耶鲁大学开放课程字幕14. Species and Speciation.SMI
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.05.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
因为自由意志的内涵就是
Because the notion of free will was that
即使我再次处在相同的地点
even if I was in the very same spot again,
尽管决定论这个词有些术语化
determinism being a bit of philosopher's jargon
如果我们以某种方式
for when it's true of these laws that
设定了一个物体或者一个系统
or a physical--or a system--
阐述这个论证
goes like this,
这是就我们在上节课结束时讲到的内容
and this is where we were at the end of last time.
以上的观点是
The thought is that,
自由和被决定
there's a kind of incompatibility
所以 我们得到一个结论
So--a conclusion--
我们不是纯粹的物理系统
We are not a purely physical system.
要解释我们有自由意志这一事实
To explain the fact that we've got free will,
反驳者会说
so the objection goes,
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.10.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
to continue to exist?
当然 我们更会这样问
Now, of course, we're going to ask most particularly,
这样一个东西如果肉体不死的话
what would it be for a thing like that
会是什么样呢
它可以做某些特殊事情
a body that can do certain special tricks,
并按特定的方式运作
a body that can function in certain ways
如此这般 我们就将其称之为人
that we associate with being a person,
是完完全全同一个吗
who is standing in front of you lecturing to you now?
现在这个人能活过这周末吗
Will that person survive the weekend?
我当然希望活过这周末
I certainly expect to survive the weekend.
幸存一段时间 对我来说意味着什么
what is it for me to survive, period?
举个大家都熟悉的例子
Take the more familiar hum-drum case.
今天我站在这里给你们讲课
Here I am lecturing to you today,
so there's no good reason
可以证明这一额外实体的存在
耶鲁大学开放课程2
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2
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我们要讨论的第一个问题是
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个人同一性
58
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如果想深入了解这个话题
59
00:02:27,540 --> 00:02:30,130
就必须弄清楚这两个问题
60
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我们得知道"我"是如何形成的
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那么首先我们
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需要花一点时间
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搞清楚人是什么
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我能幸免于死吗
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我们能幸免于死吗
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首先
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耶鲁大学开放课程
耶鲁大学开放课程1。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：聆听音乐》(Open Yale course：Listening to Music)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832525/2。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：基础物理》(Open Yale course：Fundamentals ofPhysics)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834907/3。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：生物医学工程探索》(Open Yale course：Frontiers of Biomedical Engineering) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834278/4。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1871年后的法国》(Open Yale course：France Since 1871) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2835256/5。
《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2824902/6。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：金融市场》(Open Yale course：Financial Markets)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2830134/7。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论》(Open Yale course：Introduction to Psychology) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2827597/8。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：博弈论》(Open Yale course：Game Theory)[YYeTs人人影视出品] [中英双语字幕]/topics/2832107/9。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1648-1945年的欧洲文明》(Open Yale course：European Civiliza tion,1648-1945) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832611/10。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：罗马建筑 第-讲 Open Yale course：Roman Architecture》英中字幕
that I want you to keep in mind, as we look at this city.
One,that although most of the city of Pompeii has been excavated,
目录
第6讲2
第7讲45
第8讲86
第9讲122
第10讲162
第
Prof: Good morning.
As you can see from the title of today's lecture,
"Habitats at Herculaneum and Early Roman Interior Decoration,"
We see it on the map here.
Pompeii is down inthis location.
Herculaneum is to the northeast of Pompeii,closer to Naplesthan Pompeii is, as you can see.
And note also the city of Boscoreale,Boscoreale,which is located between,
With regard to the history of Herculaneum,it is very similarto the history of Pompeii.
00:04:37,350 --> 00:04:43,950Here's another view where you can also see some of the remainsof the ancient city, of these residences and so on,
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡01
我的意思是指某些非物质的东西\I'm going to mean something immaterial,
某些区别于我们身体的东西\something distinct from our bodies.
我们有非物质的灵魂吗\Do we have immaterial souls,
会有东西能够从身体的死亡中幸存吗\something that might survive the death of our body?
如果没有 那么死亡的本质意味着什么\And if not, what does that imply about the nature of death?
我们要讨论的是当我们思考\Well, the things we'll talk about are philosophical questions
死亡本质或诸如此类的问题时 所产生的\that arise as we begin to think about the nature of death,
..,我们不会谈论那些\about the things we won't be talking about
你们可能强烈希望在\that you might reasonably expect or hope
死亡课程上听到的东西\that a class on death would talk about,
其他死亡课上听不到的\could cover that we won't talk about.
(完整word版)耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文字幕10
在这门课刚开始的时候We began the course我们讨论过一个现代心理学的基本观点by talking about one of the foundational ideas of modern psychology。
弗兰西斯·克里克称之为This is what Francis Crick described as”惊人的假说””The Astonishing Hypothesis,”我们的心理活动 the idea that our mental life，我们的意识我们的道德观念our consciousness， our morality，我们做出决定和判断的能力our capacity to make decisions and judgments皆由一个物质的生理大脑所产生is the product of a material physical brain。
今天我想讲的What I want to talk about today and introduce it,将会是and it's going to be a theme贯穿我们接下来课程的一个主题that we’re going to continue throughout the rest of the course,也是第二个同样惊人的观点is a second idea which I think is equally shocking，甚至可能更惊人perhaps more shocking.这个观点和我们的心理活动的来源有关And this has to do with where mental life comes from，重点不在于它的物质性not necessary its material nature，而在于它的起源but rather its origin.这又一"惊人的假说”And the notion, this other "astonishing hypothesis，”被哲学家丹尼尔·丹尼特称之为is what the philosopher Daniel Dennett has described达尔文的危险思想as Darwin's dangerous idea.这个观点解释了现代生物学中And this is the modern biological account生物现象的起源of the origin of biological phenomena包括心理现象including psychological phenomena。
耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文字幕09
耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文字幕09篇一：中文心理学导论09耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论09进化、情感和理性：爱很高兴为大家介绍。
心理学导论课程的首位客座讲师。
彼得·萨洛维院长。
彼得是我的一位老朋友，老同事。
在座许多人，我想应该是在座所有人。
都知道他是耶鲁学院的院长。
在介绍中我想提一下。
关于他的另外两件事。
首先，无论是做院长之前，。
还是当了院长之后。
他一直是个活跃的科学家。
尤其是作为一位社会心理学家。
他积极地参与对健康心理学的研究。
以及对如何适当运用心理学方法。
来确定健康信息。
他还创立并发展了。
情商这一概念。
他对情商进行了大量研究。
其次，彼得一直以来都是耶鲁学院的。
一位活跃的非常知名的教师。
他曾讲授过耶鲁学院有史以来。
人数最多的课程。
一门关于法律中心理学的课程。
这门课打破了这里的所有记录。
他可以说是一位前无古人后无来者的。
具有传奇色彩的心理学导论老师。
说他是传奇人物是有一定道理的，。
今天就欢迎他来为我们讲述爱情。
非常感谢。
好了吗?。
好的，。
非常感谢，布罗姆教授。
很高兴今天能来这里给大家做讲座。
今天是情人节，我们的主题是"爱"。
我的主要研究领域是人类情感。
爱是一种情感，。
但我并不是针对个人进行研究。
至少不是在实验室里进行研究，。
不过聊起来很有意思。
这个主题也适用于理解。
许多社会心理学现象。
能来这里进行客座演讲也很棒。
自从当了院长，我很怀念的一件事。
就是讲授心理学一一零课程。
尽管我喜欢当院长。
但我真的很怀念讲授心理学导论课的日子。
怀念让人们接触到。
他们从未听过的观点时的那种感觉。
我估计这场讲座中要谈到的一些观点。
你们可能从未听说过，。
而由于种种原因，。
大家在今天的讲座中要注意几点。
今天我谈到的一些实验。
现在已经不能再进行了。
这些实验在伦理上被认为是不可接受的。
但在五六十年代及七十年代早期都有进行。
因为当时伦理标准不同，。
因此我们可以讲授那些实验。
但我无法让你们像。
当时那些大学生一样。
(完整word版)耶鲁大学公开课博弈论原版资料
Syllabusby (course_default) — last modified 10—14-2008 04：00 PMDocument Actions•This course is an introduction to game theory and strategic thinking. Ideas such as dominance， backward induction， Nash equilibrium, evolutionary stability，commitment， credibility, asymmetric information， adverse selection, and signaling are discussed and applied to games played in class and to examples drawn from economics，politics, the movies, and elsewhere.ECON 159: Game Theory （Fall， 2007）SyllabusProfessor:Ben Polak, Professor of Economics and Management， Yale UniversityDescription：This course is an introduction to game theory and strategic thinking. Ideas such as dominance， backward induction， Nash equilibrium, evolutionary stability, commitment，credibility， asymmetric information, adverse selection， and signaling are discussed and applied to games played in class and to examples drawn from economics, politics, the movies， and elsewhere.Texts：A。
耶鲁大学开放课程公开课Open Yale course 25科目目录(附高清中英字幕视频截图)麻省理工哈佛牛津斯坦福大学
耶鲁大学： 聆听音乐 麻省理工开：音乐的各种声音
心里学课程：
哈佛大学：幸福 耶鲁大学：心理学导论 耶鲁大学：有关食物的心理学、生物学和政
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耶鲁大学：旧约全书导论 耶鲁大学：1945 年后的美国小说 耶鲁大学：现代诗歌 哈佛大学：公正 麻省理工：西方世界的爱情哲学
社会类课程：
普林斯顿大学：人性 普林斯顿大学: 能源和环境 斯坦福大学 ：7 个颠覆你思想的演讲
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Lecture+3耶鲁大学开放课程《聆听音乐》讲稿+
Professor Craig Wright: Okay, ladies and gentlemen. Good morning. I think things are going to work better today. I'm optimistic about the audio equipment and about our slide material and things such as that. All cell phones off and we will begin. Don't forget sections start tonight at seven o'clock and there's another set at eight o'clock and then Friday afternoon at one thirty and Monday morning. We've got that all online for you. And you do your work product and you bring it to sections and hand it in to your TA in section each time. So that's the way this works. I'll be sending you a global e-mail bringing you up to date with some other things later on this afternoon. Okay. So today we--Actually, before I get to that, any questions from you?Student: Yeah. Is there stuff to do--Professor Craig Wright: Is there stuff to do for section tonight? Yes, but only the stuff that was assigned, the Listening Exercises that are assigned early on. It's just one, nine through 11, which you've probably had done for days now so you just bring that material and hand it in. Others will be assigned tonight. This is shopping period. We're started sifting through things and then we'll get rolling. Gentleman.Today we're going to come to what I would call the nitty-gritty of the course. We no longer have any introductory material but we're going to jump into musical notation and we're going to be dealing with things such as half notes, quarter notes, things like that, but before we do this I'd like to say a couple of words about musical notation because it affects how we deal with music, how we treat music.Musical notation is a particularly Western phenomenon, and when you stop and think about it only we in the West, and by West what I mean is the United States and Canada and Western Europe and Russia, parts of South America, only we use musical notation and we use it principally for our high art music. That's not to say that the Chinese don't have an esoteric form of musical notation, that the Indians do not have an esoteric form of musical notation. They do, but it doesn't intersect quite as intensely as musical notation does in Western cultures. Most cultures around the world, if you stop and think about it, don't use musical notation. But we do here with our art music and that has two advantages.Let's talk about the advantages first. One, it allows the composer to specify rather precisely what he or she wants, to sort of write things out in the form of musical details, so as the result the creator in this Western art form takes on greater importance than the creator in other cultures where the composer so to speak is more or less anonymous and perhaps synonymous with the group as a whole.So again the process of notation allows the composer to loom larger. And secondly there's another advantage of notation. It allows us to preserve the work of art. We can kind of freeze dry this thing and store it and then bring it back to life more or less exactly as the composer had intended. But this, if you stop and think about it, takes the traditional balance of things and throws it out of proportion.In our art music, our symphonies, concertos, genres of this sort, the performer is actually much less important. Let's think of this as architect and carpenter. The great architect, the thinker, is the composer and the performer, the violinist, gets this piece of--gets this blueprint or black print in the case of musical notation and is expected simply to replicate the black print. Well, that's very different than what happens in other kinds of music.Let's talk about pop music for a second: jazz, rock, hip-hop, blues, that kind of thing. You go over to Toad's Place and you see the band come out and the first thing they do is plunk this in front of them? No. That'd be ridiculous. How many of you--I was walking with a student over to my office after lecture the other day to get some material to him. How many of you play in a rock band or have ever played in a rock band? Okay, a number of you. Young lady out there, did you use musical notation? No. That would be kind of silly. Right? It's--Okay. So how is it done? Well, it's all done aurally and we'll talk a little bit more about that as we go along.So the composer in the West is very important, more important than the composer in other cultures. Other cultures don't use this type of prescriptive notation.Here's a thought for you. Musical notation was the first graph in Western culture. "How could that be?" you'd say. How could that be? Well, if you go back to the formation of musical notation from the ninth through the twelfth centuries, we see that very early on these two dimensions of music, the two axes of music that we talked about before, pitch vertically and duration horizontally, are in place and we have these spots in this grid. So musical notation: the first grid pattern in Western culture--but it does lock us in in interesting ways that we may--you perhaps have never considered--compared to how music is made in other cultures.Let's see how some music is made in other cultures. We're going to play here now as our first excerpt an Adhan, and what this is is the Islamic call to worship which is sung across the world thousands of times every day, and as we listen to this I want you to think about the vocal production here. What's interesting are all of the vocal nuances, so let's listen to just a bit of this please. [music playing] Okay. Let's stop there. Fascinating. What a wonderful sound, but the beauty of it is all between what we would call the notes. We would specify a precise frequency here, another one up here, but what that gentleman was singing was all the stuff in between. That made it very beautiful, and there's no way in God's earth that we could replicate that to the Western system of musical notation.Let's take another example. We're going to go to the realm of Western jazz here and I'm going to pick on Chuck Mangione. Anybody ever heard of Chuck Mangione? Yeah. Okay. Brian, our tech guy, has. He's an older fellow. He's sort of my age, and the reason I mention Chuck Mangione is that years ago I went to school with him. He was a couple of classes ahead of me at the Eastman School of Music. I was a fledgling pianist. He was a very good trumpeter. Indeed, he was winning Grammys when he was in his twenties and has been recording sort of esoteric jazz and sometimes more pop jazz thereafter. Now you can go to a Mangione concert. He will sometimes play the Shubert Theater there and they'll have two hours of spectacular jazz, but what you won't see, again, is any sort of music in front of them. So how do these musicians generate two hours of music with no music in front of them? Does this mean he doesn't read music? Of course not. You can't get through these conservatories like Eastman or Juilliard or Curtis without being introduced to an intense regimen of musical notation, but it would get in the way of the music.So let's listen to a track here, a sax solo, and I am going to try to keep--make some sense out of this--because it gets more and more complex--by following the electric bass underneath so let's listen to an old tape. I used to go to bars in Rochester and listen to this guy and tape his stuff. So here's Chuck Mangione with his saxophonist and a saxophone cadenza. It's a wild riff for saxophone. [music playing]That's probably enough. It gives you an idea. Now how in the world would you ever notate that? To produce this as a pre-scripted document that anybody else could follow? It was all improvisatory. If they tried to notate it, again, it would take all the spirit out, all the heart out of the music. Well, how do they do that? How do these performers play such long spans of music without any notation? Is it all memorized? Well, it's not memorized as we think of it, and you may have had music lessons along the way and your teacher and your mother said, "Go memorize your piece." It's not memorized like that.There are certain basic patterns that they have. They might say for that sort of music:, "All right. We're now going to have a thirty-two-bar solo. We'll be in the key of E-flat. We're going to work through a one, six, four, five, one chord progression as--We'll come back to that. We'll sit on the dominant chord for eight beats and I (Chuck) will look over and everybody else will come back in at the end of Chris's solo." It would be that kind of thing, kind of head charts, general plans, and within that general plan a lot of freedom of expression.So having said that about musical notation--something about a cautionary tale about musical notation-- we should think about how it affects the way we compose music in the West and how we perform music in the West. When you go to a concert of classical music and the music is played and you start to talk, what happens? Somebody will go, "Shh." Right? We go to these concerts and we have to be so quiet. Why do we have to be quiet? That doesn't sound like much fun. Why do we have to be so quiet? It's because we have these performers up there that are reading this blueprint and everyone is listening, basically, to see how accurately they can reproduce, revivify, this artistic artifact. So that's sort of what's going on, but it really does affect how we behave, even, in a concert.Now if you go to concerts of other cultures and they are engaged in their own classical, not just popular, but classical music, Indonesian gamelan music for example, the audience will be there swaying back and forth, clapping, applauding with the performance with particularly good solo, the same thing with Indian sitar music, that classical tradition. Oddly, it's much more like going to a jazz concert where the audience is sitting maybe around tables or something like that and encouraging and interacting with the performers, but again in those cultures no notation.[In Western art music], everybody sits there sort of mummified, waiting for this great work of art to come back to life. It's an interesting thing. And isn't it typical of us in the West to take something, music, which is expression and feeling and motion and movement, a response to sound, and turn it into complex patterns, complex patterns that can be visualized and rearranged and analyzed, and nowadays even digitalized. What we've done is take this spontaneous response to the creation of sound, and bodily movement with sound and replaced it. We've replaced the ear and the heart, the ear and the body, with the eye and the mind. Ours a much more visual--it's a much more analytical--type of approach to music and it has its pros and cons. We get great Mahler symphonies yet we have everybody sitting there rock-still at these concerts.Okay. Having said that and pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of notation, let's plunge in then to a discussion of it. I've put on the board up here the following and we're going to review this. It's simply material found on page fifteen of your textbook but let's review it. We say this is a beginning course so we assume no previous knowledge. If you've read through that material, and you should have read through it by now, you know that we have a value in music. It's called the whole note. Whatthe whole note is, what all these symbols are, are simply representations of duration so we have a symbolic language here that's going to represent the horizontal axis, the axis of duration. And this whole note obviously can be subdivided into two half notes and each of the half notes into two quarter notes, each of these quarter notes into two eighth notes, and so on. So these are symbols telling us how long a particular frequency is to endure.Similarly, just as we have symbols for the presence of sound and its length, we have symbols that represent the absence of sound. We call those of course, what? Rests. Okay. So we're resting over here. We're not making any music. So we have the notes and their values and the rests. Notice that they're all pretty much duple in their divisions. Now here's a question for you--all duple divisions. How do we make--How do we get triple arrangements in music? How do we do that? Well, we take our basic note and what do we do to it? I bet--I'm sure some of you know this. How can we get a half note that actually equals now three quarter notes? What do we do? Gentleman here. Add a dot. What does that do to this value specifically in terms of ratios? It adds--Okay. It adds fifty percent or a half to that and that means instead of two quarter notes that we now have three, and we can do the same thing to any one of these other values here, and that's how we get our triple relationships. Okay? So those are the basic note values normally with a duple division but we can superimpose triple by using a dot and the absence of sound.Now let's talk for a moment about the idea of pulse in music and the beat in the music and rhythms in music. We all know that there is this thing in music called "beat" and to the extent that popular music is more interesting and that you--everybody likes it and will go dance to it is because it's really foregrounding beat and rhythm in an important way that classical music does not. So I've put this idea of the beat up on the board here. It's really just a pulse. It's very much like the human pulse. This is the pulse of music, and music theorists ever since the late fifteenth century from music theory Francinus Gafurius on--we could go all the way back then--have said that the pulse in music is basically at the same tempo as the human pulse, which comes out to be about oh, we'll say seventy-two beats if you will, pulses, per minute.So we have this pulse, and it's just kind of out there streaming, beat, [sings], but we don't like undifferentiated, disorganized material in the West. Our psyche says we've got to bring rational organization to this. Ever think about this? Why do we have this periodicity when you take history courses? Why do we have the Renaissance, the baroque period, the classical period, the romantic period and so on? We have it in music. We have it in history. We have it in the fine arts. Why do we have it? It's simply a convention established after the fact that allows us to organize material in ways that we can grapple with it, ways that we can understand it.So in music what has happened is that we have organized this steady stream of beats in ways that we can understand. We organize them. We subdivide these into units of two, for example, groups of two like this, or we have an undifferentiated stream like this. I am convinced--even though I'm sure that the Toyota Motor Company didn't organize it this way--I am convinced that on my automobile when I do not plug in my safety belt that there is a bell ringing, "DING, ding, ding, DING, ding, ding." I don't think they were thinking of that in terms of triple meter. I think they were just a succession of dings, but I'm hearing it--my mind wants to hear this organization, so there's another organization here of units of three. As you may know, there's yet another organization where we could group this in units of four, but for allintents and purposes--there are a few nuances to it--four is simply a multiplication of two. So in our course we are only going to have two types of meter, duple and triple.These organizations, taking the beat and organizing it into groups, is called superimposing meter on the music. Then we want to indicate that meter to the performer. It's a way to tell the performer how this music is to be executed. So what do we do? Well, in music the most basic symbol for the beat is the quarter note. The quarter note usually carries the beat. Okay. So here we have a series of groups of two quarter notes. We have the convention of music of writing this symbol indicating the beat-carrying unit of four so I'm writing a four underneath each of these. Then I look up here and say, "Well, in this duple pattern I have two of these quarter notes." So I'm going to write a two out there. That (4) tells a performer that the quarter note is carrying the beat. And the 2 says that there'll be two in each of your units. These units we call bars or measures, and just to finish this off down here, we would have three quarter notes, of course, in this particular arrangement.Okay. Now ultimately what happens with this is that we begin to take this stream and organize it into different patterns. I can go [sings], something like this, and we would call that a rhythm, superimposing longs and shorts, different patterns, patterns that oftentimes repeat. The dividing up of this stream into different patterns, often repeating, of longs and short, is superimposing rhythm over top of this basic beat which is organized in terms of these meters.So are there questions about that? Did that seem straightforward enough? Now as you may know--some of you may have played clarinet in a high school band or something like that, neither here nor there if you did or did not--but you may know that there are other meters out there, these things called six-eight (and nine-eight). I was thinking this morning [sings] four, five, six, one, two, three, four, five, six, one, two. Well, that's a beat of basically a duple meter with a triple subdivision, but we're not getting into triple subdivisions here. In our course the beat is always going to be a--divided, to the extent that it's divided--always going to be divided into two. We have only so-called simple meters rather than compound meters. If you want to learn about compound meters, go take music 210 and become a music major. That's the kind of thing that they get into but we're not doing that here. We're interested only really in two things: One, can you differentiate between duple and triple meter; and two, can you recognize some very basic rhythmic patterns? And we'll be doing some of that today.Questions again? Okay. Let me play some music at the piano. This is Bulldog. Isn't this the Yale fight song? Who wrote this? Anybody know? You've probably heard it eight zillion times at football games. It's great--What a wonderful fight song--Yale was so lucky to have this as. So yes, I think I hear somebody out there.Student: Cole Porter.Professor Craig Wright: Cole Porter. Who was Cole Porter, as I glance through my music here? Oh, phooey. I've lost it. Who was Cole Porter? He was a Yale graduate, class of 1914, and unfortunately I seem to have misplaced--Well, I can generate a little bit of it here. [plays piano] Okay. I was sort of trying to remember the first page of the missing music there. So is this in duple meter or triple meter? [plays piano] Huh? What do you think and how do we find out? Tap your foot. Did we find any music? [plays piano] Ah, thank you. Enlightenment from Lynda. [plays piano] What-- What's the key here? Whatdo you listen to? How many think it's in duple meter? Raise your hand. How many think it's in triple meter? Okay. Almost everybody thinks it's in duple meter and that's correct.Now we worked through this just a little bit once before. What is it that tells us that it's in duple meter? It's the bass [plays piano] because it's organizing itself very strongly in duple patterns. There's one other interesting thing in here. This would be? Well, let's think through this in one additional way, and that is--notice that in duple meter we have a strong beat, right, "strong, weak, strong, weak, strong, weak, strong weak" in that sense or if we have triple it would be "strong, weak, weak, strong, weak, weak." There would be two weak beats or two unstressed beats between each strong beat. We could do this [plays piano] and we'd have the "Waltz of the Bulldog." It'd be pretty cool [laughter] to see actually.So there it's--I'm simply taking the Cole Porter piece and throwing in an extra beat in each measure, an unstressed beat in each measure, and it works out pretty well. Notice--this would be--Harvard would have had a field day with this melody if he--Cole Porter--had not done one thing. He makes this really rather snappy by the use of this kind of stuff. [plays piano] We'll come in on [sings] and then it's [sings]. What's that a good example of? Syncopation, yeah. The term is on the board, and it's a good example of syncopation, sort of jumping in ahead of time, cutting off the beat, getting in there ahead of time and throwing off the metrical balance for a very short period of time.Okay. So that's a duple meter piece and what we're trying to do here is just hear if we've got one strong and one weak beat or one strong and two weak beats. How do we--How should we do this? How are you going to do this? Well, I think one thing that's very helpful is for you to start to move, to move around, to sway, tap your foot. Now we can't do this during a test in here. It'd be a little bit annoying but we really have--we really do have to do this. Now musicians, being a bit more uptight oftentimes, classical musicians, than other more spirited folks, have developed this tradition of using conducting patterns. Right? So for duple meter we just go down, up, down, up. It's kind of--maybe a little shape over to the right, down, up, down, up, that kind of thing, and for triple we do down, over, up, down, over, up, down, over, up. Okay? So I'm going to start playing here and you are going to start conducting. You're going to listen just for a second and then you're going to move and you're going to move using the conducting pattern. [plays piano]Okay. Good. Now I see some of you out there from--like this, not really participating, and if I can get up here--Think about this. I'm old. I'm sort of used to thinking of myself a "White Anglo-Saxon Protestant." I have every reason in the world to be repressed. Right? [laughter] I could-- [laughs] This--So if I could be up here making a fool of myself on a daily basis, you guys are much younger than I and known for outrageous behaviors. You can certainly get in here and move and flow and go with the beat here. So here we go. Everybody together. [plays piano] Much better. Okay. I'm watching-- Good. Virtually everyone has got the downbeat here. You're not going [sings]. You're going[sings], so there is a sense of downbeat and we'll come back to that in just a moment.Let's do a triple meter one. Here we go. [plays piano] Good. Excellent. Very good. Now I'm going to modulate, [plays piano] go to a different key. [plays piano] Can you conduct this? Okay. There's a little confusion here so let's try to do it together. Are you ready? [sings] Okay. Now this gentleman out here is actually doing it different from what I am doing and what most of you are doing, but you know what? He's doing it correctly. We're doing it incorrectly. [sings] What's wrong here? We're off because ourdownbeats, our strong pulses, always have to come on the first part of the bar, this note. The first part of the bar is called the downbeat. It's the most important thing and our conducting pattern always has to have the downbeat of the hand in sync with the strongest impulse in the music, the strong. The downbeat in the music comes with the down motion of the hand. So we were getting [sings]. Oh, there's the downbeat, [sings] but we were putting that on two, [sings], and we don't want that. We want [sings] at that point.So what do we have here? What's happening? Well, there's a little bit of music before the downbeat. That's called a pick-up. Okay? So we have a little pick-up, [sings]. I was thinking of a diver in the Olympics. They go out there--They do these little steps just before they spring off of the board, [sings], kind of gets you, really landing good and hard on that downbeat, so the downbeat is very important to us and we could conclude this by saying that although all music has a downbeat, not all music starts with a downbeat. Sometimes when listening to music you have to wait. Listen for a while and your body almost will start to tell you, start to signal to you, where the downbeat is. Is it really your body that will signal this to you? I doubt it. It's your brain up here processing all of this information. We talked about the auditory cortex the first section and maybe there are other parts of the brain that are factoring in here as well, but how is it that composers send this information to, let's say, our auditory cortex here?How do they do that? Well, there are four principal ways that composers signal to us the whereabouts of the down beat. Okay? So let's review--let's focus on that just for a moment. Okay. Way number one: That has to do with duration. Notes are simply longer, held longer. That's how we have the sense of where the down beat is. [plays piano] You have old Amazin' Grace--I guess it's a spiritual, right? Beautiful. It's beautiful. But think about that. [sings] [plays piano] And all of those long notes are coming on the downbeat so that's how we start to hear that as a downbeat, and that's how we know to make our hand go down at that point so that's one way.Now another way is through accent, and to exemplify this let's turn to some classical music, the music of Mozart, so here we have Mozart's Fortieth Symphony, his famous G Minor Symphony, and we're going to go ahead and start to play it. [music playing] Okay. Good. Several of you were actually conducting this. That's great. Okay. This happens to be in duple meter and that's fine. That wasn't the question here but great, you're hearing that and I'm delighted.What Mozart has done here--If we could get the score up here of Mozart's music--we would see that he has put a little arrow over top of--a wedge--over top of each of the down beats [plays piano] so that the string player will really accent those, but the string player would be accenting them anyway. Why? Any violinists in here or anybody who ever played a string instrument? What are you always told to do? If you are playing a downbeat with an up-bow, are you in good shape? No, no, no, no. Your teacher would not be happy with that. Your bowing pattern is probably backward at that point. String players are taught, whether it's cellists going this way, downbeat, or violas and violinists coming down this way, that the downward motion of the hand or the pull across, the strong pull across, should come with the downbeat; that emphasizes the downbeat. That's how we know the downbeat. So so far we've had duration and accent. Mozart is actually writing accent into this.The third way that we--that composers signal to us, that we pick up almost intuitively the whereabouts of downbeats, is through patterns of accompaniment. We'll call it range.Okay. So here's a waltz by Richard Strauss, not to be confused--no, excuse me, by Johann Strauss, not to be confused with Richard Strauss whom we heard last time. [plays piano] And so on. What's important here is the left hand. [plays piano] That's why we hear a triple pattern here. We're hearing two weak beats, and the strong beat is always in the lower position here so we're getting low, middle, middle, [plays piano] low, middle, middle, or it could be something as we had the other day in the Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto, [plays piano] low, middle, high, low, middle, high, but each time the downbeat seems to be coming in association with that lowest note. So range or position here in the accompaniment can oftentimes signal this information to us.And finally, and most important-- these others have been pretty straightforward--but what has not been straightforward is something that you might listen to many, many times and not be aware of, and that is chord changes. We have chords in music. [plays piano] They're these building blocks that support the melody and they have to change for that melody to be consonant all the time. But where they change oftentimes is on the downbeat. Most frequently, chord changes come on the downbeat so composers signal to us in a fourth way the downbeat by means of chord change.Now we're going to play just a little bit of pop music--a bit of pop music here, and by playing this you might think that I think that I'm hip or with it. We're going to play some rock and roll. Do I look hip or with it? Hopelessly out of touch with popular culture and nobody knows this better than I, and to prove this I have chosen a piece because there's a little story with it. I like this piece because it does something and I've used it in previous years, and I put it on and I would announce, "I'm now going to play out of the--It's an album called Document by REM [pronounces "rem"]," and put it on and REM ["rem"] and it's fine with me. That's what it says, "REM," ["re,"]on the printout, and about two years after I was doing this a student came up and said, "Professor Wright, it's really not "Rem."" Oh, it's not?" Okay. So that's how distant I am from all of this, but let's listen to a little of this.It's in a straightforward four. Rock really comes forth not so much in twos but in fours so we'll call this a 4/4, and you can beat a four pattern to it or you can beat a two pattern. It doesn't really matter but notice that whenever the chords are changing they're changing on down beat. So let's hear a little bit of this and then we'll stop so they don't sue us for copyright infringement and then we'll go somewhere else and take another chunk. [music playing]Okay. So that's all they're doing there. Every time they're changing your hand is going down, so chord changes may be the most powerful of all of these aspects of where the down beat is.Okay. I had intended to give you just a little bit of a rhythmic quiz but let's just do one of these things. Here's something else we have to do in here. We have to hear a rhythm and recognize it so we have a series of rhythms on the board up there. Please choose a rhythm for excerpt one, you can choose rhythm A which is [sings] or you could choose rhythm B, [sings].So I'm about to play a piece. It's by Chopin. Which rhythm is in play here? Which rhythm am I playing? Is it A or is it B? [plays piano] So what do you think? How many think A? How many think B? Okay. So that's not too challenging. We'll be doing some of that. Then [plays piano] Chopin is sitting here and he modulates; he changes key. What about this? Is it--This is number two. Is it A or B? [plays piano] Lovely. Wasn't it lovely, a little thing by Chopin? How long did it take old Chopin to think that up, do you。
[耶鲁大学开放课程：欧洲文明].2.专制统治与国家-中英对照
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【耶鲁大学开放课程：欧洲文明第二集专制统治与国家】那么今天我要讲的是重申——这是门教材同步课程我将要讲的是专制统治这门课与你们所读的材料同步这门课通过强调某些内容让你们清晰地理解专制统治发展的重要性那么我上周指出的一个观点是如果你上周来了，就会知道同欧洲历史紧联的一个主题就是现代国家的建立和成熟这往往是历史学家们使用的蹩脚的表达或词汇如果你看现在欧洲国家的形态不管是相对分散集权的国家，比如英国还是相当中央集权的国家，比如我的法国现代国家的起源某种程度上一定要看这段不寻常的欧洲历史时期也就是从17世纪初到18世纪中叶那么在欧洲中世纪晚期\N有过巩固领土君主制的进程比如有西班牙，英格兰和法兰西这些是最有代表性的三个国家他们的统治者加强了对分散权力诉求者的清洗\N而巩固了他们的统治但是专制统治时期事实上始于17世纪中叶这点我们以后会再次阐述特别是当我们讲到两个最重要的国家的时候两个非专制统治时期最强大的两个国家对于英格兰来讲内战很大程度上，试图阻止英格兰君主制接纳欧洲大陆上那些出现的专制国家的特征我会在下周三再谈英格兰人或者英国人因为直到1707年才出现英国自我认同而且成为非专制国家从作为英国人和作为荷兰人的意义上甚至可以说一定与之有关因为荷兰人感受到来自那个\N自大狂的直接威胁的临近也就是路易十四，谦逊地称自己为太阳王所以1650年到1750年，正是你们所学的内容欧洲大陆最大的一些国家的统治者扩大了他们的权力【耶鲁大学开放课程：欧洲文明.2.Absolutism.and.the.State】So, what I want to do today--again,this is a parallel holding pattern lecture.I'm going to talk about absolute rule.This parallels what you're reading.It's just to make clear, with some emphasis,about the importance of the development of absolute rule.Now, one of the points I made last week,for those of you who were here, is that one of the themes thatties European history together is the growth of the modern state, of state-making.This tends to be an awkward expression or term that is used by historians.If you look at the way states are in Europe now,whether they be relatively decentralized,such as Great Britain, or extraordinarily centralized,as my France, the origins of the modern statemust, in part, be seen in this kind ofremarkable period of European history from the early seventeenth century through the middle of the eighteenth century. Now, we have a process in late Medieval Europe of the consolidation of territorial monarchies.Y ou did have monarchies like Spain, England, and France, namely. Those were the three most important ones,in which rulers consolidated to brush claimants to power aside and consolidated their rule.But the period of absolute rule really begins in themid-seventeenth century, and is to be found in thosestates that had specific kinds of social structures.This is a point we'll come back to,particularly when we're talking about the two most important states, two of the great powers of theperiod that did not have absolute rule.And which, in the case of England,the civil war was largely fought,to a great extent anyway, trying to prevent the Englishmonarchy from taking on characteristics of thoseemerging absolute states on the continent.I'll talk next Wednesday about English/British,because Britain doesn't exist until 1707,self-identity and how not being an absolute state is part ofwhat emerged in the sense of being British and being Dutch certainly, arguably even more,had to do with that because of the proximity of the directthreat to the Dutch by the megalomaniac,所以这里面有两个方面一是他们扩大了从本国人民那里榨取资源的能力二是他们增加了私有财产靠剥削小邻国或者靠联姻，或者靠跟大的对手的战争一个最有趣的例子就是三十年战争开始于这个过程之前同样也结束于这个过程之前\N或者是这个过程的初期，从1618年到1648年我还要再讲一点有人说它始于一场新教徒和天主教徒的宗教战争却归于一场两股天主教势力间的皇权斗争巩固了他们对于本国人民的权威扩展了他们的王土，比如奥地利和法兰西这是很重要的一条，因为它告诉你即将出现的最重要情景到底是什么所以当我们谈论专制统治的壮大就要谈谈法兰西，太阳王普鲁士，你会读到腓特烈大帝俄国，彼得大帝我将要用一周或两周时间讲他，时间待定还有前面提到的奥地利，还有瑞典瑞典似乎在被彼得大帝打败以后不再是高度集权的国家了，哪年来着？是1709年那么对于一个专制统治者意味着什么？意味着在原则上你的权力比任何来自下面的人的挑战都要大那些在你统治下的卑微的贱民不过我待会将讲到对这种权力有股平衡的力量从国家内部真的没有什么力量可以挑战他们所以他们把自己的君王统治变成专制基于对他们个人的忠诚而不是对国家当然，我们过几天会讲一个有趣的事情英国人的国家认同感的形成早于欧洲历史一般认为是十七世纪在英国内战胜利后的上层集团制定的这种宪法以保持议会的权力和对君主制忠诚之间的平衡所以专制统治者发挥他们的权利制定法律举着他们胖乎乎的手声明或者宣布法律来征税，和指定愿意为他们效劳的官员Louis XIV, who modestly refers to himself as the Sun King.So, between 1650 and 1750, and this is right out of whatyou're reading, the rulers of continentalEurope, of the biggest states,extended their power.And, so, there were two aspects of this.One is they extend their ability to extract resources outof their own populations; and, second,they work to increase their dynastic holdings at the expenseof their neighbors munching smaller states,or by marriages, or by wars against their big rivals.One of the most interesting examples of that is the ThirtyY ears' War, which starts before this courseand ends before this course or with the beginning of this course, 1618-1648, which I'm going to come back toa little bit in a while--they say while it begins as areligious war between Protestants and Catholics,it ends up being a dynastic struggle between two Catholicpowers consolidating their authority over their ownpeoples, and expanding their dynasticdomains, thus Austria and France.That's an important point, because it tells you whatreally is the big picture that is going to emerge.So, when we're talking about the growth of absolute rule,we're talking about France, that is, the Sun King;Prussia, particularly Frederick the Great about whom you can read; Russia, Peter the Great,about whom I will have something to say in a week ortwo, I don't know when; Austria, aforementioned; and Sweden. Sweden kind of disappears from the great power state whenthey're defeated by Peter the Great in--when is it?--1709.Now, what did it mean to be an absolute ruler?What it meant was that in principle,your power was greater than any challenge that could come from those underlings, those craven reptiles in your imagination over whom you ruled.But there's a balance to it that I'll discuss in a while.There really can't be a challenge to them from the state itself.So, they make their personal or dynastic rule absolute,based on loyalty to them as individuals and not to the state as some sort of abstraction.Of course, one of the interesting things that we'llhear about in a couple days is the fact that British national identity, which is formed precociouslyearly in European history, arguably in the seventeenthcentury and for elites perhaps even before,所以可以谈谈中世纪国家的官僚化如果你想不过当你看到官僚主义作为政府的一部分作为国家组成的一部分日益旺盛就知道这些官僚主义的生长是那些所有非常强大的专制国家的一个特征所以他们做的是…这里让我来举些例子一个专制君权不想要的事情是对他们个人统治的阻碍对他们的个人统治的阻碍会是什么呢？一是地方特权举例来说，在德国港口城镇吕贝克和汉堡等地他们形成了汉萨同盟而德意志还不是中央集权的有各种类型的邦国一些比其他的更强大可德国直到1871年才统一可想想西班牙如果你搭便车穿越西班牙\N或者穿过法国南部，或者欧洲铁路通票或许你会看到一座类似西班牙境内叫阿维拉的城镇阿维拉是欧洲具有最奇妙防御的一个地方或者如果你去法国南部的尼姆你会看到人们一直在林荫大道中骑着摩托可以跟你熬一整夜那里没有城墙了，因为国王推掉了它们所以发生过有关于地方特权的事情有地方特权的城镇它们都被腐蚀，然后事实上被强大的统治者消灭所以尼姆这个地方，拼写为N-I-M-E-S曾是新教教徒重镇他们敲掉了城墙这样尼姆的新教教徒无法对抗所向无敌的天主教君主所以，象征地方特权的城墙因为各种原因被建在城镇周围比如说瘟疫杜布罗夫尼克，我最喜欢的欧洲城市之一杜布罗夫尼克有着宏伟的城墙\N你一路上到处都可以欣赏到他们设有检疫屋接收到达此地的行者因为城墙可以阻挡瘟疫城墙可以阻挡流氓和恶人它们阻挡土匪这些人has this sort of constitutional balance between the rights of parliament, victorious in the English CivilWar, and loyalty to the monarchy.So, absolute rulers assert their right to make laws,to proclaim or to announce laws with the waive of their chubby hands, to levy taxes and to appointofficials who will carry out their will.So, it's possible to talk about the bureaucratization ofmedieval states if you want, but when you look at thelong-range growth of bureaucracies as part ofgovernment, as part of state formation,that's why the growth of these bureaucracies is one of the characteristics of these absolute states in all of these big-time powers.So, what they do is--well, let me give you a couple of examples. One thing absolute monarchs don't want is they don't want impediments to their personal rule.What was a kind of impediment to their personal rule?One would be the municipal privileges.For example, in the German port towns,Lübeck and Hamburg and the others,they formed this Hanseatic League,and Germany remains to be centralized.There are all sorts of states.Some are more powerful than others.But Germany is not unified until 1871.But if you think of Spain, if you're hitchhikingthrough Spain or something like that,or through the south of France, or Eurail passes,and if you go to a town like A vila in Spain.A vila is one of the most fantastic fortified towns in Europe.Or, if you go to Nimes in the south of France,you'll see boulevards that people race motorcycles aroundall the time and they keep you up all night.There are no walls there anymore, because the king had them knocked down.So, what happens with municipal privileges,towns that had municipal privileges,these are eroded and then virtually eliminated by powerful potentates.In the case of N?mes, N-I-M-E-S,which was largely a Protestant town,they knocked down the wall so the Protestants of Nimes couldnot defend themselves against this all-conquering Catholic monarch.So, municipal privileges--walls were put up for a variety of reasons大门夜晚会突然关闭有一个非常鲜见的暴动个案发生在1848年意大利城市城镇的人们把统治者锁在了门外\N而意大利仍然是非集权的这些具有分散权力城邦的传统思想孕育了文艺复兴意大利没有一体化，直到1860年代和1870年代间这些国王所做的是，包括国王和王后他们铲除了对他们当权的阻碍甚至谈到市民或者小资产阶级小资产阶级来自法语这个词更有文化气息，不过也有阶级气息小资产阶级或市民是生活在城镇里的人他们认为对他们征税的制度应该由本地人民来决定可是当时，强大的专制君主不想那样所以，整个进程的一部分就是消灭地方特权\N并且替换地方官员长话短说，就是任命他们的人他们，这些老大们想铲除的就是拒绝被征税的特权专制统治者的素质之一就是可以向那些欢乐或者极其悲惨的人民征税后面还会讲到更多那么就是专制统治直接侵害了普通人民的生命而不像过去只有国王，或者王后，或者王子或者大主教的权力才可以侵犯普通人的生命所以这些统治者有强制的能力召集大量的军队我以后还会讲到这个当然不是立即集合军队不会通过远程命令用火车运送，或者用直升机但是哪有麻烦他们就会到那了他们一定会到那，而且她们会强制执行君主的意愿我们可以看到统计数字表明那些军队变得多庞大我将要提出的论据再次借鉴了拉伯\N他不是唯一一个提出这个论据的但是他比大多数人更缜密around towns.Plague, for example.Dubrovnik, one of my favorite cities in Europe.Dubrovnik had these magnificent walls you could walk all the way around.They have a quarantine house where they would put people who were travelers arriving there, because walls kept out plagues. Walls keep out malfaiteurs--;evil doers.They keep out bandits and things like that.The doors literally slam shut at night.There was a case of a very minor insurrection in an obscureItalian city in 1848 where the people of the town literallylocked the ruler out of the town--and Italy remains decentralized. The tradition of these decentralized city-states thatwere the heart of the Renaissance.Italy is not unified--to the extent it has ever been unified--until the 1860s and 1970s.What these kings do, these kings and queens is theyget rid of these impediments to their authority.Even take the word burgher or bourgeois.Bourgeois is a French word.It's more of a cultural sense, but it also has a class sense.A bourgeois or a burgher was somebody who lived in a city and assumed that some of the justice that was levied against him orher would be the result of decisions taken locally.Now, big-time, powerful absolute monarchs don't want that.So, part of the whole process is the elimination of these municipal privileges and replacing municipal officials,to make a long story short, with people that they have appointed. They eliminate--the one privilege above all that the bigguys want to get rid of is the right to not be taxed.Part of being an absolute ruler is being able to levy taxesagainst those people who have the joy or the extrememisfortune of living in those domains,and more about that later.So, what happens with all this is that absolute rule impinges directly on the lives of ordinary people more thankingly, or queenly, or princely,or archbishiply power had intruded on the lives of ordinary people before that.So, these rulers have a coercive ability in creating,and I'll come back to this, large standing armies that willbe arriving not immediately, they're not arriving by trainor being helicoptered in at some distant command,but they will get there if there's trouble.They will arrive and they will get there and they will enforce专制制度或被认作在大混乱时期后试图重启公众秩序和强制性的国家权力英国内战和导致中欧四分之一的人口被消失的三十年战争待会我将给你们看那些不幸的谋杀不仅如此，同时发生的事还有中世纪时期享有特权的贵族们主张维护他们的君主，他们会说“我们同意作为专制制度的低层伙伴”“交换你作为老大和军队提供给我们的保护”“这样我们不必睡不踏实，担心谁来闯进我们的豪宅”“不就是乡巴佬们来向我们维护穷人的权利吗？”在那个各种国家都盛行暴动的年代想像一下俄国追随假沙皇去大屠杀的人们贵族们说，“好吧”“我们同意作为专制统治的低层伙伴”“把你们视为绝对王权”“来交换你们对我们的保护”于是私有军队开始消失了你们将见到的国家的军队不断壮大接着又说“你，哦老大，你会维护我们的特权”“你会封我们贵族的特权”所以这是个交易但是在专制国家，都知道谁在统治，谁维护统治所以，在专制国家大的贵族非常乐意把他们子女送到陆军和海军做将领这样他们什么都不用做或者像塔列朗那样变成大主教\N（注：塔列朗，1754~1838，法国人）进而从国家获得利润只要承认老大们，国王和皇后的专制权力就够了有个经典的例子就是，当然你们读过路易十四当路易十四还是孩子的时候\N他大概是十二、三岁，住在巴黎他住在塞纳河边的杜乐丽宫此地于1871年毁于大火发生了一起大型暴动叫“投石党运动”投石党就是在巴黎街道上用弹弓装载石头射击穿过泥泞街道的奢华车the will of the monarch.We'll see the statistics are really just fascinating abouthow big these armies become.The argument that I'm going to make,drawing upon again Rabb--he's not the only one that's madethis argument, but he's made it morethoroughly than most people--absolutism may be seenas an attempt to reassert public order and coercive stateauthority after this period of utter turmoil.The English Civil War, the Thirty Y ears' War,in which in parts of central Europe a quarter of thepopulation disappeared, were killed,murdered in ways that I will unfortunately show you in a while. More than this, what happens is that thenobles, who in all these countriesgoing back to the Medieval period,had privileges that they were asserting vis-à-vis their monarchs, they will say,"We agree to be junior partners in absolutism inexchange for the protection that you,the big guy, and your armies can provide us,so that we don't have to lie awake wondering who is coming upthe path to the big house.Is it peasants who are come and assert the rights of the poor against us?"And at a time of popular insurrections in all sorts of countries. Think of all the insurrections or all the people who followedfalse czars to utter slaughter in Russia.The nobles say, "All right.We agree to be junior partners in absolute rule in exchange for recognizing your supreme authority over us in exchangefor the protection that you will afford us."Private armies are disappearing.The armies of the state, as you will see in a while,are growing, and moreover,"you, oh big guy, you will assert our own privileges.Y ou will recognize our privileges as nobles."So, it's a tradeoff.But in absolute states, there's no doubt who rules and who helps rule.So, in absolute states big noble families are very happy tosend their offspring to become commanders in the army and navy, where they never do a damn thing,or to become big bishops like Talleyrand,and to profit from the state while recognizing that the bigguy, the king and the queen,队这是贵族针对皇权的暴动在法国中部的奥弗涅，有人起义反对那里的地主他们说，“下地狱吧，我们不会再给你钱了”当他还是个孩子，他听见人群从巴黎的皇宫外呐喊着可把他吓坏了有一次他们闯进了卧室，而他只是个小孩当后来皇家权力征服了反叛者投石党们…你们不必记住这个只不过是个鸡尾酒会时的闲谈不过下面的重要了当他大了的时候他们前来鞠躬行拜他们宣誓效忠他用以交换保护和贵族特权，被封为贵族这确实是专制统治的决定性一刻那路易十四做什么了？他出门建了凡尔赛我想他只回过巴黎三次他不喜欢巴黎凡尔赛只有18公里远大约11或12英里左右许多巴黎的女人，会在十月份走到凡尔赛要带国王回巴黎而实际上他开始惹上麻烦了，法式麻烦他建了这个大家伙，我叫他贵族主题公园本质上来讲是这样的，在凡尔赛在酒庄城堡里最有趣的还并不是这座而是沃克斯子爵酒庄城堡（V aux-le-Vicomte）位于巴黎的东南部这里的外延很大，花园到处都是一万个贵族曾居住于此多无聊！但问题的关键是在那里他们会被监视他们不会去…他们可以乱搞对方的老婆或者情妇，过着花天酒地的生活这个城堡是如此之大，以至于当天冷时贵族们想去卫生间的时候，却懒得去他们大多数尿在长廊上\N你们有些人见过那走廊葡萄酒从厨房运到宴会大厅的路上就会结冰，这很令人郁闷但是他曾在那里有一万名纨绔子弟和大小姐们have absolute authority over them.Now, the classic case, of course, Louis XIV you can read about. Louis XIV when he was a kid, he was about twelve or thirteen years old, he lived in Paris.He lived in the Tuileries palace along the Seine,which was burned in 1871 during the commune.There was a huge old insurrection called the Fronde, F-R-O-N-D-E.A fronde was a kind of a slingshot that Paris streeturchins used to shoot fancy people with rocks as they rodetheir carriages through the muddy streets of Paris.It's a noble insurrection against royal authority,and in Auvergne in central France you have people rising up against their lords saying, "Hell with you.We're not going to pay anymore."When he's a boy, he hears the crowd shoutingoutside of the royal palace in Paris.It scares the hell out of him.At one time they burst into his bedroom and he's a little guy. When royal authority conquers these rebels,the frondeurs--;you don't have to remember any of that, F-R-O-N-D-E,it's good cocktail party conversation,or something like that, but it's important--he makesthem, literally, he's a bigger guythen, they literally come and theybow down, and they swear allegiance tohim in exchange for protection and the recognition of their privileges as nobles, as titled nobles.That's really the defining moment in absolute rule.What does Louis XIV do?He goes out and builds V ersailles.He only goes back to Paris I think three times ever.He doesn't like Paris.V ersailles is only eighteen kilometers away.It's about eleven or twelve miles away.The women of Paris in October, many of them will walk toV ersailles to bring the king back to Paris.After that, he's essentially, well to put it kind of ridiculously, toast, French toast,when that happens.He builds this big--I call it a noble theme park,basically, at V ersailles.It's not the most interesting of the chateaux at all.The most interesting is V aux-le-Vicomte,which is southeast of Paris.It's a big sort of sprawling--gardens everywhere.让他来监视他们可以互相暗算\N互相挑逗对方的老婆和情人他可以诅咒他们但他把他们控制在那里他只回过巴黎三次他一直在扩张自己的个人权利直面他的臣民征服阿尔萨斯和一部分洛林地区\N并把疆域一直延伸到确定的“天然疆界”拿破仑觉得“天然疆界”是一直到太平洋不过这是另一个故事了那么，简而言之，这就是某种专制但是在我说了这么多之后\N现在让我讲两件事情曾有一些学说你可以读到这些东西…老天，这很明显但是确实曾经有些关于专制主义的学说\N起源于早先的法学家这是很过时的理论曾有一个理论概念上的方法去造就一位拥有绝对权力的国王或者女皇即便是专制统治理论的发展也是为了对领土大国的崛起做出反应，比如西班牙法国，还有后来的俄国法国就是一个很好的例子我援引一位在此进程前发牢骚家伙的话让﹒博丹（法国法学家，政治哲学家）他说，“鉴于在这个世界上除了上帝，没有什么比皇帝陛下和亲王更伟大和高贵的了”他在《共和六书》中写道“主权威严和专制权力的重点是大体上构建法律——口头法令一般都不会征得他人同意”所以，对于专制统治者，你可以读到他们和宗教的联系，总会令人感到皇帝或者女皇在按照上帝的意志行事剥削普通农民，普通民众和征服其它土地但是确实有一个理论上的体系并且它也对法国君主产生了不好的影响那么，这个专制统治者必须是一个父亲，一个慈悲的形象如我所说，在某些情况下，上一次想想有多少俄国农奴死于十九世纪九十年代\N（注：源于维特的经济改革与俄国工业化）Ten thousand nobles lived there.How boring!But the point was that they could be watched,that they're not going to--they can chase each other's wives and mistresses around, and they can eat big drunken meals.The chateau was so big that when it freezes,they were trying to get to the bathroom and most of them never made it and peed on these long corridors that some of you have seen.The wine would freeze on the way from the kitchen through--itis sad--to the big dining hall.But he has 10,000 of these dudes and dudesses there thathe's going to watch over.They can conspire against each other, and they can hit on each other's wives and mistresses.He could give one damn.But he can control them there.He only goes back to Paris three times ever.All the time he's expanding his own personal powervis-à-vis his own population,conquering Alsace and parts of Lorraine and going to these inevitable natural frontiers.Napoleon thought the natural frontier was the Pacific Ocean.That would be another story.So, this is what, in a nutshell, kind of what absolutism was.But let me say two things now, after having said that.There were doctrines.Y ou can read about this stuff--geez, it's obvious.But there were doctrines of absolutism that originated with jurists early.This was out there.There was a theoretical conceptual framework for havinga king or queen having absolute powers.Even the development of this theory of absolute rule is in response to the rise of these territorial states like Spain,and France, and Russia later.France is a good example.I quote in here a guy who croaks before this coursestarts, Jean Bodin, B-O-D-I-N.He says, "Seeing that nothing uponearth is greater or higher next unto God than the majesty ofkings and sovereign princes,"he wrote in Six Books of the Republic,"the principal point of sovereign majesty and absolutepower was to consist principally in giving laws,dictating laws, onto the subjects in general without their consent."“哦，我的上帝啊，如果沙皇知道我们快饿死了就好了”“他得对他的大臣们多生气啊”好吧，他本可以关心一下到底有几百万人死掉但这只是妄想，那个大王在那里保护你他的荣耀便是你的荣耀我们现在来看看这种概念性的体系由英格兰的托马斯·霍布斯提出的他活过了英国内战，并且认为你不该在权利事物上浪费时间你需要一个强大的君主，但是这其中有一些内在的含义尝试并且理解法国革命很重要法国大革命这其中有专制主义和独裁的区别而且即便是概念上，理论上如果一个君主倒行逆施这其中就会有一个隐藏的观点\N就是他或她或许就要完蛋了当然，你可以想想路易十六当他们把他的头发剪短送上断头台的时候那是1793年1月21日在小酒馆和咖啡厅里巴黎的酒吧里有着很多很多，很多，幸好，在1789年当普通人在为第三共和国举杯庆祝谈论独裁暴政，并寻找周围他们看到的并认为是暴政的例子那条界限已然被打破，这也解释了为什么1789年在这个国家里，竟然没有十个人希望得到共和想象没有国王的生活是可能的想象一下好吧，就是这样现在，让我们来描述一下\N哦，上帝啊我们得赶赶进度让我们来描述一下专制统治在很多国家，确实存在议会或者代表一类的角色但是注意，国王并不需要他们再次举出法国的例子，我们已经谈了很多关于路易十四，为了代表所有大区他们召开了三级会议\N（贵族，教士还有平民，大革命之前的旧制度）在亨利四世于1610还是1612年遇刺之后\N So, for absolute rulers, the link to religion you canread about, but there's always the sensethat he or she is doing God's will by exploiting ordinary peasants, ordinary people and conquering other territories.But there's a theoretical framework,and it will catch up with the French monarchs,among others, later--that the ruler must be a father, a benevolent figure.As I said, in some context last time,how many Russian peasants died in the 1890s thinking,"Oh my god, if the czar only knew thatwe're starving, how angry he would be with his officials."Well, he could have given one damn how many millions of them died.But this was the image, that the big person is there toprotect you, and that his glory is your glory.But along with this conceptual framework,provided by none other than Thomas Hobbs in England,who had lived through the English Civil War and thoughtthat you shouldn't mess around with this rights business,you need some sort of big powerful monarch there--butthere was a sense inherent in all of this.This will be important to try and understand the French Revolution, La Révolutionfran?aise, that there's a difference between absolutism and despotism.And that even conceptually, theoretically,if the monarch goes too far against the weight of the pastthat there is inherent in this the idea that he or she might well go. Of course, you can imagine the thoughts ofLouis XVI as they were cutting back his hair to await the fallof the guillotine on the 21^(st) of January, 1793.In the cabarets and the estaminets,the bars of Paris of which there are many,many, many--happily so--in 1789,when ordinary people are drinking to the Third Estate,and talking about despotism, and finding examples from whatthey saw around them as representing despotic behavior.That line had clearly been crossed and helps explain why itwas that in a country in which there weren't ten people who wanted a republic in 1789.It was possible to imagine life without a king.Imagine that.So, that's there as well.Now, let's characterize--oh, geez.we've got to move here.。
耶鲁公开课心理学导论16中英字幕
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.33,0:00:17.89, 在以后的两节课里我们将讨论有关社会心理学的内容This is going to begin a two-lecture sequence on social psychology onDialogue: 0,0:00:17.89,0:00:22.27, 有关我们如何看待自己如何看待看待他人how we think about ourselves, how we think about other people,Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.27,0:00:24.56, 如何看待其他群体的成员how we think about other groups of people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.04,0:00:29.23, 我们已经讨论过很多人类心理能力We've talked a lot about the capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:29.23,0:00:32.69, 其中一些能力包括of the human mind and some of these capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:32.69,0:00:37.43, 适应和处理物质世界的involve adapting and dealing with the material world.Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.43,0:00:42.39, 因此我们必须选择食物必须在世界中漫游So, we have to choose foods, we have to navigate around the world,Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.39,0:00:44.02, 必须识别物体we have to recognize objects,Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.02,0:00:49.32, 必须能够理解自然界的相互作用we have to be able to understand physical interactions.Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.32,0:00:51.87, 但可能我们进化成的心理But probably the most interesting aspect ofDialogue: 0,0:00:51.87,0:00:57.31, 最有趣的方面是我们能够理解他人与他人打交道our evolved minds is our capacity to understand and deal with other people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.31,0:01:03.11, 我们对他人如何工作非常感兴趣We are intensely interested in how other people work.Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.11,0:01:10.06, 二零零五年有个大新闻The story that was a dominant news story in 2005 was this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.28,0:01:14.03, 你们中的一些人那些看不到屏幕的人And some of you--this--for those of you who aren't seeing the screen,Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.03,0:01:18.26, 这是有关詹妮弗·安妮丝顿和布拉德·皮特的离婚案is the separation of Jennifer Aniston and Brad Pitt.Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.69,0:01:21.79, 我还记得我第一次听说这事是在什么地方I remember where I was when I first heard about this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.83,0:01:30.40, 这非常有趣就是记得作为心理学家And it's an interesting sight. Just remember--stepping back. As psychologistsDialogue: 0,0:01:30.40,0:01:33.59, 我们必须对肯定的事情提出疑问我们要质疑所谓的常识we have to question the natural. We have to take thingsDialogue: 0,0:01:33.59,0:01:38.58, 并研究它们刚刚发生的事情是that are commonsense and explore them. And one thing which just happens is,Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.58,0:01:40.06, 我们为这些事情所着迷we're fascinated by this stuff. Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.06,0:01:42.80, 我们对名人的生活感兴趣We're fascinated by the lives of celebrities.Dialogue: 0,0:01:42.80,0:01:45.77, 我们对他人的社会生活非常感兴趣We're fascinated by the social lives of other people.Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.77,0:01:50.50, 为什么会这样呢这是个有趣的问题And it's an interesting question to ask why.Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.34,0:01:52.86, 这是我将在之后两节课中And this is one of the questions Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.86,0:01:56.45, 会讲到的问题之一which I'm going to deal with in the next couple of lecturesDialogue: 0,0:01:56.45,0:01:59.95, 但在我开始讲社会心理学理论之前but before I get to the theory of social psychologyDialogue: 0,0:01:59.95,0:02:02.67, 我想先讨论一项个体差异I want to talk about an individual difference.Dialogue: 0,0:02:02.67,0:02:07.07, 几周前我们用了一节课的时间So, we devoted a lecture early on--of a couple of weeks ago,Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.07,0:02:12.17, 讲述人与人之间智力和人格上的个体差异to individual differences across people in intelligence and personality.Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.17,0:02:17.06, 我想讲有关人在社会属性方面的差异I want to talk a little bit about an individual difference in our social naturesDialogue: 0,0:02:17.06,0:02:20.34, 然后给大家做个测验and then I want people to do a test that will exploreDialogue: 0,0:02:20.34,0:02:23.03, 看看你们处于什么位置where you stand on a continuum. Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.03,0:02:26.46, 你面前放着的那张纸就是测验That test is the piece of paper you have in front of you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.46,0:02:28.94, 没有拿到的同学请举手Anybody who doesn't have it please raise your handDialogue: 0,0:02:28.94,0:02:30.92, 助教会发给你and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:30.92,0:02:35.00, 不要着急你现在还不知道怎么做Y ou don't know what to do yet with it so don't worry.Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.00,0:02:37.99, 这个测试是马尔科姆·格拉德威尔The test was developed actually by Malcolm GladwellDialogue: 0,0:02:37.99,0:02:43.49, 他是一位科普作家在他著作《引爆流行》中开发的who is a science writer-- in his wonderful book The Tipping Point.Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.49,0:02:45.41, 格拉德威尔在测验介绍中And as he introduces the test, Dialogue: 0,0:02:45.41,0:02:50.70, 他详述了斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的另一个实验Gladwell recounts another experiment done by Stanley Milgram,Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.70,0:02:55.11, 当然米尔格拉姆因服从实验闻名但他也做了很多有趣的事of course famous for his obedience work but he did a lot of interesting things.Dialogue: 0,0:02:55.11,0:03:03.33, 在一项经典实验中他将包裹给从内布拉斯加州的奥马哈人中And one classic study he did was he gave a package to 160 people randomly chosen Dialogue: 0,0:03:03.33,0:03:11.29, 随机挑选的一百六十人然后让这些人无论如何将包裹送给in Omaha, Nebraska and he asked these people to get the package somehowDialogue: 0,0:03:11.29,0:03:14.15, 这在很多年前还没有因特网and this was many years ago before the internet,Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.15,0:03:19.97, 没有电邮要将包裹送到一个在波士顿工作before e-mail?To get the package to a stockbroker who worked in BostonDialogue: 0,0:03:19.97,0:03:23.13, 却住在马萨诸塞州雪伦市的股票经纪人but lived in Sharon, Massachusetts.Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.13,0:03:26.90, 他发现大多数人竟然做到了What he found was that mostpeople were able to do it.Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.90,0:03:29.56, 当然没有人认识这个人Nobody, of course, knew this manDialogue: 0,0:03:29.56,0:03:33.47, 但他们认识那些可能认识这个人的人but they knew people who might know people who would know this man.Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.47,0:03:38.72, 所以大多数人成功了大多数人都能将包裹送至这个人So, most people succeeded. Most people were able to get the packages to this manDialogue: 0,0:03:38.72,0:03:45.29, 这就是六度分隔理论and it took at maximum six degrees of separation,Dialogue: 0,0:03:45.29,0:03:48.27, 著名的短语的出处which is where the famous phrase comes aboutDialogue: 0,0:03:48.27,0:03:52.48, 我们与他人的间隔只有六个人而已that we're all separated from another person by six degrees of separation.Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.48,0:03:53.91, 这不是普遍正确的This is not true in general.Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.91,0:03:57.83, 只在美国内做过实验This was a very--a single experiment done within the United States,Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.83,0:03:59.63, 但这个想法非常吸引人but the idea is appealing, Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.63,0:04:03.94, 人们是通过一系列人脉与其他人联系的that people are connected to one another via chains of people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.06,0:04:10.91, 米尔格拉姆发现特别有趣的是But what Milgram found that was particularly interesting wasDialogue: 0,0:04:11.23,0:04:19.69, 半数的被试仅通过两个人就将包裹送到了that in about half of the cases these packages went through two people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.69,0:04:24.79, 也就是说如果标出人与人间的关系That is, if you plot the relationships between people--Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.79,0:04:28.88, 我们以这个房间里的人为例We can take each person in this room,Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.88,0:04:32.97, 将彼此认识的人连线find everybody you know and who knows you and draw a line,Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.97,0:04:37.81, 如果我们真这么做的话我们看到的不会是一张网but if we were to do this you wouldn't find an even mesh of wires.Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.81,0:04:41.16, 相反你会发现有些人会成为节点Rather, you'd find that some people are clusters.Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.16,0:04:45.40, 这些人就是格拉德威尔所谓的联系员这有点像空中交通Some people are what Gladwell calls "Connectors." it's like air traffic.Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.40,0:04:50.14, 以前的空中交通是与各个目的地的连线Air traffic used to be everything flew to places localDialogue: 0,0:04:50.14,0:04:56.27, 但现在更像一个枢纽系统例如芝加哥的奥黑尔或纽瓦克to it but now there's a system of hubs, chicago O'Hare for instance or NewarkDialogue: 0,0:04:56.27,0:05:00.99, 都是许多飞机经过的地方而有些人就是枢纽where planes fly through. Some people are hubs.Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.99,0:05:05.92, 这些人就是那种认识很多人的人Some people are the sort of people who know a lot of people.Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.92,0:05:11.82, 这房间里的一些人可能是枢纽这不难发现Some peoplein this room might be hubs, and it is not impossible to find out.Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.82,0:05:18.28, 这张纸上有二百五十个从曼哈顿电话簿上The piece of paper you have here is 250 names chosen randomlyDialogue: 0,0:05:18.28,0:05:21.55, 随机抽取的名字from a Manhattan phone book. Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.18,0:05:25.38, 其中包含了不同种族They capture a range of ethnicities, Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.38,0:05:30.17, 世界不同地区不同原国籍的人different parts of the world, different national origins.Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.17,0:05:34.07, 下面就是我想让你们做的我给大家五分钟时间Here's what I'd like you to do. And I'll give about five minutes for this.Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.07,0:05:40.20, 浏览这些名字并圈出那些你认识的人的名字Go through these names and circle how many people you know.Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.20,0:05:42.40, 圈名字的规则是Now, the rules of this are,Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.40,0:05:47.44, 圈出那些你们彼此认识的人的名字to know somebody you have to--they have to know you back.Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.44,0:05:57.04, 如果是个名人这里一个名字是约翰逊So, if it's a celebrity--Well, here--one of the names here is Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.04,0:06:01.56, 我听说过埃尔文·约翰逊但埃尔文·约翰逊从没听说过我Now, I've heard of Magic Johnson but Magic Johnson has never heard of me,Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.56,0:06:06.52, 所以不能圈这个名字另外我们系主任是玛西亚·约翰逊so I cannot circle it.On the other hand, our department chair is Marcia Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:06:06.52,0:06:11.01, 她认识我所以我就可以圈她开始浏览并圈出你认识的人She has heard of me, so I could circle it. Go through and circle it.Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.01,0:06:15.60, 圈出所有你认识同时也认识你的人Circle all the people you know who know you.Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.60,0:06:17.82, 那些就是和你有联系的人Those are the people you're connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.82,0:06:22.76, 如果你认识的人里有重名的圈两次If you know more than one person with the same last name, circle it twice.Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.76,0:06:25.14, 如果你没有拿到这张纸而你又想参与进来If you don't have this piece of paper and you want to participate,Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.14,0:06:29.42, 请举手助教会发给你please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.49,0:08:09.63, 在大家做这个的时候我想多说两句I'm going to talk a little bit more about this while people go through this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.03,0:08:15.35, 人际关系的问题很多情况下都很有趣The issue of connections between people is intellectually interestingDialogue: 0,0:08:15.35,0:08:21.07, 还可以让我们对人们如何互动for many reasons and might allow us to develop some generalizationsDialogue: 0,0:08:21.07,0:08:27.68, 有一个归纳当然六度空间理论about how people interact. The game of Six Degrees of Separation has, of course,Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.68,0:08:34.72, 也成了演员凯文·贝肯根的著名电影轶事turned into a famous movie trivia thing revolving around the actor Kevin Bacon,Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.72,0:08:38.55, 我想之所以选他是因为他名字压韵吧I think chosen just because it rhymes with "Separation."Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.55,0:08:41.63, 凯文·贝肯的六度空间游戏是这么玩的And the game of "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" is played byDialogue: 0,0:08:41.63,0:08:45.52, 任何一名演员计算接近凯文·贝肯taking any actor and computing how many stepsDialogue: 0,0:08:45.52,0:08:48.84, 要经过多少步it would take to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.84,0:08:51.56, 有些计算机科学家已经将这个开发出来了And some computer scientists have developed this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:51.56,0:08:54.87, 他们检查国际电影数据库中They've gone through each of the quarter million actorsDialogue: 0,0:08:54.87,0:08:58.11, 二十五万名男女演员and actresses on the international movie databaseDialogue: 0,0:08:58.11,0:09:03.14, 然后计算出他们的贝肯数贝肯数就是指他们联系到贝肯and computed their "Bacon number." and the Bacon number is the number of stepsDialogue: 0,0:09:03.14,0:09:07.13, 所需要的步骤数it takes for them to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.13,0:09:17.35, 比如爱德华·阿斯纳在电影《JFK》中与凯文·贝肯合作So for instance, Ed Asner was in the movie Change of--; "JFK" With Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.35,0:09:20.74, 那么爱德华·阿斯纳的贝肯数为一So, Ed Asner has a Bacon number of one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.74,0:09:26.36, 埃尔维斯·普雷斯利在《修女变身》中与爱德华·阿斯纳合作Elvis Presley was in the movie "Change of Habit" with Ed AsnerDialogue: 0,0:09:26.36,0:09:29.69, 而这是他与凯文·贝肯最紧密的联系了and that's his closest connection to Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.69,0:09:33.01, 所以埃尔维斯·普里斯利的贝肯数为二So, Elvis Presley has a Bacon number of two.Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.01,0:09:36.75, 结果发现如果你观察二点五抱歉It turns out that if you look at the 2.5--sorry,Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.75,0:09:44.17, 电影数据库中的二十五万人并计算他们的贝肯数the quarter million people on the movie database and compute their Bacon number,Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.17,0:09:49.17, 平均贝肯数为二点八这就是联系到凯文·贝肯的the average Bacon number is 2.8. That's how many steps your average personDialogue: 0,0:09:49.17,0:09:52.04, 所需平均人数is away from Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.24,0:09:57.82, 然后你可以在演员中计算出联系最多人的一个Y ou could then, for any actor or actress, compute the most connected one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.82,0:10:00.44, 联系最多的那位演员So, the most connected one would be the one forDialogue: 0,0:10:00.44,0:10:05.08, 将是这二十五万人中平均来说最多人联系的whom the quarter million are, on average, the most connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.08,0:10:10.06, 联系最多演员的答案相当出人意料And the answer of the most connected actor or actress is reasonably surprising.Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.06,0:10:12.32, 大家想猜猜吗Does anybody want to guess?Dialogue: 0,0:10:15.99,0:10:19.19, 我先给大家一个错误答案I'll start you off with the wrong answer and this,Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.19,0:10:24.33, 顺便说一句可以在该网站上找到答案不是约翰·韦恩by the way, can be found on this web site. It's not John Wayne.Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.33,0:10:28.98, 约翰·韦恩确实拍了很多电影一百八十部电影John Wayne has been in many movies, 180 movies,Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.98,0:10:33.57, 在六十多年里但他不是最多联络人in fact, over sixty years, but he isn't well connected at all because mostlyDialogue: 0,0:10:33.57,0:10:39.58, 他几乎只出现在西部电影中所以我们不停地看到同一些人he was in westerns so we saw the same people over and over again.Dialogue: 0,0:10:43.09,0:10:45.16, 梅丽尔·斯特里普也不是Meryl Streep also isn't it Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.16,0:10:51.40, 因为梅丽尔·斯特里普很不幸只拍好电影所以because Meryl Streep has the misfortune of playing only in good movies. So,Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.40,0:10:56.50, 她与像亚当·桑德勒和约翰·克劳德·范·戴姆这些演员没联系she has no connection with people like Adam Sandler and John Claude V an Damme. Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.80,0:11:05.10, 猜一下有其他猜测吗克里斯托弗·沃肯有点靠谱了Guess. Any guesses? Christopher Walken is a good one.Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.10,0:11:07.27, 我们来查查看我只认识少数几个人We could look it up.I only know a few names here.Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.27,0:11:10.93, 克里斯托弗·沃肯不是最多的尼古拉斯·凯奇是个有趣例子Christopher Walken is not a finalist. Nicolas Cage is an interesting case.Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.93,0:11:13.45, 尼古拉斯·凯奇拍过好电影吗Has Nicolas Cage been in good movies?Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.61,0:11:18.37, 我不是想我这是自找麻烦了I don't want to get-- i'm going to get more controversial than I want to.Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.37,0:11:21.82, 一个类似临时演员的人他最多算个二流演员请再说一遍A guy who is one step above an extra.He's like a B-list actor at best.Pardon me?Dialogue: 0,0:11:25.81,0:11:27.04, 最佳联络人The most connected guy?Dialogue: 0,0:11:29.60,0:11:35.56, 最佳联络人我想说你是对的是罗德·斯泰格尔The most connected guy, and I think this shows that you're right,is Rod Steiger.Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.44,0:11:39.75, 他是演艺史上的最佳联络人He's the most connected actor in the history of actingDialogue: 0,0:11:39.75,0:11:44.31, 不是因为他比其他人参演了更多电影because it isn't that he's been in more movies than everybody else.Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.31,0:11:47.84, 迈克尔·凯恩可能是世界上出演电影最多的人Michael Caine has probably been in the most movies of any person on earth,Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.28,0:11:52.16, 但罗德出演了各种类型的电影他出演了《码头风云》but he's been in all sorts of movies. He was in "On the Waterfront",Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.16,0:11:57.25, 《炎热的夏夜》以及像《无妄之灾》这类烂片"In the Heat of the Night," and really bad movies like "Carpool".Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.25,0:12:01.53, 他参演戏剧和犯罪连续剧惊险片西部片恐怖电影He's been in dramas and crime serials, thrillers, westerns, horror movies,Dialogue: 0,0:12:01.53,0:12:03.98, 科幻片和音乐剧science fiction, musicals.Dialogue: 0,0:12:05.50,0:12:12.43, 有些人就像罗德·斯泰格尔有些人在他们日常生活里Now, some people are like Rod Steiger. So, some people in their day-to-day livesDialogue: 0,0:12:12.43,0:12:16.97, 与人有很多互动我想从互动中可以了解的是have many interactions and I think one of the things we know from interactingDialogue: 0,0:12:16.97,0:12:20.67, 我们能从人群中识别出这些人with people is we candistinguish them from other people.Dialogue: 0,0:12:20.67,0:12:23.70, 有多少人已经做完了How many people have finished their things right now?Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.70,0:12:27.52, 好我认识学院里的一个人Okay. I know one person in the departmentDialogue: 0,0:12:27.52,0:12:30.88, 是我知道的认识最多人的人who is one of the most connected people I know on earth.Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.88,0:12:36.51, 如果我想如果我真的想联系拉扎斯菲尔德我会去找他说If I wanted--If I really had to talk to Rumsfeld, i'd go to this person and say,Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.51,0:12:40.57, 你能帮我联系上菲尔德吗如果我想整某个人"Can you get me in touch with Rumsfeld?" if I wanted to get somebody whacked,Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.57,0:12:42.32, 我会去问他I'd ask this guy.Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.88,0:12:45.99, 在学院里我还认识其他的人据我所知Then I know someone else in the department and, as best I know,Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.99,0:12:48.12, 我是她唯一认识的人I'm the only person she knows. Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.79,0:12:58.42, 有多少人的得分低于十分So, how many people scores below ten on this?Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.72,0:13:04.03, 有多少人得分在十分到二十分之间How many between ten and twenty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.01,0:13:06.88, 二十分到三十分之间呢Between twenty and thirty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.82,0:13:09.68, 三十分到四十分呢Thirty and forty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.32,0:13:13.64, 四十分到五十分之间呢Between forty and fifty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.52,0:13:16.77, 五十分到六十分呢Fifty and sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.97,0:13:21.50, 有多少人得分超过六十分How many people scored above sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.86,0:13:26.05, 有人得分超过六十分吗Anybody above sixty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.95,0:13:31.53, 格拉德维尔在很多地方做过这个实验Gladwell has done this in a lot of places.Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.06,0:13:35.30, 在大学生群体里平均分是二十一分The average is twenty-one among a college crowd.Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.51,0:13:39.50, 有些人得分超过一百Some people score as high as over 100.Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.60,0:13:44.94, 年龄越大得分越高可能很明显The older you are, the more-- the higher you tend to score, maybe obviously,Dialogue: 0,0:13:44.94,0:13:48.80, 不是在这个国家呆的时间越长得分越高not--the longer you've been in the country the higher you tend to score.Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.80,0:13:55.66, 记者的分数理所当然会高些学者的分数不那么高Journalists tend to score reasonably high, academics not so high,Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.66,0:13:59.36, 格拉德维尔指出有些人就是有天赋and--but what Gladwell points out is some people have the gift.Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.36,0:14:01.72, 有些人比其他人更有社交天赋Some people are more social than othersDialogue: 0,0:14:01.72,0:14:04.76, 并与很多人以各种有趣的形式保持联系and this connects in all sorts of interesting ways.Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.76,0:14:11.48, 人脉问题涉及社会因素The issue of connection has social factorsDialogue: 0,0:14:11.48,0:14:19.51, 这是社会学家为来耶鲁念书给出的一个很好理由and it's one answer that sociologists give for why it's good to go to Y ale.Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.51,0:14:26.29, 一个答案是因为这里有丰富的学术资源So, one answer is, well, because of the great intellectual benefits.Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.29,0:14:29.84, 先不说这个很讽刺的Put that aside. Let's be more cynical here.Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.84,0:14:35.79, 另一个答案是你能交到很牛的朋友Another answer is that you develop powerful friends.Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.45,0:14:41.71, 这很接近了但社会学家给出的答案And that's closer, but the interesting answer sociologistsDialogue: 0,0:14:41.71,0:14:45.42, 不是你交到多少厉害的朋友come to is it's not so much you develop powerful friends;Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.42,0:14:52.90, 而是你认识了多少很牛的人在耶鲁你认识了很多人rather,you develop powerful acquaintances. Through Y ale you know a lot of peopleDialogue: 0,0:14:52.90,0:14:56.10, 他们不一定是好朋友但他们是相识的人and they don't have to be close friends but they are acquaintances.Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.10,0:14:59.91, 社会学家指出你生活中的很多方面And sociologists point out that for a lot of aspects of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.91,0:15:05.25, 例如找工作熟人很重要人脉很重要like getting a job, acquaintances matter, connections matter,Dialogue: 0,0:15:05.25,0:15:07.48, 你通过进入像耶鲁这样的地方and the connections you establish by going toDialogue: 0,0:15:07.48,0:15:11.39, 而建立起来的人脉将为你未来做很好的铺垫 a place like Y ale hold you in good stead for the rest of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.39,0:15:16.15, 除了学术资源这个地方能给你带来above and beyond any intellectual qualities that this place may offer.Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.89,0:15:21.38, 这就是我在下节课以及以后的两节半课所要说的内容Here's what we're going to do for the next lecture and a half,two lectures.Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.38,0:15:23.63, 我们首先讨论自我We're first going to talk about the self. Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.63,0:15:26.42, 然后我们讨论自我和他人Then we're going to talk about the self and other;Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.42,0:15:29.54, 基本上我们对自己的看法basically, differences between how we think of ourselvesDialogue: 0,0:15:29.54,0:15:34.02, 和我们对他人的看法是存在差异的我们将专门讨论and how we think about other people. Then we're going to talk exclusively aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:34.02,0:15:36.19, 我们如何看待他人然后讨论how we think about other people and then we'll talk aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:36.19,0:15:42.38, 我们如何看待像哈佛学生或同性恋或黑人这样的群体how we think about groups like Harvard students or gay people or black people.Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.08,0:15:51.91, 我将从我最喜欢的研究结果开始这是有关自我的内容I'll start with my favorite finding of all time and this is about the self.Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.91,0:16:00.37, 有关焦点效应我每天早晨都很匆忙And this is about thespotlight effect. So, my mornings are often rushedDialogue: 0,0:16:00.37,0:16:03.53, 因为我有两个孩子有时我没有定闹钟because I have two kids. So, I get up and sometimes I don't set the alarmDialogue: 0,0:16:03.53,0:16:07.64, 就会起晚我挣扎着下床把孩子们叫起来and I get up late; I stagger out of bed; I wake the kids;Dialogue: 0,0:16:07.64,0:16:11.68, 问候佣人做好准备做早餐I greet the servants; I get ready; I make breakfast.Dialogue: 0,0:16:11.68,0:16:17.37, 我冲出房间通常在大概下午三点时有人会说I run out of the house and then usually around 3 o'clock somebody points out,Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.37,0:16:22.11, 某次是一个流浪汉说我耳朵上有一大块剃须膏in one case a homeless man, that I have a big glob of shaving cream in my ear orDialogue: 0,0:16:22.11,0:16:26.08, 因为我剃须时都没心思看镜子because I neglected to actually look in the mirror while I shaved.Dialogue: 0,0:16:26.08,0:16:30.09, 又一次我参加一个派对我发现我的衬衫上没穿正Or I have once been to a party and I found my shirt was misaligned,Dialogue: 0,0:16:30.09,0:16:33.28, 严重地没穿正不是一个扣子seriously misaligned, not one button but--Anyway,Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.74,0:16:39.25, 总之那时候我的感觉很不成熟so--and so I feel when this happens I'm very immature.Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.25,0:16:41.57, 我甚至感觉这是世界末日And I basically feel this is the end of the world,Dialogue: 0,0:16:41.57,0:16:46.50, 这实在太丢脸而且每个人都注意到了问题是this is humiliating and everybody notices. And so the question is,Dialogue: 0,0:16:46.50,0:16:53.36, 当这发生时有多少人真的注意到了呢焦点效应就是how many people notice when something happens? And the spotlight effect--Well,Dialogue: 0,0:16:53.36,0:16:55.86, 在讨论我最喜欢的实验之前before talking about my favorite experiment ever,Dialogue: 0,0:16:55.86,0:16:57.77, 我先播一段《辛普森一家》there is an episode of "The Simpsons"Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.77,0:17:01.07, 它充分说明了焦点效应that provides a beautiful illustration of the spotlight effect.Dialogue: 0,0:17:01.07,0:17:04.86, 这段短片还对心理测验给出了个漂亮的例证And then it has a beautiful illustration of psychological testing,Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.86,0:17:07.80, 我让大家一个一个看so I'll give you them quickly one after the other.Dialogue: 0,0:17:10.09,0:17:14.46, 因此汤姆·季洛维奇一位社会心理学家So, Tom Gilovich, a social psychologist,Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.46,0:17:17.51, 对焦点效应问题很感兴趣was interested in the question of the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.51,0:17:23.72, 当我们穿粉红衬衫上班或耳朵上粘了剃须膏或其他什么which is when we wear a pink shirt to work,shaving cream in our ear or whatever, Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.72,0:17:29.88, 我们真会过高地估计别人对此的注意吗do we systematically overestimate how much other people notice?Dialogue: 0,0:17:29.88,0:17:35.59, 他就此做了一系列实验其中一个实验是这样做的Hedid a series of experiments. And in one experiment what he did wasDialogue: 0,0:17:35.59,0:17:39.16, 他从心理学导论课上找到一些被试he got in the subjects ...Standard Intro Psych drill.Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.16,0:17:44.47, 跟他们说我希望你们明天穿件T恤And said,"I want you to wear a T-shirt for the next dayDialogue: 0,0:17:44.47,0:17:47.24, 我希望T恤上有图and I want it to have a picture on it," Dialogue: 0,0:17:47.24,0:17:51.01, 然后他让他们穿上他们认为and he got them to wear T-shirts that had pictures on itDialogue: 0,0:17:51.01,0:17:55.63, 最尴尬图片的T恤that were the most embarrassing pictures that they could have on it.Dialogue: 0,0:17:55.63,0:17:58.07, 结果发现如果你问人们It turns out that if you ask people Dialogue: 0,0:17:58.07,0:18:00.92, T恤上印什么画最难以接受what's the worst picture to have on the T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:00.92,0:18:09.42, 位居第一的答案是希特勒和巴瑞·曼尼洛that you are wearing, the number one answer is Hitler tied with Barry Manilow.Dialogue: 0,0:18:15.79,0:18:19.32, 画在T恤上最好的图画是The best pictures to have on your T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:19.32,0:18:23.75, 马丁·路德·金和杰瑞·宋飞are Martin Luther King Jr. And Jerry Seinfeld.Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.77,0:18:26.56, 结果发现人们It turns out that people--Dialogue: 0,0:18:26.56,0:18:29.80, 他让他们穿着T恤到处走动一天然后问他们And then he had them go about their day and asked them,Dialogue: 0,0:18:29.80,0:18:33.10, 有多少人注意到了你的T恤"How many people noticed your T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:33.10,0:18:36.74, 然后心理学家又去问被试周围的人And then the psychologists went around and they asked the people,Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.74,0:18:39.72, 你们有多少人注意到了这个人的T恤"How many of you noticed this person's T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.72,0:18:45.21, 结果发现他们大概错误估计了两倍And it turned out they got it wrong by a factor of about two.Dialogue: 0,0:18:45.21,0:18:51.00, 他们认为有一百个人注意到但其实只有五十个人注意到They thought, say, 100 noticed, but fifty people noticed.Dialogue: 0,0:18:51.00,0:18:54.20, 通过多次研究季洛维奇和And across study after study after study GilovichDialogue: 0,0:18:54.20,0:18:58.02, 他的同事找到了支持焦点效应的证据and his colleagues have found support for the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:18:58.02,0:19:01.62, 也就是你认为人们注意到你which is that you believe that people are noticingDialogue: 0,0:19:01.62,0:19:07.40, 但其实并没有他们正忙着注意他们自己you all the time but they aren't. They're busy noticing themselves.Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.40,0:19:15.72, 知道这点非常有用季洛维奇之所以对此感兴趣And this is actually a useful thing to know. Gilovich got interested in thisDialogue: 0,0:19:15.72,0:19:19.48, 是因为他对后悔心理学感兴趣because he's interested in the psychology of regret.Dialogue: 0,0:19:19.48,0:19:23.20, 结果发现如果你真的去问那些临终的人And it turns out that if you actually ask dying people,Dialogue: 0,0:19:23.20,0:19:28.60, 或是年纪很大的人你这辈子最后悔的事是什么or really old people basically, "What do you regret from your life?"Dialogue: 0,0:19:28.60,0:19:33.82, 他们不约而同地都对他们没有尝试过的事情感到后悔they regret the things as a rule that they didn't try.Dialogue: 0,0:19:33.82,0:19:36.52, 但当你问他们为什么不尝试时But when you asked them why they didn't try itDialogue: 0,0:19:36.52,0:19:40.17, 他们的回答是这样我看起来会很愚蠢the answers tended to be "I would look silly."Dialogue: 0,0:19:40.17,0:19:45.14, 很有趣的是结果发现其实人们并不像你想的And it turns out, interesting to know, that people just don't careDialogue: 0,0:19:45.14,0:19:46.79, 那么关心你as much as other people think you are. Dialogue: 0,0:19:46.79,0:19:48.81, 你可以将这看成好事或坏事Y ou could take that as good news or bad newsDialogue: 0,0:19:48.81,0:19:54.82, 但聚光灯并不像我们想的那样聚焦在我们身上but the spotlight is not on us as much as we think it is.Dialogue: 0,0:19:54.82,0:20:00.56, 季洛维奇发现的第二个效应是透明度效应There's a second effect Gilovich discovers called "The transparency effect."Dialogue: 0,0:20:00.56,0:20:03.30, 透明度效应非常有趣And the transparency effect is quite interesting.Dialogue: 0,0:20:03.30,0:20:09.16, 透明度效应是指The transparency effect is that we believe Dialogue: 0,0:20:09.16,0:20:13.13, 我们高估自己的透明度that we're more transparent than we are.Dialogue: 0,0:20:13.13,0:20:22.74, 我需要一个自认为不会撒谎的人I need somebody up here who thinks that he or she is a bad liar.Dialogue: 0,0:20:25.96,0:20:28.65, 我只要你说三个句子Just--I just need you to say three sentences.Dialogue: 0,0:20:28.65,0:20:31.30, 我甚至会提前告诉你I'll even tell you what it is ahead of time.Dialogue: 0,0:20:31.30,0:20:32.88, 我将问你三个问题I'm going to ask you three questions: Dialogue: 0,0:20:32.88,0:20:35.85, 你去过伦敦吗你有弟弟妹妹吗"Have you been in London? Do you have a younger sibling?"Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.85,0:20:40.79, 你喜欢寿司吗我希望你回答这三个问题and "Do you like sushi?" I want you to answer with one of those answers there.Dialogue: 0,0:20:40.79,0:20:44.30, 但对其中一个问题说谎I want you to lie about one of them.Dialogue: 0,0:20:44.30,0:20:48.05, 在座各位的任务就是识别出The task will be for everybody else to recognizeDialogue: 0,0:20:48.05,0:20:50.93, 猜一下你哪个问题说谎了and guess which one you're lying about.Dialogue: 0,0:20:50.93,0:20:52.26, 你愿意做吗Do you want to go up?Dialogue: 0,0:20:52.26,0:20:58.14, 我会写下哪个问题你要说谎Y eah. And I will even write down which one you should lie on.。
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00:02:38 What's going on during speciation, from the point of
00:02:41 view of genetics; if we track the genes through
00:02:44 the process of speciation, what do we see?
00:02:55 which some of your teaching fellows have special expertise.
00:02:58 So if you would like to get to the cutting edge of phylogenetic
00:03:03 research, you have got some people in
00:03:47 occur at first sight to ask how it might be that way.
00:03:52 But in fact it is a puzzle.
00:03:55 We have wild diversity in the world.
00:03:59 Please forgive me botanists.
00:03:34 and you ought to tap into them, if you feel the urge.
00:03:36 Okay?
00:03:38 Now here is a basic observation, and it is one of
00:03:42 those things that just seems so natural to us that it doesn't
00:01:25 Then we have three ways of looking at the history of life.
00:01:29 The first is more abstract, I think a little bit deeper,
00:01:35 and that has to do with key events in evolution:
00:00:51 and that is speciation.
00:00:53 So as we now move into macroevolution,
00:00:57 today's talk is really mostly about speciation.
00:01:01 Then we will, next time, have a talk about
00:02:27 What is a species?
00:02:29 How do they originate?
00:02:30 What kinds of experimental evidence or observational
00:02:34 evidence do we have to back up the claims about how they
00:02:47 And then there are some special issues: asexual species and
00:02:51 cryptic species.
00:02:52 I would like to signal that this is a part of biology in
00:01:37 origin of life, multi-cellularity,
00:01:40 language, things like that.
00:01:42 We'll have a review of major events in the geological
00:01:46 theater.
00:01:16 and then to place the evolution of traits onto trees and onto
00:01:20 maps, so that you can integrate space
00:01:22 and time, and history.
00:00:42 We're now going to make the transition into
00:00:45 macroevolutionary principles, with the process that connects
00:00:48 microevolution to macroevolution,
00:01:04 phylogenetics and systematics, and then about how you can use
00:01:09 the combination of these principles to look at
00:01:12 evolutionary trees and to place them on maps,
00:04:14 of organisms, and they seem to be in discrete
00:04:19 groups, separated from other such
00:04:22 groups, and in many ways: appearance,
00:04:25 behavior, ecology, genetics.
00:01:46 For those of you that like firecrackers on the Fourth of
00:01:49 July that's fun, because that's where we have
00:01:51 meteorite impacts and extinctions and stuff like that.
00:04:08 But if we just look at the world, it's amazingly diverse.
00:04:12 Okay?
00:04:12 So we look out there and there's lots of different kinds
00:04:27 So why is the world like this?
00:04:28 How did that come about?
00:04:29 Why is the planet not simply covered with a homogenous layer
00:04:35 of primordial slime, rather than these different
00:01:55 And then we'll take a look at the fossil record and what it-
00:01:58 the kinds of unique insights that you can get out of fossils
00:02:02 that you really can't get out of just looking at living
00:02:16 I would hope that by the end of today's lecture and the end of
00:02:20 your reading and discussion in section about this,
00:02:23 that you would be able to deal with this set of issues.
00:00:11 course.
00:00:12 Basically the material we cover before Spring Break is organized
00:00:18 into these large sections, and today we're making the
00:03:18 the Science Page of the New York Times,
00:03:21 in their Darwin Section, they were reporting on Stephen
00:03:24 Smith's Ph.D.
00:03:25 thesis.
00:00:31 and then we had five lectures, that we just completed last
00:00:35 time, on how phenotypes,
00:00:37 organisms, how they're designed for reproductive success.
00:02:05 organisms.
00:02:06 So those are three different ways to approach the issue of
00:02:10 the history of life.
00:02:11 Okay, today speciation.
00:03:26 He just got his degree here last year.
00:03:28 But he assembled the largest Tree of Life for the plants.