专八语言学

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专八语言学考点

专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

专八-语言学总结

语言学Ⅰ. 语言的性质●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a means of verbal communication(言语交际).●Design FeaturesThe features that define our human languages can be called design features.⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)⑵Duality(二重性)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)⑷Displacement(易境性)⑸Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. e.x. pen--/pen/ book/buk/Different levels of Arbitrarinessa.Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme(语素) and its meaning.e.x. 叮咚，轰隆English—wow wow Chinese: wangwangwangIt is only then you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.b.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelSyntax is less arbitrary than words, and the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds.c.Arbitrariness and convention (约定俗成)Arbitrariness of language makes conventionality(约定俗成性) potentially creative.⑵Duality(二重性)-- The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the secondary unites: sounds(meaningless)the primary unites: words(have distinct and identifiable meaning)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)Language is resourceful because of its duality and excursiveness(递归性—the potential to create endless sentences).⑷Displacement(易境性)-- It is means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are nor present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.●Functions of Language⑴Informative(信息功能)⑵Interpersonal function(人际功能)—how the personal relations being established⑶Performative (行事性功能)—how language woks in real world⑷Emotive function(表情功能)—enable users to express whatever feelings they have⑸Phatic communication(寒暄功能)—the social interaction of language/ helps to define and maintain interpersonalrelations⑹Recreational function（娱乐功能）— a poetic function⑺Metalingual function（元语言功能）—language can be used to talk about languageThe lion are the unicorn all round the town.All along the town the lion ate the unicorn.The change in liner order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Ⅱ. Linguistics 语言学●Linguistics is a science which takes language as its object of investigation.We must learn linguistics①systematically—beginning+engding②objectively—does according to the facts③exhaustiveness—to collect data as much as possible so as to enrich one’s knowledge andsupport one’s idea●Distinctions of Linguistics （Lyons）⑴Descriptive(描写/描述性的) vs. Prescriptive（规定性的）↖to set up roles for others to follow, designed by↑traditional grammerto talk about something according to something itself⑵Synchronic（共时研究）vs. Diachronic（历时研究）(Swiss: Saussure)Synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic: is the study of a language through the course of its history. (study language at least in two periods of time) Comparison: Synchronic: what a language is in a period of timeDiachronic: find our the changes from one language to another language⑶Langue(语言) & Parole（言语）(Saussure)Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker (the abstract system of language)Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (the actual use of language)Langue govern parole; parole reacts langue⑷Competence(语言能力) & Performance（语言运用）( American: Chomsky)↑↖the linguistic knowledge in the ideal speakers’ mindthe ability of native/ideal speaker of language⑸Etic(非位的) vs. Emic（位学的）(American: Pike)↑↖Phonemics(音位学的)，abstract units of languagephonetics(语音学的)，something concreateⅢ. Phonetics 语音学●Phonetics study speech sounds, including the production of speech(how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted andreceived), the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.●Consonant: these is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.V owel: these is no obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.Ⅳ. Phonology 音位学●Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and thepatterns wherein they fall.广义的音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般特种的研究，包括语音学。

专八人文知识--语言学

第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。

）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。

5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。

虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。

）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。

语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。

三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。

规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。

例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。

英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)

专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。

英语专八人文常识语言学

词义演变（Semantic Change）
1. widening of meaning/generalization（词义扩大） 2. narrowing of meaning/specialization（词义缩小） 3. meaning shift（词义转移）：
degradation（词义降格）
creativity（多产性）
displacement（移位性） interchangibility（可交替性）
cultural transmission（文化传输性）
2. prescriptive and descriptive（规定性和描述性研究） synchronic and diachronic（共时与历时研究） 3. competence and performance（语言能力与应用） 4. langue and parole （语言与言语）
语义学（Semantics）
2. semantic triangle（语义三角）
3. synonymy（同义关系） 4. antonymy（反义关系） 5. hyponymy（上下义关系） 6. polysemy（一词多义） 7. homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）
1. Leech’s seven types of meaning（利奇的七种意义）
1. Context（语境） 2. Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）： a) John Austin: Locutionary act（言内行为） Illocutionary act（言外行为） Perlocutionary act（言后行为） indirect speech act b) John Searle: representatives（阐述类） directives（指令类） commissives （承诺类） expressives（表达类） declarations（宣一、对知名的语言学家及其基本理论的重点考查

专八考试知识语言学部分

语素morpheme的定义：the smallest meaningful unit of language.
语素可以分为自由语素free morpheme 和粘着语素bound morpheme. 自由语素可以单独出现或单独构成词语，比如 pleasant, cell. 粘着语素必须与其他语素一起出现，不能独立成词，比如 dis- ex- con-
上下义：例如animal-the pole bear, kangaroo, crocodile。其中animal是上义词super ordinate, 剩下的词叫下义词 hyponyms.
句子之间的语义关系semantic relations between sentences 有以下几种：1、蕴含entailment 例如：A.他去了中国。B.他去了亚洲。A蕴含于B。A entails B. 判断方法：A真B真，B假A假，A假B不一定，B真A不一定。 2.、预设 presupposition 例如：A.我的自行车需要修理。B.我有自行车。A预设于B。A presupposes B. 判断方法：其中的一个句子以另一个为前提条件。A真B真，A假B还真。
is called ______. (2008) A. hyponymy. B. synonymy. C. polysemy. D. homonymy. 考点：考察词汇之间的涵义关系sense relations.
记忆：涵义关系有5个：同义关系synonymy, 反义关系antonymy, 一词多义
①① 语用学 1. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005) 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of

专八考试题型语言知识

专八考试题型语言知识
专八考试题型包括阅读理解、完形填空、翻译、写作和语法。

1. 阅读理解：考察考生对于文章内容的理解、分析和推理能力。

题目通常包括阅读材料和相关问题，考生需要根据阅读材料回答问题或进行推断。

2. 完形填空：考察考生对于词汇和语法的掌握，并且能够理解文章的整体意义。

题目通常包括一篇短文，其中有一些空白需要考生根据上下文的意义选择正确的词语填入。

3. 翻译：考察考生对于中文和英文之间的翻译能力。

题目通常要求考生将给定的中文句子或篇章翻译成英文，或将给定的英文句子或篇章翻译成中文。

4. 写作：考察考生的写作能力。

题目通常要求考生撰写一篇文章，可以是议论文、说明文、记叙文等。

5. 语法：考察考生对于英语语法规则的理解和运用能力。

题目通常要求考生根据句子的语法规则进行改错，或根据语法规则选择正确的选项。

专八语言学知识Linguistics

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

英语专业八级考试_-_英语语言学

2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历时性）
synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.
diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.
区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）
举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系
学不研究
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
中说出的具体话语 parole
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用）
theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system. performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete
sound
word
sentence
meaning
Phonetics (语音学)
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
（形态学）（句法学）（语义学）

英语专八人文知识之语言学部分

复习专八的同志们注意啦，个人潜心整理--人文知识之语言学部分，希望能帮上点儿忙，一起加油！作者：張旭BEYONDTEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）3多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）6 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function7 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity8 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses9 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions10 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等11 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

专八考试知识语言学部分

语言学部分一、语言与语言学1, which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness. B. productivity. C. cultural transmission. D. finiteness.考点: 语言的区别性特征（design features）记忆：CD PAD. Cultural transmission. Displacement. Productivity (creativity). Arbitrariness. Duality.2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by _____. (2006)A. Halliday.B. Chomsky.C. BloomfieldD. Saussure.考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对儿概念的区分。

记忆：四对概念分别是：descriptive & prescriptive. Synchronic & diachronic. Langue & Parole. Competence & performance.代表人物：Saussure对应parole & Langue。

Chomsky对应Competence & performance3. language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _____. (2010)A. an expressive function.B. an informative function.C. a performative function.D. a persuasive function.考点：语言的基本功能。

语言学知识(专八)

语言学知识语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。

I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of wordsin a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关了解）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted （解释）from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化）1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰）headword.7. metanalysis再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation逆构词）It refers to an abnormal(非正常）type of word-formationwhere a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合）of some English verbs.10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法）and syntax（句法）are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换）and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。

专八人文知识语言学

专八人文知识语言学人文知识是培养人类综合素质的重要组成部分，其中语言学作为一门重要的学科，研究语言的起源、结构、发展和使用规律，对于深入了解人类智慧和文化有着重要作用。

在专八考试中，人文知识语言学是一个重要的考点，下面将从语言学的定义、分类、发展历程以及重要派别等方面进行论述。

一、语言学的定义语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它研究语言的各个层面，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、词汇学、语用学等。

语言学通过对语言的研究，揭示了人类语言能力的本质，推动了语言教学和翻译等相关领域的发展。

二、语言学的分类根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为比较语言学、历史语言学、发音学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等多个分支学科。

比较语言学主要比较不同语言之间的相似性和差异性，历史语言学则研究语言的演变和变化规律。

三、语言学的发展历程语言学作为一门学科具有悠久的历史。

早在古代，人们对语言的产生和结构就有了简单的了解，但正式的语言学研究始于18世纪的欧洲，当时的人们开始对语音、语法和词汇等进行系统的研究。

到了19世纪，语言学发展迅猛，出现了历史语言学、比较语言学等分支学科。

20世纪，随着语言学方法的不断发展，语义学、语用学等学科逐渐兴起，丰富了语言学的研究内容。

四、重要派别在语言学发展过程中，涌现出了多个重要的研究派别和学派。

例如，结构主义语言学强调语言结构的分析和规律的发现，以及对语言学理论的系统建设；生成语法学关注语言的生成规律和生成过程，提出了许多重要的理论和模型；功能语言学则强调语言的功能和使用效果，注重语言与社会、文化、认知的关系。

五、语言学的应用语言学的研究成果在实际生活中有着广泛的应用价值。

首先，在语言教学领域，语言学的理论和方法为语言教学提供了科学依据，促进了语言教学的有效实施。

其次，在翻译和口译领域，语言学的知识可以帮助翻译人员准确理解和转换语言的含义，提高翻译质量。

此外，语言学还在语音识别、自然语言处理、人机交互等领域有广泛的应用。

专八语言学

一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。

如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological li nguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。

专八语言学

语言学一、语言和语言学(Language and linguistics)1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative（major role）人际功能interpersonal（establish and maintain their status in a society）施为功能performative（change the social status of persons）感情功能emotive function（changing the emotional status）寒暄功能phatic communication（refers: social interaction of language）娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。

如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics(interrelation of language and mind)社会语言学sociolinguistics (study of the characteristic of language varieties)人类语言学anthropological linguistics(use in relation to human cultural patterns an d briefs)认知语言学cognitive linguistics计算机语言学computational linguistics5、语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：Saussure提出语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用（actual us e of language）二、语音学(Phonetics)1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的、3 第一个语音字母表：Danish(Otto pesperson)4 Places of Articulation(发音部位)Bilabial双唇音Labrodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Postalveolar后齿龈音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Glottal声门音Retroflex卷舌音Velar小舌音Pharyngeal 咽音5 Manners of Articulation(发音方式)Stop爆破音Fricative摩擦音Lateral边音Approximant近似音Nasal鼻音三、音位学(Phonology)1、最小对立体minimal pairs （one distinctive sound e.g./b//p/）2、音位phoneme (e.g. big 中的/b/)3 音位变体allophones (e.g. put中的/p/与span中的/p/)4 互补分布complementary distribution (不送气的/p/出现在/s/后，送气的/p/其他位置)5 自由变体free variation （caused by dialect, habit or……）6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学(Morphology)1 词的构成语素morpheme(最小语言单位) 自由语素free morpheme（e.g. dog）粘着语素boun d morpheme(e.g. dis-close) Root 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix（e.g. toy-s）and derivational affix（e.g. teac h-teacher）2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention(e.g. coinage) 混拼词blending(e.g. smoke+fog=smog) 缩写词abbreviation(e.g. ad) 首字母缩写词acronym(e.g. WTO) 逆构词汇back-formation(e.g. editor—edit) 类推构词analogiacal creation (e.g. work-worked ,slay-slayed)外来词borrowing五句法学(Syntax)1 范畴category(defining properties of words) 数number 性gender 格case(主：nominative宾:accusative属:genitive) 时tense 体aspect(完成体perfective 未完成体imperfective) 一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起(called: horizontal relation or chain relation)聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起(called: vertical or choice r elation)结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心(有一个词头)：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心（没有词头）：指结构中没有明显的中心词。

专八英语语言学

第一章语言和语言学Language(语言): a system of arbitrary(随意的) vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the following features of language.1) Language is a system2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内在的) connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. This nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet:A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.同样是书，为什么汉语用“Shu”，英语用“book”，意大利语用“libro”。

这是没有任何理由的，是随意选择的结果。

3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they only attempt to capture sounds and meanings on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.4) The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human specific. It is different from bird songs and bee dances.Linguistics(语言学): Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The core of linguistics(语言学研究的核心): Phonetics(语音学), Phonology(音位学), Morphology(形态学), Syntax(句法学), Semantics(语义学), Pragmatics(语用学)The beginning of modern linguistics(现代语言学的开端): marked by the publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Prescriptive(规定性研究) vs. Descriptive(描写性研究): If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive; if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.规定性的语言学研究着重观察、总结语言中的“标准”，认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法，标准语音，其目的通常是为了规定人们说话及写作等的标准。

专八语言学

专八语言学考点

专八-语言学总结

专八人文知识--语言学

英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)

英语专八人文常识 语言学

专八考试知识语言学部分

专八考试题型语言知识

专八语言学知识Linguistics

英语专业八级考试_-_英语语言学

英语专八人文知识之语言学部分

专八考试知识语言学部分

语言学知识(专八)

专八人文知识语言学

专八 语言学

专八语言学

专八英语语言学

英语专八人文常识语言学

专八语言学