language ChangeLexical and semantic change:词汇和语义变化Addition of new words1)Coinage新造字及词语（Kodak）2)Clipped words省略词（gym-gymnasium）3)Blending合成词（smog=smoke+fog）4)Acronyms首字母缩写（CEO=chief executive officer）5)Back-formation逆构词（to donate-derived from donation）6)Functional shift词性转变7)Borrowing借用（外来语）●Loss of words（beseem-to be suitable）●Semantic changes1)Semantic broadening词义变宽（holiday）2)Semantic narrowing词义变窄（meat）3)Semantic shift词义变化（lust）The causes of language change●The rapid development of science and technology●Social and political changes and political needs●Women have taken up activities●The way children acquire a language●“Economy of memory”which results in grammar simplification Chapter8 Language and SocietyThree types of speech variety:话语群体\共同体Regional dialects，sociolects，registersVarieties of language语言变体●Dialectal varieties1)Regional dialect方言变体2)Sociolect社会方言3)Language and gender4)Language and age5)Idiolect个人习语6)Ethnic dialect种族方言Register语域Halliday’s register theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.分类：field of discourse语域、语场 tenor of discourse 语旨 mode of discourse 语式Eg：a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField：scientific Tenor：teacher-students(formal-polite) Mode：oral(academic lecturing)Field of discourse refers to what is going on：to the area of operation of the language activity. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question：who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community，and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language，it is said to have become a creole. Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play；and language switching occurs when the situation changes，this constitutes the situation of bilingualism. Diglossia：in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community，with each having a definite role to play.Chapter9 Language and CultureThe relationship between language and cultureLanguage symbolizes cultural reality.Diachronically，any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself，its technological achievements，monuments and works of art；synchronically，its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.Culture also affects a discourse community’s imagination，or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life.The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.Three forms of culture contact are identified：acculturation，assimilation，and amalgamation.Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture，traditional practices，and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another，directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.文化适应，外来文化有力量，自己适应外来。
《英语语言学概论》题与答案（2）
《英语语⾔学概论》题与答案（2）ExercisesI.Multiple Choice1. __________ studies language change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics2. Of all the speech organs, the ______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. In terms of place of articulation, the following sounds [p], [b], [m] and [w]share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental4. A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme5. Which of the following sound description is for [d]A. voiced labiodental fricativeB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless labiodental fricativeD. voiceless alveolar stop6. What is the phonetic feature of the sound [u]A. close back shortB. semi-close front shortC. semi-open central shortD. open front short7. Which of the following sentences contain a derivational affixA. The cows escaped.B. It was raining.C. Those socks are inexpensive.D. She closed the book.8. The morpheme “ed” in the word “worked” is known as a(n) ______.A. derivational morphemeB. lexical morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. functional morpheme9. “en-” in “enlarge” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root10. ______ is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme11. Which of the following forms is possible word of EnglishA. sprokeB. bsarnC. mboodD. coofp12. Which pair of words below shows the relation of antonymy. ______A. flourish—thriveB. intelligent—stupidC. casual—informalD. flog—whip13. We call the relation between “furniture” and “wardrobe” as ______.A. hyponymyB. meronymyC. homophonyD. homonymy14. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ______.A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one’s intentionC. hostility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures15. In t he phrase structure rule “S——>NP VP”, the arrow can be read as______.A.is equal toB.consists ofC.hasD.generates16. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______.A. lexicalB. morphemeC. grammaticalD. semantic17. The pair of words “hot” and “cold” are ______.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms18. Which pair of the following are complementary antonymsA. alive / deadB. above / belowC. poor / richD. doctor / patient19. What is the relation between the pair of sentences:He likes seafood.He likes crabsA. synonymyB. inconsistencyC. entailmentD. presupposition20. Which pair of the following are homographsA. piece n. / peace n.B. tear v. / tear n.C. fast adj. / fast v.D. flower n. / rose n.21. Which pair of the following are dialectal synonymsA. lorry, truckB. kid, childC. collaborator, accompliceD. amaze, astound22. “Lift” and “elevator” form a pair of ______ synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialecticalC. collocationalD. connotative15. All syllables must have a ______.A. onsetB. codaC. nucleusD. consonant23. ______ studies language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics24. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics25. Of the following sound combination, only ______ is permissible in English.A. iblkB. ilbkC. ilkbD. blik26. Which pair of words below shows the relation of synonymy. ______A. drunk—soberB. uncle—auntC. young—oldD. casual—informal27. The sense relationship between “He has been to France” and “He has been to Europe” is ______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. presuppositionD. entailment28. In the phrase structure rule “NP—>(Det) N (PP)…”, the arrowcan be read as______.A. is equal toB. branches intoC. transformsD. generates29. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][r][s][l][z][n] share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental30. Y’s utterance in the following conversation violates themaxim of ______.X: When is Susan’s f arewell partyY: Sometime next month.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner31. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the ______because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. constative actC. perlocutionary actD. illocutionary act32. We call the relation between “vehicle” and “car” as ______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy33. Which of the following pairs differs from the others in thesense relation ______A. good, badB. long, shortC. big, smallD. innocent, guilty34. As far as manners of articulation are concerned, which of the followingdiffers from the others ______A.[p]B. [b]C. [t]D. [f]35. Which pair of the following belong to meronymyA. animal, tigerB. hand, fingerC. livestock, dogD. furniture, dresser36. “-En” in “blacken” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root37. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ ofsentences.A. formB. structureC. meaningD. sound pattern38. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called____./doc/1010499837.htmlmissivesB. directivesB.expressivesD. declaratives39. The illocutionary point of the____ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.A. declarationsB. expressives/doc/1010499837.htmlmissivesD. directives40. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange viola tes the maxim of ______.X: Who was that you were with last night？Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks？A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. mannerII. Blank filling1.Productivityor___ refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.2.Some antonyms are g radable_ because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.3.Duality is the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.4.According to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.5.Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds ina particular language are called sequential rules.6.Root_ constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.7. A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may change its part of speech.8.In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.9.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, . –s, -er, -ed and –ing, which are called bound______ morphemes.10.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known asintonation./doc/1010499837.htmlnuguge _is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.12.Saussure put forward two important concepts. Langue_ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.13.Broad transcription is normally used in dictionary and teachingtextbooks for general purposes.14.The root _ constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of its meaning.15.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change thepart of speech of the original word.16. Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakersto talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separationin time and space.17. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is calleda free _ morpheme.18.Clear [l] and dark [l] are allophones of the same one phoneme /l/. They nevertake the same position in sound combinations; thus they are said to be incomplementary distribution.19.Stem is the base to which one or more affixes are attached tocreate amore complex form that may be another stem or a word.20.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.two sounds [p] and [p h] are in complementary distribution, and they are known as allophones of the phoneme /p/.22. _Syntax_______ is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.23. Cooperative Principle (CP) is proposed by Paul Grice .24. “Words are names or labels for things.” This view is called naming theory in semantic studies.25. The sentence “My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor” is a contradition.III. True or false questions.( T ) 1. “Where did he buy the beer” presupposes “He bought the beer”.( F) 2. Sense and reference are the same aspects of meaning.( F ) 3. A word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.( T ) 4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.(T ) 5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is grammatical.( T ) 6. “The student’’ in the sentence ‘The student liked the linguistic lecture” and “The linguistic lecture”in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student”belong to the same syntactic category.( F ) 7. Compounds with a preposition are in the categoryof the prepositional part of the compound.(T ) 8. Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.( T ) 9. Linguistic context is concerned with the probability of words or expressions co-occurring orcollocating with each other.( T ) 10. When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.( F ) 11. Linguistics is the course of language.( F ) the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( T ) 13. Articulatory phonetics is concerned about how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.( F ) 14. Language system is genetically transmitted.( T) 15. Phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution,and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.(T) 16. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order.( T) 17. Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguish between two words and emphasize the syllable or word.( T) 18. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are closed class words.( T) 19. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.(T) 20. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.( T ) 21. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the Abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in context.( F ) , suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.( T ) 23. When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.(T) 24. Coordination refers top the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.(T ) 25. Traditionally,sentence is the minimum part of language that express meaning.。
Chapter1Introduction练习题
Chapter1Introduction练习题Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION考研真题与典型题详解1.1 What is linguistics?I.Fill in the blanks.1.Linguistics is usually defined as the _______ study of language. (北二外2003研)2.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called _______.3.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called________.4.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called________.(北二外2003、2004、2008研)5.In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of rules governing the way words are combined toform sentences in a language, or simply , the study of the formation as sentence.(中山2008)6.Semantics and ________ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)7.________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand,attempts to show the relationship between language and society.8.Modern linguistics is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what languageis rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.9.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.10.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.11.One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the Frenchword for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, reading and writing. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech and writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.12.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena ordata of linguistics (utterances) as _______ and ________.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.(人大2006研) 13.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ________ and performances. (北二外2007研) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?_________.(大连外2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics2.The study of language at one point in time is a ________ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronicIII.True or false.1.Applied linguistics is the application of the linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.3.Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.4.By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language./doc/479964943.html,ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints./doc/479964943.html,petence and performance refer respectively to a language us er’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.IV.Explain the following terms.1.Descriptive linguistics2. Diachronic linguistics3. CompetenceV.Short answer questions.1.Point out three major differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.VI.Essay questions1.Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward theconcept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon he differences and similarities, if any, of two pairs: langue andparole vs. competence and performance. (北京交大2007研)1.2 What is language?I.Fill in the blanks.1.The features that define our human languages can be called ________features.(北二外2006) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design features?(大连外2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Duality2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?(西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by time and space, due to this feature of language, speakers are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness4.“A person can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of _______.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement5.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performativeIII.True or false./doc/479964943.html,nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used bythe deaf-mute is not language.2.The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATRES. (大外2008)3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languagemakes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign learner, the latter is more important for us.4.Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.(清华2000研)5.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.IV.Explain the following terms.1. Arbitrariness(川大2006研)2.Duality(北二外、南开2010研)3. Displacement(清华、南开2010) V.Short answer questions.1.What makes language unique to human beings? (北航2010研)VI.Essay questions1.Displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission and duality are sometimeslisted as the 5 core features of human language. Choose 3 out of 5 and explain with examples what they mean. (北外2002研)。
Prescriptive linguistics and descriptive linguistics
LOGO
•Prescription is typically contrasterecords how language is used in practice, and which is the basis of all linguistic research. Serious scholarly descriptive work is usually based on text or corpus analysis, or on field studies,. Unlike prescription, descriptive linguistics eschews value judgments and makes no recommendations, without reference to the histories or to comparison with other languages. corpus: A corpus is a large collection of written or spoken texts that is used for language research. eschews: If you eschew something, you deliberately avoid doing it or becoming involved in it.
Example:
This is the house I was born in．
This is the house in which I was born．
Prescriptive linguistics规定语言学
——aims to make rules for “correct and standard” behaviour in using language.
规范语言学与描述语言学
Descriptive Linguistics and Prescriptive Linguistics
规定语言学和描述语言学
• Definition • History • Prescriptive Grammar VS Descriptive
Grammar • Examples • Webster’s Third New International
• Descriptivists look at the way people speak and then try to create rules that account for the language usage, accepting alternative forms that are used regionally and also being open to forms used in speech that traditional grammars would describe as errors. Many prescriptivists feel that modern linguistics, is responsible for a decline in the standard of language.
One organization: Linguistic Society of America 美国语言学学会
Two people: Boas（鲍阿斯 （1858-1942）
Sapir(萨丕尔) （1884-1939）
One book: Language(语言论) One person: Bloomfield [‘blu:mfi:ld] 布龙菲尔德 Influence: The symbol of the formal birth of the descriptive linguistics school
(完整版)英语学科知识及教学能力
英语学科知识与教学能力第一部分：语言知识与能力第一章：英语语言基础知识第二章：语言学与英语教学第一节：语言学机器与英语教学的相关基本概念一、语言学的基本概念：(一)、语言学：语言学就是把语言作为研究对象的一个领域或一门学科。
(二)、普通与杨学与应用语言学普通语言学（Linguistics）是对人类语言的看法和研究结果的理论概括，是研究与样的本质、发展和起源的类型和分类的语言学分支学科。
应用语言学（Applied Linguistics）是研究语言在各个领域中实际应用的语言分支。
边缘学科：社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、生理语言学(Physiological Phonetics)、计算机语言学(Computational Linguistics)、语体学（Stylistics）、信息论(Information Theory)、词典学(Lexicography)、翻译(Translation)、言语病理学(Speech Pathology)、言语矫治(Speech Therapy)。
(三)规定语言学（Prescriptive Linguistics）与描写语言学（Descriptive Linguistics）(四)历时语言学（Diachronic Linguistics）与共时语言学（Synchronic Linguistics）(五)口语与文字(六)语言和言语：语言（Langue）是一套音义结合的符号系统，一个语言集团所共有的语言系统；言语（Parole）则是人们运用语言这种工具进行交际的过程或结果，指说话者在具体的场合下可能说出或理解的具体话语。
(七)语言能力与语言行为二、外语教学中的基本概念（一）对比分析（Contrastive Analysis）1、认定语言时间的异同2、降低学习的难度3、决定教学重点4、预测错误的发生（二）错误分析1、负迁移（negative transfer）指语言教学中，母语模式妨碍学生学习外语的模式。
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A. It is me. B. It is I. One rule: Verb is followed by objective case.
Contrast : • Prescriptive linguistics pays more
attention to the rule.
• Descriptive linguistics pays more
LOGO
In contrast to descriptive linguistics is the prescriptive linguistics . Prescriptive linguistics’objective is to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour. It tells people “what should be in language” or “ what people should say”. In prescriptive linguistics, many early grammars were based on “high” (literary, religious) written language.
attention to the description and analysis.
LOGO
•Prescription is typically contrasted with description, which observes and records how language is used in practice, and which is the basis of all linguistic research. Serious scholarly descriptive work is usually based on text or corpus analysis, or on field studies,. Unlike prescription, descriptive linguistics eschews value judgments and makes no recommendations, without reference to the histories or to comparison with other languages. corpus: A corpus is a large collection of written or spoken texts that is used for language research. eschews: If you eschew something, you deliberately avoid doing it or becoming involved in it.
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary, which describes the way words actually being used in conversation and writing. Philip Grove, the editor of this dictionary, is the representative descriptivist.
LOGO
•Prescription and description are often seen as opposites.In the sense that one declares how language should be while the other declares how language is. But they can also be complementary, and usually exist in a dynamic tension to each other. Most commentators on language show elements of both prescription and description in their thinking, and popular debate on language issues frequently revolves around the question of how to balance these.
Example:
This is the house I was born in．
This is the house in which I was born．
Prescriptive linguo make rules for “correct and standard” behaviour in using language.
Descriptive Linguistics and Prescriptive Linguistics
规定语言学和描述语言学
Descriptive linguistics描述语言学
——aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.