英语语言学复习资料.(XC)
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
语言学复习资料(全英)
第一部分选择题nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__.Ca. writingb. speakingc. communicationd. reading2. The study of language as a whole is ofen called__. Ba. applied linguisticsb. general linguisticsc.3. Saussure is a___ lingusit. Ca. Americanb. Russianc. Swiss4. It is generally believed that the beginning of morden lingusitics marked by the publication of the book?course in general linguistics5. Which of the following is not a major branch of lingusitic? Ba. syntaxb.speechc. phonologyd. pragmatics6. __ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced? Ba. pragmaticsb. psycholinguisticsc. Anthropological linguistics7. Design features are proposed by the American linguist? Ca. Bloomfieldb. Hallc. Hockettd. Harris8. ___is not a design feature of human language? Da. Arbitrarinessb. displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity9. Among the following words, __ ends with a voiceless sound? Ca. bangb. thudc. crashd. wham10. Among the following words, __does not ends with a voiceless voiced?Aa. splatb. kinc. telld. bridge11. All the initial sounds of the following words are stops(爆破音) except? Ca. Billyb. crazyc. happyd. dizzy12. All the initial sounds of the following words are fricatives(摩擦音) except? Ba. fineb.writec. shyd. think13. All the initial sounds of the following words are bilabials(双唇音,如b p m) except? Ba. bellyb. calfc. playd. medicine14. All the following pair words would be treated minimal pairs(最小分别) except? Aa. meal—heatb. heat—healc. meal—heald. bell—bet15. The word glorification has entered the language by? Aa. derivational processb. add of inflectionsc. coinaged. functional shift16. The word gym is formed by ? Aa. clippingb. coinagec. borrowing17.UNESCO belongs to ? Da. clipped wordsb. borrowed wordsc. blendd. acronyms18. Syntax is the study of ? Ba. language functionsb. sentence structuresc. textual organization19. The word “lcid, child, offspring” are examples of ? Ba. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms20. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy(从属关系) except? Ca. automobile vehicleb. father , parentc. magazine, dictionaryd. fish, shark21. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Aa. water , watemelonb. hurricane, stormc. ceremony , weddingd. captain, officer22. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called? Da. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy(同形异义)23. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Da. emotion , loveb. move, runc. occupation, teachingd. rose, tree24. ___ are a pair of complementary antonyms(互补反义关系)? Ba. doctor, patientb. absent, presentc. old, youngd. hot, cold25. ___ are a pair of gradable antonyms(等级关系)? Ca. alive, deadb. male, femalec. wide, narrowd. vacant, occupied26. ___ are a pair of relational antonyms? Aa. let, rentb. single, marriedc. fail, passd. appear, diasppear27. __ is best described as polysemy? Ca. The bookstores has some new titles in linguistics.b. Yes, I love those. I ate a whole box on Sunday.c. I had to park on the shoulder of the road.28. Leila: whoa! Has us boss gone crazy?Mary: Let’s go get some coffee.In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted(违背什么原则)? C(1) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. mannerIn the utterance “Business is business.” The maxim of ___ has been flouted? A(2) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. manner29. Charlence: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.Dether: Ah. I brought the bread.”In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted? Aa. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner30. In the utterance, “ John runs as fast as a deer.”The maxim of ___ has been flouted? Ba. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner第二部分T or F1 In ancient China, a famous philosopher named XUN ZI reasoned that a name was accepted, through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing laying convention. T2 Aristotle held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. F (Plato)3 A diachronic statement is one about a language at one point in time, whereas a synchronic statement is one about a change or changes that took place over a period of time. F (弄反了)4 Language study today is descriptive rather prescriptive. T5 Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer. FArticulatory phonetics (production)Acoustic phonetics (transmission)6 Place of articulation English speech sounds can be divided into voiceless and voiced sounds. F ( manner of articulation)7 Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. T (Phoneme is the focus of Phonetics)8 Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted for another without bringing about a change of meaning. T9 Language of the world can be classified morphologically into 2 types: isolating&inflecting. F( 还有 agglutinating)10 Today’s English is more similar to an isolating language. T11 Words can have 2 kinds of meanings: denotative(字面) and connotative. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations and emotions that a word touches off in different type. T12 According to Austin, illocutionary act refers to the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. F (locutionary)13 The cooperative principle holds that people in conversation normally cooperate with one another, and that they assume that the others are cooperating to a maximum extent. T14 The uss of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is calledconversational implicative. T第三部分1 what determines whether a string of words in language is language is a sentence or simply a string of un related words----syntax (句子如何组成合法句)2 how do people use language within a context --pragmatics3 what are words like? –morphology4what are speech sounds? What is their physical nature?—phonetics (孤立研究詞,句意義)5 how do sounds behave in languages? –phonology6 why does one set of words mean one thing and a similar set mean something very different?—semeics 語義學,特定語境下的意義7 when do two different sentences mean the same thing? How can one sentence mean more than one thing? --pragmatics 語境(同距在不同地方有不同意義)8 How similar are the process of listening and reading ?—Psycholinguistics (comprehension production , mental process through 語言習得acquisition)9 What are the major feature of the English language as it is used by women native speakers?—sociolinguistics10 How do we decide what is a dialect or accent and what is a language?—sociolinguistics11 (comprehension)What mechanisms operate during speech production to ensure that all the words come out in the right order and with the right intonation? –Psycholinguistics12 How do speakers signal their identity in the language they use, and why do people who live in specific communities sometimes speak in a similar way?—sociolinguistics13 How to teach a foreign language?—applied linguistics14 To what extent do children vary in their language acquisition and usage? And why?—Psycholinguistics15 Examine the text of a play for evidence of implicit messages, and consider what the playwright is deliberately conveying about the attitudes and personality of the characters?—applied linguistics把語言學運用到文學研究/statistics大题考下面三个. Key wordsContext 語境Speech act theory first, second language acquisition。
英语语言学复习资料 简答题
1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrins ic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symb olic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native langua ge, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus alsocalled “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for s omething or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acqui re language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest tha t there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which li stening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart tha t compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he istaken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sen tences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or att itudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to cr eate certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or impo sing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’si mprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studi es not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics,applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitle d “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before t his century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the real ization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to,F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguis tic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potenti al a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a p honetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three differe nt[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。
(最新版)新编英语语言学复习知识点整理
第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。
《英语语言学》复习重点
《英语语⾔学》复习重点《英语语⾔学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语⾔功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function ⼈际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语⾔功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语⾔能⼒.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语⾔的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(⼀个语⾔使⽤者关于语⾔系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语⾔的真实使⽤.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元⾳Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元⾳8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重⾳），length （⾳程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（⾳调），intonation（语调）juncture（⾳渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（⾳素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （⾳位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (⾳位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p? ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类⽐造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as awhole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundGradable antonymy 渐次对⽴关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components 25. Sense relations between sentences 1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不⼀致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction ⾃相⽭盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by moreThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从⼀个语域到另⼀个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（⽬标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?> I don’t want to tell you what I bought.2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (violation of quantity)Aunt: How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother: Oh, not at all well. Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born.> Her son should not be blamed.1. Do not say what you believe to be false. (violation of quality)He is made of iron.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.A: Beirut is in Peru, isn’t it?B: And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.> It’s ridiculous.Be relevant. (violation of relation)A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year.> I don’t want to tal k about Prof. Wang.1. Avoid obscurity of expression (violation of manner)A: Let’s get the kids something.B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate.2. Avoid ambiguityA: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.3. Be briefA: Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.33.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both lingustic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in thestudy of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is,the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The formar regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; the latter analyses utternaces in close connnection with their contexts of situation.Chapter 9 Language and literature34.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence; -specific devices (asproduced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.35.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 Linguistics & Language Teaching36. As to learning English well, what do you think is the most desirable syllabus for English majors?37. Definition: Applied linguistics; Universal Grammar; syllabus; interlanguage; contrastive analysis.the Input HypothesisApplied linguistics:the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of theways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching.Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that allpossible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggeststhat some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without beingtaught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be.Syllabus:a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually containsthe aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.Interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who arestill in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis:A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purposeof isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy tolearn and what will be difficult.Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.the Input Hypothesis:according to krashen's input hypothessis,learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguistics38.Transformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramCHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1 rationalism 2innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence7.strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料英语语言学复习资料英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课，其重要性不言而喻。
以下是店铺帮大家整理的英语语言学复习资料，欢迎大家分享。
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶D ualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的'体现。
语言学概论知识汇总(英文)
第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。
英语语言学概论复习
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。
第二，以各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。
第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。
2.各章节复习要点如下Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1)Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics,arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement,descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic,langue VS parole, competence VS performance2)Study of the origin of language3)What are the functions of language?4)Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics?Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1)Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics,acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics,phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broadtranscription VS narrow transcription2)Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation withexamples3)The classification of English consonants and English vowelsand the features involved in the classification4)Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization,dentalization, velarization5)Differences between intonation and toneChapter 3 From morpheme to phrase1)Definitions of the following terms: morpheme, morphology,backformation, blending, class shift2)Differences between root and stem, inflectional VSderivational affix3)Analyze the morphemes contained in English words, such asinternationalization, distempered, moonwalk, frienships4)What are the characteristics of a word?5)Understand the classification of English words: variable VSinvariable, grammatical VS lexical, closed-class VSopen-class, particles, auxiliaries, determiners6)Understand the processes of word formation with examples:blending, abbreviation, acronym, backformation,class-shiftChapter 4 From word to Text1)Definitions of the following terms: syntax, endocentric VSexocentric construction, coordination VS subordination2)Syntactic functions of English sentences: subject (agent VSpatient, grammatical VS logical), predicate, object3)Categories in English: number, gender, agreementChapter 5 Meaning1)Definitions of the following terms: semantics, thereferential theory, semantic triangle, synonymy, antonymy,hyponymy2)Understand synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy with examples3)Subclassification of antonymy4)Componential analysis in practice: such as boy, girl, woman,man, mother, father (entailment and polysemous)Chapter 6 Language and cognition1)Definition of the following terms: psycholinguistics,cognitive linguistics2)Understand the three issues of psycholinguistics: languageacquisition, language comprehension, language production3)Understand examples concerning construal operations4)Understand examples concerning categorization (basic level,superordinate and subordinate levels)5)Understand examples concerning metaphor (target domain,source domain)6)Understand examples concerning metonymyChapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society1)Definition of the following terms: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis,the theory of context of situation2)Understand the two examples (Hopi language and study of colorwords) concerning Sapir-Whorf HypothesisChapter 8 Language in Use1)Differences between pragmatics and semantics2)Understand the theory of Illocutionary Act (three senses)3)Understand the theory of Conversational Implicature, thefour principles of Cooperative Principle (Maxims ofquantity, quality, relation and manner), and the examples indicating the violation of Cooperative Principle4)Understand the characteristics of implicature。
英语语言学知识点整理
英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。
2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。
3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。
二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。
2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。
3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。
语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。
三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。
它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。
2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。
3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。
四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。
2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。
词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。
3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。
同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。
语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。
以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。
英语语言学概论期末复习
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic ）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness ）与理据性（motivation ）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion ）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification ）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family ）——语族（group ）——语支（branch ）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation ）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating isolating languagelanguage ）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language ）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional inflectional languagelanguage ）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis polysynthesis languagelanguage ）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
英语语言学语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。
它涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。
下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。
一、语音学（Phonetics）语音学是研究语音的学问。
它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。
在语音学中，语音被分为音素（phoneme）和音位（allophone）。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。
而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式，即同一音素的不同发音形式。
在语音学中，还有一些重要概念，如元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。
元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类，它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。
而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。
二、语音语调学（Phonology）语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。
它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。
在语音语调学中，音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。
此外，在语音语调学中还有音变（phonological variation）的概念。
音变指的是在其中一种语言中，一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。
音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。
三、语法学（Grammar）语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。
在语法学中，句子是一个重要的研究对象。
句子结构可以划分为短语（phrase）和句子成分（sentence constituents），如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。
语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。
在语法学中，句法树（syntactic tree）是一种图形表示方式，用于描述句子的结构。
句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。
四、语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。
它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。
在语义学中，可以通过语义角色（semantic role）和逻辑关系（logical relation）来描述词语和句子之间的关系。
英语语言学复习资料.(XC)
英语语言学复习资料.(XC)1. is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics. 10. is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is anabstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. 13. It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions. 15. one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes.18. In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.19. the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentsare called suprasegmental features.23. it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” byits users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？)Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aimsto lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity―the throat, oral cavity―the mouth, nasal cavity―the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
语言学复习要点
U11.Phonetics:(the study of)the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world's languages.2.phonology: how speech sounds in a Language form patterns and how these sounds areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.3.morphology: the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.4.syntax: how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.5.semantics: meaning in language.6.pragmatics: meaning in context of use.1.prescriptive VS descriptive.①descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.②If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.ngue VS. parole①langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.②refer to the realization of langue in actual usepetence VS performance①Competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rulers of his language.②Performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.U21.manners of articulationstops ②fricatives ③affricates ④liquids ⑤glides ⑥nasals2.places of articulation ①bilabial ②labio-dental ③dental ④alveolar ⑤palatal ⑥glottal.U4定义：Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” or “or”. Such phrases are called coordinate structures and this phenomenon is known as coordination.四个点：Four important properties of coordination:1,There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2,A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3,Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4,The category type of the coordinated phrase is identical to the category type of elements being joined.U5The naming theory：Plato：The words used in a language are simply labels of objects they stand for, so words are just names for things.**This theory seems only applicable for nouns，and there are nouns which denote things do not exist.The conceptualist view: Ogden and Richards: No direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to, but they are linked through the mediation of concepts. **The link between symbol and concept remains unclarified.The contextualism：J.R.Firth：is an attempt to base meaning on context：situational context，linguistic context.Behaviorism：Bloomfield：He argued the meaning consists in the relation between speech and the practical events represented by The capitalized letters S and R. linked to Psychological interest. Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features. It is abstractand de-contextualized.Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationshipbetween linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.Major sense relations: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, thecollection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference means what alinguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.U6CP: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveyingliteral meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed insaying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is theconsequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by sayingsomething.Searle: illocutionary point (representatives /directives /commissives /expressives /declarations)The illocutionary point of the speech acts named representatives, also known as assertives, isto commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Commissives arethose illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in theutterance. ~of declarations is bring about the corresponce between what is said and reality.U17.Phonetics:(the study of)the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world's languages.8.phonology: how speech sounds in a Language form patterns and how these sounds areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.9.morphology: the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.10.syntax: how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.11.semantics: meaning in language.12.pragmatics: meaning in context of use.1.prescriptive VS descriptive.①descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actuallyuse.②If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in usinglanguage.ngue VS. parole①langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.②refer to the realization of langue in actual usepetence VS performance①Competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rulers of his language.②Performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.U23.manners of articulationstops ②fricatives ③affricates ④liquids ⑤glides ⑥nasals4.places of articulation ①bilabial ②labio-dental ③dental ④alveolar ⑤palatal ⑥glottal.U4定义：Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with thehelp of a conjunction such as “and” or “or”. Such phrases are called coordinate structures andthis phenomenon is known as coordination.四个点：Four important properties of coordination:1,There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2,A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3,Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4,The category type of the coordinated phrase is identical to the category type of elementsbeing joined.U5The naming theory：Plato：The words used in a language are simply labels of objects they standfor, so words are just names for things.**This theory seems only applicable for nouns，andthere are nouns which denote things do not exist.The conceptualist view: Ogden and Richards: No direct link between a linguistic form and whatit refers to, but they are linked through the mediation of concepts. **The link between symboland concept remains unclarified.The contextualism：J.R.Firth：is an attempt to base meaning on context：situational context，linguistic context.Behaviorism：Bloomfield：He argued the meaning consists in the relation between speech andthe practical events represented by The capitalized letters S and R. linked to Psychologicalinterest.Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features. It is abstractand de-contextualized.Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationshipbetween linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.Major sense relations: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, thecollection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference means what alinguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.U6CP: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveyingliteral meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed insaying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is theconsequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by sayingsomething.Searle: illocutionary point (representatives /directives /commissives /expressives /declarations)The illocutionary point of the speech acts named representatives, also known as assertives, isto commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Commissives arethose illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in theutterance. ~of declarations is bring about the corresponce between what is said and reality.。
英语语言学概论复习
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章)2013-6-1Chapter I Introduction2012I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE:T1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.F2.petence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.F3.A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the binations of the sounds to convey meaning in munication.F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be bined to form words is called morphology.F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the bination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes.T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.T19.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.F20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.F21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.T24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.F25. The distinction between petence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.F26.Features that contrast words in meaning are called design featuresare said to be in plementary distribution.F27.Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.F28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear some natural relationship to their meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:descriptive 1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.knowledge2.Chomsky defines “petence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.abstract3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.Duality 43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.arbitrary5. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human munication.Sociolinguistics 6. Sis the study of language in relation to society.syntax7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.genetic 8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.Parole 9. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.applied10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known asa________ linguistics.productive11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12scientifc12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language. social13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the sfunction of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best plete the statement.A1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. systematicD2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. putational linguisticsD. Applied LinguisticsC3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguisticD4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. MeaningfulnessA5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stableD6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongueD.All of the aboveC7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptiveB8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. parativeC9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech munity.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. LanguageB10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasA11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmissionB12.The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. FirthA13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalI V. Answer the following question:1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal munication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:T1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.F2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in plementarydistribution.F3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.F4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.T5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.T6.In everyday munication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.F7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.F8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.T 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.T9. Voicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.F10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.T11.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.F12.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.F13.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.T12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.F13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.T14.The English consonants can be classified in terms of place and manner of articulation.F15.The qualities of vowels depend on the positions of lips.F16.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.F17.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.F18.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.T19. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.F20.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.T21.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.T22.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.T23.Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.T24.The speech sounds in almost every language can be divided into two major natural classes: consonants and vowels.T25.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.F26.Suprasegmental features are distinctive features of segmental phonemes.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:aspiration27．A_____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.articulatory28．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Bilabial 29．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in mon, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.Tongue 30．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.place31．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.stop32．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or plete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.suprasegmental33．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation,etc.sequential 34．The rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.narrow35．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.intonation36．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________. phonology37．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are bined into meaningful units toeffect linguistic munication.alveolar38. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in all these words are a_______ sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.oral39．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.tone40．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.sentence41．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best plete the statement:A1. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.A. acousticB. articulatoryC. auditoryD. allomorphicD2.The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricativeC3．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cordsA4．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantalB5．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/D6．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similarA7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in plementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pairD8．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricativeC9. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middleD10. Palatal semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]D11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophonesC12.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic ponentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic featuresD13.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phonemeD14．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesC15. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle16.The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced _______, respectively.( C )A. stopsB. fricativesC. affricatesD. plosivesIV. Answer the following question:1. How are the English consonants classified?2. Explain with examples the sequential rule, and the assimilation rule in phonology.Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:T1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.F2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.T3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.T4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.F5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.T6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.T7. Almost every word in every language is posed of one or more morphemes.F8.The allomorph is an abstract unit.T9. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.F10. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.F11. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.T12. Phonetically, the stress of a pound often falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.F13. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly prefixes.F14. The meaning of a pound is the bination of the meanings of the words in the pound.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: Root1. Ris the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Morpheme 2. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Bound 3. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be bined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.derivational 4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes. suffix5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.pounding 6. C__________ is the bination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.pound7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e.“snow”and “fall.”This newly formed word is generally regarded as ac_______.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best plete the statement:D1.The morpheme “vision”in the mon word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD2.The pound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a pound __________.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its ponentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.C3. “-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootD4. Which of the following is NOT a pound word?A. RainbowB. MilkshakeC. Icy-coldD. UnpleasantB5.The part of speech of the pounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elemD. both the first andthe second elements.B6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be bined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. WordsC7._________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. MorphemeC8.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticD9.Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB.can not be bined with other morphemesC.can either be free or boundD.have to be bined with other morphemes.A10.____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. AffixesB11._________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences C12.“-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootC13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. AdverbsB14.In the word unreliable, the prefix “un-”is a(n) _______ morpheme.A. freeB. boundC. rootD. inflectionalA15. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”, “aspect”, “degree”and so forth are called morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivationalA16. The English word “modernizers”is posed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. fiveC17.Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –fulV. Answer the following question:What is an inflectional morpheme? Locate the inflectional morpheme in each of the following sentences and point out its grammatical meaning.Mr. Smith lives in the Big Apple.The film’s already started.We are preparing for an important test.Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:F1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the bination of morphemes into words.F2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.F3. Sentences are posed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.T4. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and prehend.T5. In a plex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.T6. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.F7.A sentence can’t have more than one deep structure.T8. The structure that occurs after movement takes place is what we term as surface structure.T9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.T10. A noun phrase contains a noun, while other elements are optional.T11.Words in a sentence are organized into groups of lexical categories, monly known as parts of speech.T12.Chomsky made a distinction between two levels of structures: surface and deep structures.T13.Transformational-generative grammar was first suggested by Noam Chomsky.II. Diagram the constituent structure of the following sentence and name the different constituents. ( IC analysis)The passenger train from Chicago will arrive in Atlanta after midnight.Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:F1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.F2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.T3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.F4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.T5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.T6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.F7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its ponents.T8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.F9. The predication analysis of a sentence only applies to statements and interrogative forms.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:Semantics1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.direct2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.Reference 3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.Synonyms 4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.homophones5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.relational6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called r_______ opposites.referential7.What is municated by virtue of what language refers to is the r_____meaning of a word.Reverse 8. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.ponential 9. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning ponents.selectional10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.naming11. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best plete the statement:A1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. FirthB2. “We shall know a word by the pany it keeps.”This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourismD3. Which of the following is not true?A.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B.Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D.Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary pilers are not interested in.D4.“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposesB5.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. ponential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysisC6.“alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. plementary antonymsD. none of the aboveA7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. SenseC8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. HyponymyD9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonymsC10.The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________A converseB relationalC plementaryD gradableD11. According to the ponential analysis, the word “girl”and “woman”differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULTA12.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A.grammatical rulesB.selectional restrictionsC.semantic rulesD.semantic featuresD13.The words stationary and stationery are identical in sound, but different in。
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英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学)is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The s tudy of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位)is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15.broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16.narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词)In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes.18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素)it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing islearned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using la nguage, it is said to be prescriptive.8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准)T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。