Language learning strategy
英语语言学习策略考题及答案
2013-2014 Second TermTest Paper for “Language Learning Strategies”Name _______ Major _______ Scores ______I. Explain the following terms. (20%)1. language learning strategy : Language learning strategy are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable. According to Oxford, learning strategy is a plan, step or a conscious action toward achievement of an objective. O’Malley thinks that learning strategies are plans, actions, procedures, etc which the students adopt to effectively acquire, store, search and employ information. Moreover, LLS refer to many specific actions, behaviors or techniques that students use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. Its features mainly contain communicative competence as the main goal, greater self-direction for learners and new roles for teachers. Oxford divided LLS into two major classes: direct and indirect strategies.2. Semantic mapping strategy：Semantic mapping strategy refers to a diagram in which the key concepts are highlighted or linked to related concepts via meaningful imagery, grouping and associating. This strategy is valuable for improving both memory and comprehension of new expression s. For example, thinking of “hair”, we can construct a series of new words ora picture that barbers are designing different hairstyles.3.cooperative strategies: 1.）Cooperating with peers: regular learning partner & temporary pair or small group. Control impulse toward competitiveness & rivalry via games, simulations & active exercises like jigsaw listening & reading activities, (via questioning, negotiating, cooperating) share journals, pen pal, letter . 2）Cooperating with proficient users of the new language (outside classroom)4. self-esteem: It is a self-judgment of value or worth, based on a feeling of efficacy. Self-esteem is related to your self-worth and your value. Building self-esteem is the first step towards your happiness and a better life. Self-esteem increases your confidence. If you have confidence you will respect yourself. If you respect yourself you can respect others, improve your relationships, your achievements and your happiness. Low self-esteem causes depression, unhappiness insecuri ty and poor confidence. Others’ desires may take preference over yours. Inner criticism, that nagging voice of disapproval inside you, causes you to stumble at every challenge and challenges seem impossible.II. Identify the strategies embedded in the situations given. In each situation you must find at least FIVE strategies (20%).1.N EWSPAPER: You are a foreign language student in your second year of study. With your classmates, you are writing and publishing a newspaper in the target language. Your task is to use written pieces of target information given to you and then to transform that information into articles—news, editorials, features—and format them into a readable newspaper. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?(reception strategies, cover strategies, grouping strategies, meta-cognitive strategies, cognitive strategies)When we use target language to make news, we will use existing resource. It belongs to reception strategies. Mean while, we also use simplification of cover strategies to make it better for news to use simple meaning to express complex contents. So if we arrange layout of news, editorial and features, we should use grouping strategies to rehears a structure. In addition, selective attention to information which you want to stress, we can use planning strategies and selective attention strategies belonging to meta-cognitive strategies. At the last, it is unnecessary to summarize content and ideas, therefore, cognitive strategies are used as well.2.VISITING GRANNY: You are in your 30s. Three months from now you will go to Warsaw to visit your grandmother, whom you have never met. You know from your parents that your grandmother speaks only a few words of English. You speak only a few words of Polish. You need to learn as much Polish as you can in the next three months, so you can find out all you can about your grandmother’s life, the family history, and your Polish relatives when you get to Poland. Which language learning strategies do you need to use? (management strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, communication strategies)Because I don’t know much Polish so I select some ways for making up for insufficient linguistic resources, which are management strategies. I am not very good at Polish, so I need refer to a dictionary to memorize some daily words and expressions, which are memory strategies. I can seize every opportunity to practice the target language, which belongs to cognitive strategies. In the process of practicing, getting the meaning across using a circumlocution or synonym, which belong to compensation strategies. Moreovercommunication strategies are used.3. Church: You are a visitor from the USA in Germany. It is Friday, and you want to prepare yourself to go to church on Sunday to worship, participate in the service, and possibly meet some German people afterwards. You had 2 years of German study, but that was a very long time ago. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?(affective strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative strategies, guessing strategies)Repeatedly encouraging myself not to be nervous and adapting to environment，I use encouraging and reducing anxiety strategies both belonging to affective strategies. Furthermore, social strategies are also used as I asked some information to go to church to worship. According to what natives told me, I can make some inferences to help seek clue. So I can use guessing strategies of cognitive strategies. Of course, if I want to ask questions from natives, I must know how to communicate with them, so communicative strategies are vital to use.4.THE PLAY’S THE THING. You are an American high school student in your third year of French. Your task is to work with a small group to write and participate in a 30-minute play, all in French, about teenagers in France. Yo u don’t know much about teenagers , and you are terrified about speaking French in the play, but you are relieved that your friends are involved in it with you. Which language learning strategies do you need to use? (communication strategies, self-assessment, evaluating strategies, affective strategies, grouping strategies)When I work with others to write and participate in a play, communication strategies are used. Considering my care of speaking French, encouraging myself and lowing my anxiety strategies are useful, they belong to affective strategies. After I finish my play, self-assessment is very necessary. Group strategies also should be used.III. Answer the following questions. You may choose any two of the first five questions. And you must answer Question No. 6. Each answer will be no more than 200 words and no less than 150 words long. (30%)1. What are the features of language learning strategies?（1.）Contribute to the main goal,communicative competence.（2.) Allow learners to become more self-directed.（3.) Expand the role of teachers.（4.) Are problem-oriented.（5.) Are specific actions taken by the learner.（6.) Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.（7.) Support learning both directly and indirectly.（8.) Are not always observable.（9.) Are often conscious.（10.) Can be taught.（11.) Are flexible.（12.) Are influenced by a variety of factors.Other important features of language strategies are problem orientation, action basis, involvement beyond just cognition, ability to support learning directly or indirectly, degree of observability, level of consciousness, teachability, flexibility, and influences on strategy choice.2. How do you understand the affective domain of tolerance of ambiguity?3. What strategies can be used to overcome limitations in speaking and writing?4. How can you monitor your own learning performance?5.What are the disadvantages of competition?Competition is a common phenomenon in our social life. We compete when we play games, we try to do better than others in our study, and there is constant competition for job, customers, money, and so forth. We can say, to some extent,competition is one of the motive forces of the development of society. But there are some disadvantages during the competition: First, what makes many experts worried is that too many competitions may harm people’s physical and mental fitness because of too stressful to stand in the competition. Second, to some extent, it is a fact that competition between friends or colleagues may impair the friendship or team spirit. Third, for some people, many failures in the competition will reduce their morale.6. What do you benefit from this course?Through learning this course, I have known what is English language strategies, why theEnglish language strategies are important, the features of Language learning strategies and how to teach students effectively in the teaching.Language learning strategy are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence.And the features of language learning strategies:1.Contribute to the main goal, communicative competence.2.Allow learners to become more self-directed.3. Expand the role of teachers.4.Are problem-oriented.5.Are specific actions taken by the learner.6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.7. Support learning both directly and indirectly.8.Are not always observable.9.Are often conscious.10.Can be taught.11.Are flexible.12.Are influenced by a variety of factors.Other important features of language strategies are problem orientation, action basis, involvement beyond just cognition, ability to support learning directly or indirectly, degree of observability, level of consciousness, teachability, flexibility, and influences on strategy choice.IV. Design a Strategy-based Teaching planning concerning any of the language skill or knowledge. (30 %)My First Day at Senior HighInstructional contents：High School Student’s Book1 Module 1, Section B Reading Part Instructional objects：High school grade 1, the first middle school in Fen Yang CityInstructional projects：(1) Help the students make sense of the whole passage.(2) Help the students to improve their listening and reading ability.Instructiona l Strategies：listening strategies, reading strategiesInstructional objectives：1. Knowledge an d Skills (1) Train the students’ listening skills. (2) Develop the students’ reading ability.2. Process and Methods (1) Individual work or pair work to get every students to participate in class. (2) Explanation to make the students master some language points. (3) Fast reading to make the students get the main idea of the passage.3. Emotion and Values. Through comparing consciously the new school and their original school the students will be accustomed to their new life sooner.Instructional task：write a short passage to describe your own first day at Senior High.Instructional processStep1. Leading inTime: 1-5 minutesT: First, let’s look at the following picture on the screen and talk about something about the picture. Then I will ask you to talk about your new life ------- your subjects, teachers and so on at high school. You can work in groups of four and discuss the following questions. ( show some questions to students)S1: What are the main differences between Junior High School and Senior High School?S2: …S3: Do you think that work at Senior High School harder than at Junior High School?S4: …S5: Are Senior High School teachers similar to Junior High School teachers?S6: …S7: …Objectives: class started, the teacher first leads in the theme by photos so that students understand that the main idea of this lesson. You can develop students’ thinking and make them interested in this topic.Step2 VocabularyTime: 5—10 minutesT: Part2, the purpose of this part is to study new words by answering questions, which can help you to think in English. Besides, it is a preparation for the reading passage. Let’s read the new words in the table.Ss: Read the new words.T: (Help clear the obstacles in their pronunciation) Then answer the following questions about the words in the box.Ss: …Objectives: T he students can use these new words to answer questions by reading new words and be prepared for the reading passage.Step3 SkimmingTime: 10---15 minutesT: Please read the passage quickly and find the answers to the following questions:(1)What are the differences between Li Kang’s Junior High School and Senior High School?(2)What are the two things the English teacher thinks important to do in class?(3)What are the two things that the English teacher wants to improve?Ss: … …(1) The method of teaching, more students in the class.(2) Reading comprehension.(3) Spelling, handwriting.Objectives: We can be able to grasp the general idea and catch the key words by viewing the text and answering the questions.Step4. ListeningTime: 15—25 minutesT: I will let you listen to the tape and then work in groups to finish activities 4and 6.Ss: …T: Please put the following jumbled sentences into the right order.( show the following sentences on the screen )A.My new school is very good and I can see why.B.The English class is really interesting.C.My name is Li Kang.D.Ms Shen wants to help us improve our spelling and handwriting.E.The teacher are very enthusiastic and friendly and the classroom are amazing.F.There are 65 students in my class -------- more than my previous class in Junior High.G.The teacher is a very enthusiastic woman called Ms Shen.H.I like her attitude very much.Ss: … C A E B G D H FObjectives: The students basically master the contents of the text by listening to the tapes and do the exercises.Step5. Language PointsTime: 25---35 minutesT: Explain some difficult language points and try to use as many examples as possible to illustrate the points. Have the students read the passage again and underline five sentences in the present simple and present continuous.Ss make notes.Objectives: Students master the knowledge accurately and firmly by explaining the language points and examples.Step6 Post---reading DiscussionTime: 35---40 minutesTeacher put the students into groups of three or four to discuss a few questions.1.Is your English classroom like Li Kang’s?2.Is your class the same size as his? Is the number of boys and girls the same?3.Are you looking forward to doing your English homework?Ss talk about it freely.Step7 Summary and HomeworkTime: 40—45 minutesThis is the first English class. I will summarize the main content of this class. In this class, you mainly learned some new words about the subjects you will learn in Senior High. At the same time, you also got some information about Li Kang’s first day at Senior High through the reading activities of a passage.I will give you homework ----- write a short passage to describe your own first day at Senior High.Objectives: Students can put knowledge that they have learned in class into their own writing.。
Thinking in the Target Language as a Language Learning Strategy
Thinking in the Target Language as a LanguageLearning StrategyAbstract: As a good language-learner’s strategy, thinking in the target language helps many language learners a lot to improve their language ability. Sometimes, however, it does not necessarily benefit us. It need be compensated by native language thinking.Key words: Strategy, language thinking, native language, target language.According to some linguists, it is promising to see that more recent textbooks dealing with linguistics, applied linguistics, and more specifically second language acquisition, have begun to include reviews of the language learning and communication strategies literature. A generally accepted definition is that “language learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency”. Linguists agree that successful learners tend to use more strategies and use them more selectively and flexibly. Many language educators would maintain that the best way for learners to achieve native-like control of a target language is to make an effort to think in that language rather than to translate or reprocess the material into their mother tongue or into some other language which they have learned. However, it is likely that for some, if not many, the use of one language or another for thinking while performing language tasks is not seen as a matter of strategy selection or of strategizing. I am going to discuss this issue in the following parts.A.What it means to think in a target language?First of all, we focus our discussion only on verbalized thought, whether silently, subvocally, or aloud and not with nonverbal thoughts. Unless we are thinking out loud, our thoughts reflect inner speech—that is, the thinking that we do in our minds that is in the form of words rather than images or symbols. The inner speech could be self-directed or “private” as well as other-directed or “public”.In considering the language-of-thought issue, the first question that arises concerns the extent of proficiency or threshold level necessary in order to have thoughts in that language. Since thinking in a language involves different levels or depth of meaning, the answer to the question is complex. While greater proficiency in a language is likely to increase the possibility that thinking will occur in that language, we cannot assume this to be the case. It is more than likely that even someone with somewhat limited proficiency in a language could still have thoughts in that language.It is true that multilingual language learners often think in a given language without having consciously chosen to do so. Yet there are times when they may purposely use the target language as the language of thought or when the instructional method encourages them or requires them to do so. A language learner may choose to think in a target language for the purpose of rehearsal. Depending on how well the language is learned, carrying on an imaginary conversation in the mind or planning for such a conversation may contribute to more successful oral communication. Likewise, multilingual language learners may choose to think at times or even extensively in oneof the languages they have learned while learning the given target language. Taking Andrew D. Cohen for example, as a native speaker of English, he learned Spanish by thinking primarily in French, learned Aymara, Portuguese and Italian by thinking extensively in Spanish, and learned spoken Arabic by thinking most of the time in Hebrew.B.The role of target language thought formulation in improving language abilityPeople who are good at language might tackle second language learning in different ways from those who are less good or they might behave in the same way but more efficiently. Six broad strategies shared by good language learners (GLL) have been found as follows: 1. finding a learning style that suits you; 2. involving yourself in the language learning process; 3. developing an awareness of language both as system and as communication; 4. paying constant attention to expanding your language knowledge; 5. developing the second language as a separate system; 6 taking into account the demands that second language learning imposes.Extensive research that goes much deeper into language learning strategies has been carried out by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) within an overall model of second language learning based on cognitive psychology. Three main types of strategy have been defined: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and social strategies.However, in the language learning strategy literature, the issue of the language used in verbalized thoughts has not received much attention. Obviously target language thought should be involved in GLL strategy 5. GLL tries to develop their knowledge of the second language in its own right and eventually to think in it. One common strategy is to engage in silent monologues to practice the second language. At first I thought it belonged to metacognitive strategies. After second consideration, I take it as a cognitive strategy.There is an intuitively based assumption that it is beneficial for foreign language learners to think as much as possible through the language that they are learning. Kinds of surveys have been done studying the role of target language thought formulation in improving language ability. Based on those surveys have been done, I also tried to conduct a mini-survey in Southeast University. One conclusion reached from surveys is that there are definite benefits from making an effort to think in the target language.With the assumption talked above, teachers may discourage student from translating, and the learners themselves may come to feel that native language or other language thinking could be detrimental to the learning process. The argument is that by thinking in the target language, learners are increasing their chances of becoming idiomatically accurate in that language. This maxim has been applied to the more visible forms of language—namely speaking and writing—because they are so external and visible. The assumption would be that thinking through the target language while writing would decrease the number of errors. Yet there have been a series of studies which have looked at the influence of thinking through the native language while writing in the second language, and the results tend to go against the maxim. For example, in a study of twenty-two Chinese-speaking college students, Friedlander (1990) found that the students who initially use Chinese to describe a Chinese festival could more richly describe their experience in the second language than those who started with thinking in the second language. He also found that thinking and writing a rough draft in the native language had a positive impact on their final product in the second language. Jones and Tetroe (1987) also reported some benefits of thinking in Spanish (the native language) when composing text in English (the second language).Therefore, the conclusion is probably that it pays to do some or even extensive systematic thinking through the target language, but not to be hesitant about thinking in the native language when it is comforting and perhaps necessary to do so. Native language thought may become a trap if practiced in the extreme—at the expense of the target language.Bibliography:Cohen, Andrew D. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language, Chapter6 Page157-214. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, August, 2000Cook, Vivian. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (2nd edition), Chapter5 Page103-108, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited, August, 2000Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching and Learning, Chapter2 Page55-65, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Heinle & Heinle/Thomson Learning Asia, September, 2001 Cook, Vivian. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, Chapter6 Page113-134, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Macmillan Publishers Limited, August, 2000戴炜栋&何兆熊. A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English, Chapter11 Page159-173, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, July, 2002。
Learning Strategies on Language Learning
语言学习中的学习策略Learning Strategies on Language LearningContentsAbstract (1)Key words (1)I. Introduction (1)II. Literature Review (2)III. Language Learning Strategies (3)IV. Application of Strategies (4)4.1Listening (4)4.2 Speaking (6)4.3 Reading (7)4.4 Writing (9)V. Reflection on LLS Research (10)VI. Conclusion (11)References (11)摘要：学习策略在学习中起着至关重要的作用，尤其是在英语学习中更为突出。
只有使用了恰当的学习策略，才能有效的保证英语学习的顺利进行。
但是不少英语学习者对学习策略的认识不够充分，更有甚者将学习策略简单的认为就是学习方法。
本文从心理学的角度对学习策略的定义进行了充分的论述，帮助英语学习者重新认识学习策略，同时也介绍了学习策略在英语学习中具体方面的使用，对英语学习者在学习中将会有很大帮助。
因此，对英语学习策略进行研究是很有必要的。
对教师在英语教学中的策略的使用也会有所帮助。
关键词：学习策略；语言学习; 学习策略的应用Abstract：Learning strategies play a key role in learning, especially in English learning.Only applying learning strategies, would people be sure English learning will go smoothly. But so many English learners do not understand learning strategies completely, someone even see learning strategies simply as learning method. This paper fully discussed learning strategies from psychological angle, so it can help learners know English strategies again. This paper also introduces application of strategies in some concrete aspects, which is very helpful for English learners. So it is very necessary to make a research. It is also helpful for teachers to teach strategies.Key words: learning strategies; language learning; application of learning strategiesI. IntroductionIn a helpful survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1985:35-42) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as “behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner‟s encoding process”. Later Mayer more specifically defined LS as “behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information”. These early definitions from the educational literature reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments.Within for foreign education, a number of definitions of language learning strategies (LLS) have been used in the field. Early on, Tarone (1986:20-25) defined LS as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incorporate these into one‟s interlanguage competence”. Rubin later (1987:40-45) wrote that L S “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly”. In their seminal study, O‟Malley and Chamot (1990:30-33) defined LS as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individu als use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. Finally, building on work in her book for teachers, Oxford provides specific examples of LLS and this helpful definition:Language learning strategies-specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students use to improve their progress in developing second language (L2) skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on LS, there is now a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same time, we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner‟s “natural, habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills”, though there appears to be an obvious relationship between one‟s languag e learning style and his or her usual or preferred language learning strategies.II. Literature ReviewAlthough the terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms “learner strategies”, others “learning strategies” and still others “language learning strategies”, there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS. Firstly, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners. Secondly, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learner's skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Thirdly, LLS may be visible or unseen. Fourthly, LLS involve information and memory.Reading the LLS literature, it is clear that a number of further aspects of LLS are less uniformly accepted. When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990:21-24) and others such as Wenden (1991:60-65) and Rubin (1991:32-35) note a desire for control and autonomy oflearning on the part of the learner through LLS. Cohen (1994:10-12) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1993:51-53) and Skehan (1993:42-44) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarizes her view of LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS: allow learners to become more self-directed, expand the role of language teachers are problem-oriented, involve many aspects, not just the cognitive, can be taught, and are flexible are influenced by a variety of factors. Beyond this brief outline of LLS characteristics, a helpful review of the LLS research and some of the implications of LLS training for second language acquisition may be found.III. Language Learning StrategiesThere are literally hundreds of different, yet often interrelated, LLS. As Oxford has developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy, it is useful to summarize it briefly here. First, Oxford distinguishes between direct LLS, “which directly involve the subject matter”, i.e. the L2 or FL, and indirect LLS, which “do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless”. Second, each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies “aid in entering information int o long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication”. Cognitive LLS “are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language”. Compensation strategies “are needed to overc ome any gaps in knowledge of the language”. Oxford also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strategies “help learners exercise …executive control‟ through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning”. Affective LLS “en able learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning”. Finally, social strategies “facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation”.A more detailed overview of these six main types of LLS is found in Oxford (1990:18-21), where they are further divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. Here, by way of example, we will briefly consider the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990): asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathizing with others.Although these examples are still rather vague, experienced L2/FL teachers mayeasily think of specific LLS for each of these categories. In asking questions, for example, student s might ask something specific like “Do you mean...?” or “Did you say that...?” in order to clarify or verify what they think they have heard or understood. While at first glance this appears to be relatively straightforward LLS, in this writer‟s experienc e it is one that many EFL students in Japan, for example, are either unaware of or somewhat hesitant to employ.What is important to note here is the way LLS are interconnected, both direct and indirect, and the support they can provide one to the others. In the above illustration of social LLS, for example, a student might ask the questions above of his or her peers, thereby “co-operating with others”, and in response to the answer he or she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL (foreign language) cultural understanding or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow students, the teacher, or those in the L2/FL culture. What is learned from this experience might then be supported when the same student uses a direct, cognitive s trategy such as “practicing” to repeat what he or she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural conversation with someone in the target L2/FL. In this case, the way LLS may be inter-connected becomes very clear.IV. Application of Strategies4.1ListeningThe listening course can be divided into three stages: the sound recalling, the short-term memory, and the long-term memory. It also can be divided into another different three stages: synthetic analyses, and calculates selecting, and confirming the correction. The first stage: synthetic analyses. The initial understanding of the concrete word, phrase and brief material, carrying on with the short-term memory to the material storage, linking the material which will have been just laid in and having saved material to completely understand them so that make a long-term storage. The second stage: calculating selecting. According to the fixed context, such as the action of speaking person, the expression, the observation of language means such as tone and voice, hearing first half, just knowing content of second half. In brief, calculating selecting is to pay concentrating attention to the most important key part that relates with this talking subject exactly. Third stage: the confirming correction. Whether or not learners understand the words and phrases correctly, it needs to confirm or revises by what follows in the passage, paragraph, article, etc. Correct understanding can become the key factor and becomes the advantageous condition to continuous listening.In brief, listening course is a process of identifying word, sentence and circumstance, the error of any stage all can lead to the result of don not understand content. Potential difficulty of English listening belongs to the mentality obstacle. In the listening course, average learner feel nothing confident, so they are excessive nervous. The person who can understand the content did not understand yet, therefore the more they listen, the more they are unable to understand at last. Chinese learners feel that it is very difficult to listen, and an obvious reason is the new language knowledge that we learned almost all gains by way of the visual sense; therefore learners do not have corresponding sense of hearing is vivid in the brains. Even learners have the sense of hearing image sometimes in the brains, but pronouncing to be incorrectly owing to oneself, and still can not make the proper reaction when hearing others correctly pronunciation. We can understand the English that others said, the most basic cerebrum activity is the existing sense of hearing image and the external world in oneself brain match the English that others said. English learners who have difficulty in the content owing to not familiar with the habits customs and civilization of English, though they often feel there are not concrete new words and phrases in the listening material. The listening strategies are parts of English learning strategies. Learning strategies contain the two aspects of “concept” and “method”. T he former guide‟s knowledge in study person‟s brains and the latter is the concrete action of study person. As far as hearing is concerned “concept” indicates the basic knowledge of the mentality to “listens” of study person mechanism, and “method” is divi ded into management method and the studying method. The management method is used the organization, and plans and assesses advancing and the adjusting emotion; But learning method involves English language material itself, and includes everything concrete hearing studying activity. As far as the relation between these essential factors are concerned, the concept influences the selection of method, and the method decides that English learning is good or bad; the selection of method is influenced by the management method again, they are run as a system in the method, restricting mutually, influencing mutually. Learners will gain the expected learning result. The concept method is adjusted in the incessantly change according to the inside and outside factor. And the concept seems to be a subject neglected in routine English hearing studying activity. Psychologists think, understanding is to build the meaning according to sound or characters, the course of understood is the course that builds the meaning.In the course of building meaning, the rich association is the important and necessary step. The listening learning method has the correct concept, and probably has the correct learning method. Listening can be divided into three kinds with listening activity exactly:intensive listening, extensive listening and half intensive listening. “intensive listening" does not have the authenticity of social intercourse, but contributes to the self-confidence to raise hearing with understanding the standard. Learners listen to the content by way of constantly listening, understanding also grow in quality or quantity step by step. “Extensive listening” possesses the authenticity of social intercourse, learners also can listen materials when having a rest. The more they listen to, the richer content is and they can gain new information. “Half intensive listening” is between “intensive listening” and “extensive listening”. At the beginning, to some degree, it is same as “extensive listening”. The attention is paid to in the information. But something is different: “half intensive listening” the method of recalling forces learners‟ attention to concentrate on taking notes after listening.4.2 SpeakingThere are a lot of factors which can influence English spoken language, including individuality characteristic, psychological factor and language ability. No matter English foundation are good or bad, learners need overcome the psychological obstacle. Few learners feel nature when they talk with others in English; most students hardly take part in English corner, any other students practice spoken English by imitating record. This is a common problem. We can know that the psychological factor is influencing the spoken language training of most schoolmates from this small investigation. Setting up confidence persists in one period, and certainly can advance at last. Solving the psychological obstacle is the premise condition to improve the spoken language.Firstly, stress the importance of tone, the tone of many learners is inaccurate, they cannot understand others, but cannot be understood by others. We do not demand students to speak English as a native speaker, but tone must be accurate. The basic method of tone learning is to keep listening to many standard tapes, doing more following reading training and learning some basic tone knowledge.Secondly, listening training. Enough listening can lead to fluently speaking. The difficult point of listening is distinguishing sound. This need repeated listening. It is important to understood meaning of different tones.Thirdly, reading loudly to cultivate an instinctive feeling for the language. As we know, whether make a communication with the foreign language depend on an instinctive feeling for the language; loudly reading is an effective way to improve spoken English. Frequently reading the graceful textbook loudly can enrich vocabulary, and let learners be familiar with the sentence pattern. It is helpful for improve students‟ ability of oralexpressing. Loudly reading is also a important way to improve tone. Reading loudly still can surmount the bad psychological factor, forms natural habit of speaking English.A speaker is often involved in embarrassment because of being short of vocabulary when expressing. Therefore it is also very necessary to fit social communication. It is a strategy, which adopted to keep exchanging smoothly and easily in communication. When we face the talking subject that is not familiar and need take the consideration for a short while, in order to avoid affect the fluency of speech by a long time quiet, speaker can use some formula such as “well”, “as you know”.4.3 ReadingThe ability of English language includes listening ability, speaking ability, reading ability, writing ability and translation ability. And to most of students, the main purpose of learning English is to know English culture background and get new information. So reading comprehension has become more difficult in many kinds of English exams. More and more students focus on reading. We can draw such conclusion which reading is very important in some international English exams such as TOFEL and IELTS. In fact, students‟ English exams are far more difficult than middle school textbook, especially in reading. Some of exams are equal to the CET4 level.Most readers failed focus on English reading teaching last decade, the main reason is we only to emphasis content of textbook. No matter how deeply you understand one textbook, it is impossible to master one language. A student who graduates from senior high school should own six thousand words. But in middle school, there is only intensive reading, teachers should supplement extensive reading, and what should we do?There are four suggestions:1) Choose one interesting book which you need not consult the dictionary but to understand it, some simple and easy reading materials or abbreviation.2) Subscribe to some easy newspaper that middle school students can understand such as “Shanghai Student Post”. With the English level rising, students go to read some difficult newspaper such as “China Daily”. Newspapers contain large number of words and many kinds of knowledge. It is helpful for enlarge their vocabulary and get new information.3) Choose one book with exercises, which should be fit for the textbook. The characteristic of this kind of book is usually short and interesting, it is worth reading. Readers can do these exercises after reading essay. Through these exercises, readers can examine themselves whether they can understand the reading materials and how muchthey have understood.4) Reading everything related to English. We often see the English invitation advertisement when we read different newspaper, the introduction that printed on the packing when we eat food, the English slogan when we go to hotel. Actually, English has permeated every corner that we lived on. If you want, you can learn it at any time.Fast reading like seeing a whole wood. A person who stands before woods should not only focus on one tree, or even keep an eye on one leaf, if you see leaves one by one; you can see nothing but leaves. Of course leaves need us to see, but we cannot ignore trees and woods. We must rapidly enlarge the field of vision, so we can know the whole picture of woods. Reading the essay also is so, how to strengthen understanding of reading? How to use fast reading skills when we read materials. Fast reading needs students to use reading skills, through the logic thinking method to get enough information. During whole reading process, thought should be highly concentrated and let brain be in excited state. Your reading speed is slow, read the whole essay word by word, even though you know meaning of every word, you are unable to understand the meaning of whole passage after finishing reading.We usually face such problem as the all sentences can be understood, but we do not have deep impression on article after reading. This is relating to understanding of structure of essay. Firstly, we should focus on title or first sentence of one passage, because the title is the subject of essay, the content of essay surrounds. First sentence is very important; because first sentence can make readers understand main idea of essay and know the background of essay. Then first sentence of every paragraph is also very important. Actually, first sentence is the key sentence of every paragraph, and then state the author‟s view. At last, generalize this passage in a word, so usually the last sentence is conclusion sentence in one passage. We can draw author‟s idea f rom the conclusion sentence. We need form good habit when read the materials. We should stop to think when we first read an essay‟s title. We can guess the main idea of essay, and then you will find you are interested in going on reading. Pay attention on the first sentence and last sentence of every paragraph, and remember main idea of every paragraph by heart. After finishing the reading, we must recall the content of whole essay just like the recalling the movie that we have watched. We not only master the content, argument and ground of argument, but also learn author‟s method of logical inference and essay‟s whole structure.Improving the reading standard need accumulate vocabulary. Like making house needs bricks. Reading English can not be gone on without large number of vocabulary. So to improve the reading standard, we must learn to accumulate the vocabulary. There is noharm to do like this: we should read again after finishing reading text, guess the meaning of unfamiliar word according to the context as soon as possible. we can consult dictionary for some strange words, and write these words on notebook. Try to memorize these words in leisure time every day. This method does not need more time, but it is effective. It is very fast to enlarge the number of vocabulary.4.4 WritingWriting, this original language technical ability is neglected by students from beginning to end. The reason can be concluded to following two points: firstly, as long as grasping language knowledge, raising the writing ability is easy. Secondly, not find the active writing study strategies and simply gives up. With economical development, society needs more person of ability who possesses higher English capacity. So educational circles keep close eye on strategies of writing teaching and writing learning.Many experts and scholars have provided English teachers and students with some profitable writing teaching strategies and writing study strategies. But these researches are laid stress on teachers‟ teaching strategies about writing mostly. As a comprehensive language technical ability, writing is weakest point when students master English skills. The students‟ exercise books are full of article which content can not fit the English customs. Therefore how to improve the English writing level is an important problem which needs to be discussed. Firstly, the grammar strategies build up the good language foundation. Grammar occupies a dominant position in foreign language teaching. There is a traditional way, teachers explain detailed meaning for students and let students do a large number of practice. But at the initial stage of 20 centuries, this way has been suffering from attack from western country and China. The reason is that this teaching method is neglected to ability of words and listening understanding.What replace it is more and more the teaching methods of anti-tradition such as “listening method”, “direct method”, “understanding method”, “natural method”, “reticent method” and “social communicative method”. These new methods emphasize giving up the special grammar rule in the teaching. Mother tongue strategies, it means seeking the shortcut. With the aid of mother tongue students can express their ideas efficiently. So we can draw a conclusion that mother tongue cause a positive influence to English learning. Mother tongue lead to interference at the aspect of word order and the sentence structure. Even though it is not perfect, teachers need to use mother tongue when explain abstract vocabulary and difficult grammar rule. Of course, if the mother tongue belong to the different language families from English and existence of bigger difference of two kindsof language often led to the mistake.V. Reflections on LLS ResearchThe first, and most important, concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS training in their work. As Davis (1997) has aptly noted, “our actions speak louder than words”, and it is therefore important for professionals who use LLS training to also model such strategies both within their classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals‟ unique cognitive, social, and affective learning styles and strategies.Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while teachers hope to motivate our students and enhance their learning, professionally we must be very clear not to manipulate them in the process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student‟s responsibility. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we will not manipulate our students as we encourage them to develop and use their own LLS. Instead we will take learners‟ motivations and learning styles into account as we teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL skills and LLS.The second reflection pertains to the integration of LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical, noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL classes. These things are important. As Ellis (1994) notes, much of the research on LLS has been based on the assumption that there are good learning strategies. But this is questionable. In my poinion, L2/FL learning seems to be very much influenced by numerous individual factors, and to date it is difficult to account for all individual LLS, let alone relate them to all L2/FL learning/teaching theories.The related challenge, then, is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum, espec ially in places like Japan where “learner-centered” approaches or materials may not be implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training, such as those in the Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones. How then may FL educators best include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) classes? This final point brings us to this and other questions for future LLS research.VI. ConclusionFollowing from these reflections, then, future L2/FL research must consider and include curriculum development and materials for LLS training which takes into account regular L2/FL classes (especially for adults) and the learning styles and motivations of the students within them. While Chamot (1994) and O‟Malley (1996) and Kidd and Marquardson (1996) have developed materials for content-based school classes, it is important to consider the development and use of materials for college and university language classes, especially in FL settings. On the surface at least, it would appear that the language/content/learning strategies components of their frameworks could be easily transferred to a variety of language classroom curricula, but is this really the case? One model to consider in attempting doing so is Stern‟s (1992) multidimensional curriculum, which allows for the integration of LLS and LLS training into its language, culture, communicative, and general language education syllabuses.A pressing need for further research involves developing a comprehensive theory of LLS that is also relevant to language teaching practice. Moving beyond taxonomies of LLS, various types of studies into LLS use and training must consider a wide range of questions, such as: what types of LLS appear to work best with what learners in which contexts? Does LLS or LLS training transfer easily between L2 and FL contexts? What is the role of language proficiency in LLS use and training? How long does it take to train specific learners in certain LLS? How can one best assess and measure success in LLS use or training? Are certain LLS learnt more easily in classroom or non-classroom contexts? What LLS should be taught at different proficiency levels? Answers to these and many other questions from research in a variety of settings will aid in the theory building that appears necessary for more LLS work to be relevant to current L2/FL teaching practice.This research will give rise to some interesting discoveries; also will put forward some the question which needs study further. For example, the difference strategies using between urban students and rural students, or between girls or boys. All of these problems will remain in further research.References:1. Irene Thompson & Joan Rubin, 1999. How to Be a More Successful Language Learner[M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 22, 702. 龙秀苇浅谈中学生英语学习策略《四川教育学院学报》[J].2004, (14)：40-453. 潘宏伟英语口语训练策略《首都师范大学学报》（社会科学版）[J].1999,（5）：22-244. 臧玉珍试论英语听力学习策略《浙江大学学报》（社会科学版）[J].2002，(7):40-465. 张大均《教与学的策略》[M].人民教育出版社. 2002 30-35。
Language Learning Strategies
Language Learning Strategies: An UpdateRebecca Oxford, University of AlabamaForeign or second language (L2) learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques students use -- often consciously -- to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2 (Oxford, 1990b). For example, Lazlo seeks out conversation partners. Oke groups words to be learned and then labels each group. Ahmed uses gestures to communicate in the classroom when the words do not come to mind. Mai Qi learns words by breaking them down into their components. Young consciously uses guessing when she reads. Strategies are the tools for active, self-directed involvement needed for developing L2 communicative ability (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown that the conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency.Good Language LearnersEarly researchers tended to make lists of strategies and other features presumed to be essentialfor all "good L2 learners." Rubin (1975) suggested that good L2 learners are willing and accurate guessers; have a strong drive to communicate; are often uninhibited; are willing to make mistakes; focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing; take advantage of all practice opportunities; monitor their speech as well as that of others; and pay attention to meaning.A number of these characteristics have been validated by subsequent research. However, the "uninhibited" aspect has not been confirmed as part of all or most good language learners. Because of language anxiety, many potentially excellent L2 learners are naturally inhibited; they combat inhibition by using positive self-talk, by extensive use of practicing in private, and by putting themselves in situations where they have to participate communicatively.Naiman, Frohlich, and Todesco (1975) made a list of strategies used by successful L2 learners, adding that they learn to think in the language and address the affective aspects of language acquisition. Foradditional lists of strategies used by good language learners, see Ramirez (1986) and Reiss (1985).Effectiveness and Orchestration of L2 Learning StrategiesResearch supports the effectiveness of using L2 learning strategies and has shown that successful language learners often use strategies in an orchestrated fashion. Some findings are listed below:·Use of appropriate language learning strategies often results in improved proficiency or achievement overall or in specific skill areas (Oxford et al., 1993; Thompson & Rubin, 1993).·Successful language learners tend to select strategies that work well together in a highly orchestrated way, tailored to the requirements of the language task (Chamot & Kupper, 1989). These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990).·Cognitive (e.g., translating, analyzing) and metacognitive (e.g., planning, organizing) strategies are often used together, supporting each other (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Well tailoredcombinations of strategies often have more impact than single strategies.·Certain strategies or clusters of strategies are linked to particular language skills or tasks. For example, L2 writing, like L1 writing, benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and substitution. L2 speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. L2 listening comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, and self-monitoring, while reading comprehension uses strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and summarizing (Chamot & Kupper, 1989). See Oxford (1990b) for a detailed chart that maps relevant strategies with listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.·The powerful social and affective strategies are found less often in L2 research. This is, perhaps, because these behaviors are not studied frequently by L2 researchers, and because learners are not familiar with paying attention to their ownfeelings and social relationships as part of the L2 learning process (Oxford, 1990b).Factors Influencing the Choice of L2 Learning StrategiesOxford (1990a) synthesized existing research on how the following factors influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second language.Motivation.More motivated students tended to use more strategies than less motivated students, and the particular reason for studying the language (motivational orientation, especially as related to career field) was important in the choice of strategies.Gender.Females reported greater overall strategy use than males in many studies (although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy).Cultural background. Rote memorization and other forms of memorization were more prevalent among some Asian students than among students from other culturalbackgrounds. Certain other cultures also appeared to encourage this strategy among learners.Attitudes and beliefs.These were reported to have a profound effect on the strategies learners choose, with negative attitudes and beliefs often causing poor strategy use or lack of orchestration of strategies.Type of task. The nature of the task helped determine the strategies naturally employed to carry out the task.Age and l2 stage. Students of different ages and stages of L2 learning used different strategies, with certain strategies often being employed by older or more advanced students.Learning style. Learning style (general approach to language learning) often determined the choice of L2 learning strategies. For example, analytic-style students preferred strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule-learning, and dissecting words and phrases, while global students used strategies to find meaning (guessing, scanning, predicting) and to converse without knowing all the words (paraphrasing, gesturing).Tolerance of ambiguity. Students who were more tolerant of ambiguity used significantly different learning strategies in some instances than did students who were less tolerant of ambiguity.L2 Strategy TrainingConsiderable research has been conducted on how to improve L2 students' learning strategies. In many investigations, attempts to teach students to use learning strategies (called strategy training or learner training) have produced good results (Thompson & Rubin, 1993). However, not all L2 strategy training studies have been successful or conclusive. Some training has been effective in various skill areas but not in others, even within the same study. (For details of studies, see Oxford & Crookall, 1989.)Based on L2 strategy training research, the following principles have been tentatively suggested, subject to further investigation:·L2 strategy training should be based clearly on students' attitudes, beliefs, and stated needs.·Strategies should be chosen so that they mesh with and support each other and so that they fitthe requirements of the language task, the learners' goals, and the learners' style of learning.·Training should, if possible, be integrated into regular L2 activities over a long period of time rather than taught as a separate, short intervention.·Students should have plenty of opportunities for strategy training during language classes.·Strategy training should include explanations, handouts, activities, brainstorming, and materials for reference and home study.·Affective issues such as anxiety, motivation, beliefs, and interests -- all of which influence strategy choice -- should be directly addressed by L2 strategy training.·Strategy training should be explicit, overt, and relevant and should provide plenty of practice with varied L2 tasks involving authentic materials.·Strategy training should not be solely tied to the class at hand; it should provide strategies that are transferable to future language tasks beyond a given class.·Strategy training should be somewhat individualized, as different students prefer or need certain strategies for particular tasks.·Strategy training should provide students with a mechanism to evaluate their own progress and to evaluate the success of the training and the value of the strategies in multiple tasks.Problems in Classifying StrategiesAlmost two dozen L2 strategy classification systems have been divided into the following groups: (1) systems related to successful language learners (Rubin, 1975); (2) systems based on psychological functions (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990); (3) linguistically based systems dealing with guessing, language monitoring, formal and functional practice (Bialystok, 1981) or with communication strategies like paraphrasing or borrowing (Tarone, 1983); (4) systems related to separate language skills (Cohen, 1990); and (5) systems based on different styles or types of learners (Sutter, 1989). The existence of these distinct strategy typologies indicates a major problem in the research area of L2 learning strategies:lack of a coherent, well accepted system for describing these strategies.ImplicationsResearchers must reconceptualize L2 learning strategies to include the social and affective sides of learning along with the more intellectual sides. The L2 learner is not just a cognitive and metacognitive machine but, rather, a whole person. In strategy training, teachers should help students develop affective and social strategies, as well as intellectually related strategies, based on their individual learning styles, current strategy use, and specific goals.Research should be replicated so more consistent information becomes available within and across groups of learners. Particularly important is information on how students from different cultural backgrounds use language learning strategies. L2 teachers need to feel confident that the research is applicable to their students.More research on factors affecting strategy choice would be helpful. Learning style is an important factor,along with gender, age, nationality or ethnicity, beliefs, previous educational and cultural experiences, and learning goals. Additionally, it is likely that different kinds of learners (e.g., analytic vs. global or visual vs. auditory) might benefit from different modes of strategy training.Teachers must have training relevant to their own instructional situations in three areas: identifying students' current learning strategies through surveys, interviews, or other means; helping individual students discern which strategies are most relevant to their learning styles, tasks, and goals; and aiding students in developing orchestrated strategy use rather than a scattered approach.ReferencesBialystok, E. (1981). The role of conscious strategies in second language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 65, 24-35.Chamot, A.U., & Kupper. L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.Cohen, A.D. (1990). Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., & Todesco, A. (1975). The good second language learner. TESL Talk, 6, 58-75.O'Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Oxford, R.L. (1989). Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training. System, 17, 235-247.Oxford, R.L. (1990a). Language learning strategies and beyond: A look at strategies in the context of styles. In S.S. Magnan (Ed.), Shifting the instructional focus to the learner (pp. 35-55). Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.Oxford, R.L. (1990b). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Oxford, R.L., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, andinstructional issues. Modern Language Journal, 73, 404-419.Oxford, R.L., Park-Oh, Y., Ito, S. & Sumrall, M. (1993). Learning Japanese by satellite: What influences student achievement? System, 21, 31-48.Ramirez, A. (1986). Language learning strategies used by adolescents studying French in New York schools. Foreign Language Annals, 19, 131-141.Reiss, M.A. (1985). The good language learners: Another look. Canadian Modern Language Review, 41, 511-23.Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51.Sutter, W. (1989). Strategies and styles.Aalborg, Denmark: Danish Refugee Council.Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of "communication strategy." In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication(pp. 61-74). London: Longman.Thompson, I., & Rubin, J. (1993). Improving listening comprehension in Russian. Washington, DC:Department of Education, International Research and Studies Program.This report was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Dept. of Education, under contract no. RI88062010. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or ED.ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages andLinguistics4646 40th Street, NWWashington, DC 20016-1859(202)362-0700 / (800)276-9834************[Top of page]ERIC/CLLhome[MoreDigests]1、结合视频内容，谈谈你在阅读教学中的经验和做法，以及你对学生课外阅读的指导与评价。
Language Learning Strategies 2-3
Inferencing: Using available information to guess meanings of new items, predict outcomes, or fill in missing information. 推测 Summarising: Making a mental, oral, or written summary of new information gained through listening or reading. 小结
O’Malley &ognitive
Cognitive
Social /Affective
元认知策略（ 元认知策略（Metacognitive Strategies）： ） 提前准备（ 提前准备（advance organizers） ） 集中注意（ 集中注意（directed attention） ） 功能准备 （Function planning） ） 选择注意（selective attention） 选择注意（ ） 自我管理（ 自我管理（self-management） ） 自我监控（ 自我监控（self-monitoring） ） 自我评价（ 自我评价（self-evaluation） ）
metacognitive strategies are “higher order executive skills” and play a crucial role in learning, therefore, O’Malley et al (1985a) note that “students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction and ability to review their progress, accomplishments, and future learning directions”.
Language learning strategies
1.3 Background of the LLSThe research of language learning strategies has a history of more than thirty years and has been a hot topic in the field of second/foreign language education for a long time. Rubin in 1975 published an article in TESL Quarterly “What the Good Language Learner Can Teach Us”. Later in the same year, Stern and Naiman researched on the same topic, which is generally considered as the outset of research of language learning strategies ( Wen, 2000. P11-24). Most of those earlier research were intended for “identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or a foreign language”. It was assumed that, once identified, language learning strategies could be made the impossible possible for unsuccessful learners. ( Wenden & Rubin 1987, P19-20).In China, the beginning of LLS research is in the 1980s. Those studies may be roughly divided into two groups, linguist in first group are working on theoretical research, introducing the studies of language learning strategies from abroad; the second group focuses on the practice research about language learning strategies employed by students. (e.g., Liu&Wu,2000; Wen1996a; 1996b; Wu and Liu, 1993: Qin, 1998)。
英语语言学习策略
Introduction to Fundamentals
CHAPTER
Suitability
Choose textbooks that are suitable for your level of proficiency, ensuring that the content is moderately difficult and not too simple or difficult.
02
Ensure good lighting and air quality in the learning environment, which is beneficial for protecting eyes and respiratory health.
Comfortable seats and equipment
Understanding grammar through reading
Summary
Creating a collection of incorrect questions
Detailed description
Learners can create a collection of incorrect questions, record grammar errors they encounter during practice or exams, and annotate correct explanations and usage. This can help learners better grasp the prone points and avoid repeating mistakes.
Listening training
Language learning styles and strategies
Desired degree of generality 全局认知度
• 按照学习者接受信息的方式分类 • Global/Holistic 整体型：喜欢抓住重点或者 大意，全面看待问题，即使遇到不认识的词汇 或概念也能与别人交流 • Analytic 细节型：关注具体的规则和细节，善 于记住具体的信息，喜欢分析语法规则差异， 对新的词组和单词比较敏感。
中国地图 美国地图 江西省地图 赣州市地图 中国地图
Thinking vs. Feeling 理性 型与感性型
• Thinking • Feeling
Closure-oriented/Judging vs. Open/Perceiving 封闭型与开放型
• 按照接受信息的方式分类 • Closure-oriented/Judging：善于制定计划并 按规定的期限完成任务。对歧义容忍度低，难 以忍受模糊，希望得到详尽的讲解和明确的指 令。 • Open-oriented/Perceiving: 善于收集信息， 不急于下结论，有很大的灵活性和可变性，对 歧义的容忍程度高，不关心规则也不喜欢被规 定时间期限来完成指令。
英语中的语言学习策略知识点
英语中的语言学习策略知识点一、引言在学习英语的过程中，掌握一些有效的语言学习策略是至关重要的。
本文将介绍几个在英语学习中常用的语言学习策略，并分析其应用场景以及效果。
二、反思式学习（Reflective Learning）反思式学习是指学习者在学习英语过程中不仅仅是通过接受知识，而是通过反思来提高自己的学习能力。
反思过程中，学习者可以思考自己在学习中的问题和困难，找出解决方法，并总结经验教训。
三、语言输出（Language Output）语言输出是指学习者主动运用所学语言进行口语或书面表达的过程。
通过频繁的语言输出，学习者可以巩固所学知识，培养语感，提高语言表达能力。
四、语言输入（Language Input）语言输入是指学习者接触和理解英语的过程，包括阅读与听力。
良好的语言输入是建立起正确语感和丰富词汇量的关键。
通过大量的阅读和听力练习，学习者可以扩大自己的语言能力，增加语言输入的量。
五、情境学习（Contextual Learning）情境学习是指学习者通过真实世界中的情境来学习语言。
在情境学习中，学习者将所学语言应用于实际场景，通过与他人的交流和互动，提高语言运用的能力。
六、记忆技巧（Memory Techniques）记忆技巧是帮助学习者更好地记忆英语知识的方法和技巧。
例如，通过制作记忆卡片、使用联想等方法，可以帮助学习者更快更有效地记忆单词和语法规则。
七、多元感官学习（Multisensory Learning）多元感官学习是指通过多种感官的参与来加深对英语学习的理解和记忆。
学习者可以通过看、听、说、做等方式来学习，帮助大脑更好地吸收和处理信息。
八、自主学习（Autonomous Learning）自主学习是指学习者自己根据学习目标和需求进行自我管理和组织学习的过程。
在自主学习中，学习者可以制定学习计划，选择学习资源，培养学习的自觉性和主动性。
九、口语练习（Oral Practice）口语练习是学习英语的关键环节。
Language Learning Strategies
Source Rubin 1987
Definition
Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.
Source
Weinstein and Mayer 1986
Definition
Learning strategies are the behaviours and thoughts that a learner engage in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process.
• 1. Learning strategies refer to both general approaches and specific actions or techniques used to learn an L2.
Source
Chamot 1987
Definition
Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate action that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information.
• diminishing the efforts of the instructor • resulting in more effective and efficient
语言学习策略
Compensation strategies
Guessing intelligently Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
Indirect strategies
Metacognitive Strategies
Centering your learning Arranging and planning your learning Evaluating your learning
the centrality of the learner the domineering role of the teacher
a guide, a counselor
after 1970 learning strategies general teaching discipline lg learning subject
Attitudes Motivation Language level Study environment
Strategies for Vocabulary Development
3 kinds of vocabulary
Whether influencing the understanding of context Frequency Similar or not
Affective Strategies
Lowering your anxiety Encouraging yourself Taking your emotional temperature
Social Strategies
Asking questions Cooperating with others Emphathising with others
Language learning strategy
Language learning strategyLearning strategy has been one of the research focuses of psychologists and educators. Despite the current interest in learning strategies, investigations into the effect of strategy training are relatively uncommon, and results are rather mixed.1.1 Defining learning strategies:Many researchers who focus their attention on learning strategies try to define learning strategies in different ways. Here are some definitions from several researchers in the field.Strategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, or planed designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. (Brown)In our view, strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learners, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning. (Stern 1983) Learning strategies are the behaviors and thoughts that a learner is engaged in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process. (Weinstein and Mayer 1986)Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recalling of both linguistic and content area information. (Chamot 1987)Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly. (Rubin 1987)Language learning strategies are specific action or techiques taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed and more transferable to new situation. (Oxford 1990)Learning strategies are the conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language. (Cohen 2000)Learning strategies are the mental and communicative procedures or techniques learners use to learn and use language effectively. (Nunan 2001) Despite there are uncertainties in these definition, anyway, all the definition recognize that they are used efforts to learning something about the target language. Hence I believe learning strategies consists mental and physical behaviors that a learner deploy to make their leaning more effective in the process of language acquisition.1.2 Types of learning strategiesAs there are varies ways of defining strategies, there are also different ways of categorizing strategies. Different researchers offered different categories because using different standard.1.2.1 Rubin’s framework(1981):Language learning strategiesDirect language Indirect language1.2.2Naimen’s classification:An active task approachLearning Realization of language as a systemstrategies Realization of language as a means of communicationand interactionManagement of affective demandsMonitoring of L2 performance1.2.3Bialystok identified four strategies as:Learning strategiesInferecing monitoring formal practicing functional practicing1.2.4O’Mally and Chamot’s framework:Three major types of strategies are distinguished. They are matecognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social/affective strategy.Matecognitive strategies: Advance Organizers, Direct Attention, Selected Attention, Self-Management, Functional-planning, Self-Monitoring, Delayed Production, Self-Evaluation.Cognitive strategies: Reputation, Resourcing, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking, Deduction, Recombination, Imagery, Auditory Representation, Keyword, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, InferencingSocial/Affective strategies: Cooperation, Question for clarification1.2.5Oxford contributes a great deal of learning strategies, perhaps themost comprehensive classification of learning strategies to datewas provided by Oxford. The following is her framework:Learning strategiesDirect strategies Indirect strategiesMemory strategies Metacognitive strategiesCognitive strategies Affective strategiesCompensation strategies Social strategies1.2.6 David Nunan developed the following typology of stategies:Learning strategiesCognitive Interpersonal Linguistic Affective Creative Classifying Cooperating Conversational patterns Personalizing Brainstrming Predicting Role-Playing Practicing Self-EvaluatingIndicating Using context ReflectingTaking Notes SummarizingConcept Mapping Selective ListeningInferencing SkimmingDiscriminatingDiagramming1.3 Previous studies about learning strategiesResearch on language learning strategies started at the 1970s. For the most part, the progress in cognitive psychology had a great effect on the research studies on language learning strategies. In most of the research studies done on language learning strategies, identifying what good learners do to learn a second or foreign language has been the main issue. In 1971 Rubin conducted a study in which the main focus was on the strategies of successful language learners. In her study she argues that, once identified, such strategies could be offered to less successful learners.In 1980 Cohen and Aphek looked at the effect of strategy training on vocabulary acquisition. They found that certain techniques, such as the paired associates techniques, did successful in language learning. At about the same time, Carroll(1981) looked at inductive learning. In this study, it was found that the ability to study samples of language and induct the rules governing that particular aspect of language was an aspect of language aptitude. O'Malley et al. set out to identify the type, range and frequency of the learning strategies used by 70 ESL students at beginning and intermedíate levéis in three high schools in Northern Virginia. The results obtained also indicated that the number of strategies used by the learners correlated with the degree of difficulty of the learning task and, on the whole, students tended to use more cognitive than metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, it was also found that teachers in general were not very aware of their students' strategy use.By means of a questionnaire, Bialystok surveyed the strategies used by high school students in their learning of French. The data collected showed as before that the use of strategies was governed by the nature of the task, and it also seemed to be directly related to the learners' attitude and not to language learning aptitude. Ramírez also administered questionnaires to adolescents who were studying French in several New York schools. The information collected revealed that years of language study was an important variable affecting the use of learning strategies.The results of previous research studies have demonstrated that many factors affect the choice learning strategies. Those factors might include degree of awareness,age, sex, nationality, learning style, personality traits, motivation, learning context, and language proficiency (Zare& Nooreen, 2011; Khamkhien, 2010; Rahimi, et al. 2008; Chamot, 2004; Griffiths, 2003; Hong-Nam and Leavell, 2007; Green and Oxford, 1995; Ehrman and Oxford, 1989).A Study of Language Learning Strategies Used by College EFL Learners in Taiwan shows that (1) There was not a great difference among the frequency of each strategy that Taiwanese college EFL learners report using, all in medium-use level. (2) Statistically significant differences were found in the use of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social strategies and overall strategies with regard to gender.(3) Statistically significant differences were found in the use of six subcategories of language learning strategies and overall strategies with regard to major. In the end of this study, the pedagogical implications were provided.The findings of research studies in the area of language learning strategies provide a greater understanding of strategy use among EFL/ESL learners and support language instructors and curriculum developers to improve their approaches toward teaching and learning goals. These findings also strengthen the fact that strategy use is a complex phenomenon that interacts with a number of variables. These variables have influences on the use of overall strategies, strategy categories, and individual strategies in different ways. So, as an interactive language teacher is to equip your students with a sense of what successful language learners do to achieve success and to aid them in developing their own unique individual pathways to success. (Brown).。
优秀语言学习者的学习策略Good language learner (GLL)
优秀语言学习者的学习策略Good language learner (GLL) strategies 其中包括:1.明显、强烈的学习动机；2.灵活的学习策略；3.自主学习能力; 4.对语言的功能性和结构性的双重关注。
1 .GLLs have definite and desirable motivationAs it is known, the stronger the motivation, the more quickly and better a person will learn a language. Most of good language learners have instrumental motivation and some are particularly interested in target culture, history or people. For GLL both types of motivation are important, which stimulate them to study with greater efforts in order to reach their goals.2. GLLs have flexible learning strategiesThey adjust themselves to different learning situations and involve themselves in any language learning process. In our country they not only learn English in classroom but also listen to news, go to see films in the target language. And some even can learn from advertisements and other mass media. They are not content with their knowledge of a foreign language but always try to improve it. Whenever they have a chance, they will try to communicate with a native speaker and ask the native speaker to correct them. They do not passively accept what is presented to them but go out to meet it.3. GLLs usually are self-accessed and independent learnersThey would like to employ metacognitive strategies (O'Mally and Chamot, 1990). In this strategy the most important is self-management and advance preparation. GLLs in most cases plan their learning: they will sit in the front of the class so that they can see and hear the teacher clearly; they will preview new words and the text and try to remember as much as they can; meanwhile, they can find the problems that puzzle them and will settle them in class; they are also self-reinforced after class.4. GLLs in their language learning pay much attention to structural aspects of the language as well as functional aspects of the language.The structure aspect concentrates on the grammatical system, explaining the word-order rules and formation of sentences etc. Whereas the functional aspects concentrates on situational and social factors, In other words the sentence structure is stable and straightforward, while its communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors.在教学中如何兼顾语言的功能性和结构性1．方式上的互补策略（1）语言情境设计的互补语言情境是指在英语教学过程中为学生感知、操练、初步运用语言材料创设语言交际的社会语言背景。
学习语言的策略languagelearningstrategies
8
《大学英语课程要求》 提出2个转变：
从培养学生的阅读能力转变为培养综合应用 能力，尤其是听说能力。
从教师为中心的课堂模式转变为基于计算机 多媒体的教学模式。
9
对外语综合应用能力的理解：
语言能力(linguistic competence) 策略能力(strategic competence) 语用能力(pragmatic competence) 跨文化交际能力(cross-cultural competence)
运用语言的策略（language using strategies） 检索策略（retrieval strategies）：为从大脑提取语言形式而采取的措施。 排练策略（rehearsal strategies）：为反复练习语言形式而采取的措施。 掩盖策略（cover strategies）：为掩盖自己语言知识不足所采取的措施。 交际策略（communication strategies）：为顺利进行交际活动而采取的措19施。
14
定义存在的4个分歧：
1）策略究竟是指可视行为，还是指大脑中无法观 察到的心理活动，还是两者兼而有之？
2）策略是指某人学习语言方法的总体特点，还是 指完成某个具体任务所采取的技巧？
3）学习策略是有意识还是无意识的？
4）策略能否对语言的发展产生直接的作用？
15
本质特征： 1. 指总的学习方法，也指具体活动或技巧； 2. 以解决问题为导向， 3. 能意识到所用的策略， 4. 策略涉及语言或非语言的活动； 5. 语言策略能够运用母语或非母语执行； 6. 外部可观察和内部不可观察的心理活动兼有； 7. 即有间接影响，也有直接影响， 8. 策略的运用因事因人而异。
Language Strategy
• In 1996, Aaron Carton published his study entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the first attempt on learner strategies. • After carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focusing on the strategies of successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin(1975)classified strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Wenden(1982), Chamot and O’Malley(1987), and many others studied strategies used by language learners during the process of foreign language learning.
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Indirect Strategies 1, Metacognitive strategies A, Centering your learning B, Arranging and planning your learning C, Evaluating your learning 2,Affective Strategies A, Lowering your anxiety B, Encouraging yourself C, Taking your emotional temperature 3,Social strategies A, Asking questions B, Cooperating with others C, Emphasizing with others
英语语言学习策略
七. 影响语言学习策略的因素
年龄 学习风 格类型 教师 学习 环境 影响语言学 习策略的因 素 学习者 态度 智力 学习者 动机
个性
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英语语言学习策略
一. 学习策略的定义
1. Stern (1983):学习策略是语言学习者采用的学习路子总的 倾向或总体特征，而学习技巧是可观察的学习行为的具 体形式。 2. Weinstein and Mayer (1986):学习策略是学习者在学习过程 中为了促进其信息处理过程而采取的行为或形成的思想。 3. Chamot (1987):学习策略是学习者为了优化学习过程、加 强语言知识和信息知识的记忆而采用的技巧、路子或其 它有意识的行为。 4. Rubin (1987):学习策略是学习者自己构造并直接作用于学 习过程、旨在促进学习者语言系统发展的策略。 5. Oxford (1989):语言学习策略是学习者为了使语言学习更 成功、更有目的、更愉快而采取的行为或行动。
学习策略与学习者策略learnerstrategieslearningstrategies学习者策略learnerstrategies学习策略learningstrategies交际策略communicativestrategies社交策略socialstrategies认知策略cognitivestrategies元认知策略metacognitivestrategies摘自wenden根据学习策略的用途分类可分为语言学习中的策略和语言使用中的策略
五. O’Malley 和 Chamot在1990年修订了 在 年修订了 他们的学习策略分类表（ 他们的学习策略分类表（共23种）： 种
1. 元认知策略，其中包括事先计划、指导注意力、功 能准备、选择注意力等七种策略； 2. 任知策略，包括使用参考资料、重复、分组和分类、 推理等十四种策略； 3. 社交策略，包括提问和澄清、合作两种策略。
学习策略与学习方法
学习策略与学习方法•学习方法和学习技巧是学习者为了解决某个学习问题或为了使学习过程更有效而采取的某些具体的做法或手段。
•学习策略是对学习方法的选择和使用。
语言学习策略的定义The definitions of language learning strategies •是学习者为了使语言学习取得更好的效果而采取的各种策略，它既包括学习者为了更好地完成某个学习活动或学习任务而采取的微观策略，也包括学习者对自己的学习目标、学习过程、学习结果进行计划、调控、评估等而采取的宏观策略以及学习者对语言和语言学习的一些认识。
语言学习策略的分类The classification of language learning strategies •1、根据学习策略的用途进行分类直接用于语言学习中的策略（Strategies in learning the language)直接用于语言使用中的策略（Strategies in using the language)•2、根据学习策略的表现形式分类外显的学习策略、纯思维的学习策略•3、根据学习策略的使用者分类成功学习者的学习策略不太成功学习者的学习策略•4、根据心理过程分类认知策略、情感策略、元认知策略、社交策略•5、根据学习者的水平分类初级学习者的策略中级学习者的策略高级学习者的策略•6、根据使用目的分类语音学习策略、语法学习策略、词汇学习策略、说的学习策略影响语言学习策略的因素(Factors influencing language learning strategies)（一）年龄对学习策略的影响（二）智力对学习策略的影响（三）个性对学习策略的影响（四）认知风格对学习策略的影响（五）教师对学习策略的影响（六）其他因素对学习策略的影响四、英语学习策略(Strategies in learning English)（一）英语词汇学习策略（二）英语语法学习策略（三）英语学习中听的策略（四）英语口语学习策略（五）英语学习中的阅读策略（六）英语学习中的写作策略英语词汇学习策略（Strategies for vocabulary development）关于词汇学习的认识英语词汇学习策略关于词汇学习的认识Understanding vocabulary development1. 为什么要学习单词著名语言学家威尔金斯(Wilkins)说：“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”由此可见单词是何等重要。
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Language learning strategyLearning strategy has been one of the research focuses of psychologists and educators. Despite the current interest in learning strategies, investigations into the effect of strategy training are relatively uncommon, and results are rather mixed.1.1 Defining learning strategies:Many researchers who focus their attention on learning strategies try to define learning strategies in different ways. Here are some definitions from several researchers in the field.Strategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, or planed designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. (Brown)In our view, strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learners, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning. (Stern 1983) Learning strategies are the behaviors and thoughts that a learner is engaged in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process. (Weinstein and Mayer 1986)Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recalling of both linguistic and content area information. (Chamot 1987)Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly. (Rubin 1987)Language learning strategies are specific action or techiques taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed and more transferable to new situation. (Oxford 1990)Learning strategies are the conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language. (Cohen 2000)Learning strategies are the mental and communicative procedures or techniques learners use to learn and use language effectively. (Nunan 2001) Despite there are uncertainties in these definition, anyway, all the definition recognize that they are used efforts to learning something about the target language. Hence I believe learning strategies consists mental and physical behaviors that a learner deploy to make their leaning more effective in the process of language acquisition.1.2 Types of learning strategiesAs there are varies ways of defining strategies, there are also different ways of categorizing strategies. Different researchers offered different categories because using different standard.1.2.1 Rubin’s framework(1981):Language learning strategiesDirect language Indirect language1.2.2Naimen’s classification:An active task approachLearning Realization of language as a systemstrategies Realization of language as a means of communicationand interactionManagement of affective demandsMonitoring of L2 performance1.2.3Bialystok identified four strategies as:Learning strategiesInferecing monitoring formal practicing functional practicing1.2.4O’Mally and Chamot’s framework:Three major types of strategies are distinguished. They are matecognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social/affective strategy.Matecognitive strategies: Advance Organizers, Direct Attention, Selected Attention, Self-Management, Functional-planning, Self-Monitoring, Delayed Production, Self-Evaluation.Cognitive strategies: Reputation, Resourcing, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking, Deduction, Recombination, Imagery, Auditory Representation, Keyword, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, InferencingSocial/Affective strategies: Cooperation, Question for clarification1.2.5Oxford contributes a great deal of learning strategies, perhaps themost comprehensive classification of learning strategies to datewas provided by Oxford. The following is her framework:Learning strategiesDirect strategies Indirect strategiesMemory strategies Metacognitive strategiesCognitive strategies Affective strategiesCompensation strategies Social strategies1.2.6 David Nunan developed the following typology of stategies:Learning strategiesCognitive Interpersonal Linguistic Affective Creative Classifying Cooperating Conversational patterns Personalizing Brainstrming Predicting Role-Playing Practicing Self-EvaluatingIndicating Using context ReflectingTaking Notes SummarizingConcept Mapping Selective ListeningInferencing SkimmingDiscriminatingDiagramming1.3 Previous studies about learning strategiesResearch on language learning strategies started at the 1970s. For the most part, the progress in cognitive psychology had a great effect on the research studies on language learning strategies. In most of the research studies done on language learning strategies, identifying what good learners do to learn a second or foreign language has been the main issue. In 1971 Rubin conducted a study in which the main focus was on the strategies of successful language learners. In her study she argues that, once identified, such strategies could be offered to less successful learners.In 1980 Cohen and Aphek looked at the effect of strategy training on vocabulary acquisition. They found that certain techniques, such as the paired associates techniques, did successful in language learning. At about the same time, Carroll(1981) looked at inductive learning. In this study, it was found that the ability to study samples of language and induct the rules governing that particular aspect of language was an aspect of language aptitude. O'Malley et al. set out to identify the type, range and frequency of the learning strategies used by 70 ESL students at beginning and intermedíate levéis in three high schools in Northern Virginia. The results obtained also indicated that the number of strategies used by the learners correlated with the degree of difficulty of the learning task and, on the whole, students tended to use more cognitive than metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, it was also found that teachers in general were not very aware of their students' strategy use.By means of a questionnaire, Bialystok surveyed the strategies used by high school students in their learning of French. The data collected showed as before that the use of strategies was governed by the nature of the task, and it also seemed to be directly related to the learners' attitude and not to language learning aptitude. Ramírez also administered questionnaires to adolescents who were studying French in several New York schools. The information collected revealed that years of language study was an important variable affecting the use of learning strategies.The results of previous research studies have demonstrated that many factors affect the choice learning strategies. Those factors might include degree of awareness,age, sex, nationality, learning style, personality traits, motivation, learning context, and language proficiency (Zare& Nooreen, 2011; Khamkhien, 2010; Rahimi, et al. 2008; Chamot, 2004; Griffiths, 2003; Hong-Nam and Leavell, 2007; Green and Oxford, 1995; Ehrman and Oxford, 1989).A Study of Language Learning Strategies Used by College EFL Learners in Taiwan shows that (1) There was not a great difference among the frequency of each strategy that Taiwanese college EFL learners report using, all in medium-use level. (2) Statistically significant differences were found in the use of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social strategies and overall strategies with regard to gender.(3) Statistically significant differences were found in the use of six subcategories of language learning strategies and overall strategies with regard to major. In the end of this study, the pedagogical implications were provided.The findings of research studies in the area of language learning strategies provide a greater understanding of strategy use among EFL/ESL learners and support language instructors and curriculum developers to improve their approaches toward teaching and learning goals. These findings also strengthen the fact that strategy use is a complex phenomenon that interacts with a number of variables. These variables have influences on the use of overall strategies, strategy categories, and individual strategies in different ways. So, as an interactive language teacher is to equip your students with a sense of what successful language learners do to achieve success and to aid them in developing their own unique individual pathways to success. (Brown).。