ch01微观经济学

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微观经济学第1章

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理念6 分析经济现象长期和短期有别
微观：长期和短期宏观：长期和短期
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理念7，长期来看，经济增长是改善人们生活水平最根本的途径
西欧国家西欧移民国日本亚洲（不含日本）拉美国家东欧与前苏联国家非洲国家世界
1000 400 400 425 450 400
483 667 917 1 501 2 601 5 729 4 354
400 418 444 585 852 1 365 1 368 565 667 867 1 510 2 114 4 104 5 709
2:01 3:01 5:01 9:01 15:01 13:01 19:01
世界各主要地区1000-1998年间人均GDP水平和地区差距（以１９９０年国际美元标准值计算） Maddison，The World Economy A Millennial Perspective，2001，p126.
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食物
资源配置效率的提高
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y x
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1.6.3 采用科学方法时应该注意的几个问题
1，做出假定是一门艺术。 2，变量之间存在相互关系并不一定意味着
有因果关系。 3 ，要防止运用合成谬误（ fallacy of
本为iPod创造的价值约为26美元，大部分
归功于东芝的硬盘，而中国内地工人贡献
的价值则将近3美元，在韩国所增加的价值
2甚020/至12/2还4 不到1美元。

西方经济学微观经济学知识点总结

西方经济学微观经济学知识点总结微观经济学是研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业）在资源配置和决策中的行为和效果的经济学分支。

它帮助我们理解个体经济主体在面临选择时是如何做出决策的，以及这些决策对市场和整体经济的影响。

以下是关于西方经济学微观经济学的一些重要知识点总结。

1.供需关系供需关系是微观经济学中一个基础概念。

供给和需求是市场上最重要的力量，它们决定了商品和服务的价格和数量。

供给表示卖方愿意以某价格提供的商品或服务的数量，而需求表示买方愿意以某价格购买的商品或服务的数量。

供求关系决定了市场的价格和数量的均衡点，即市场上商品或服务的实际交易价格和数量。

供需关系还可以帮助我们理解市场上的波动和变化，例如需求增加或供给减少会导致商品价格上涨，反之亦然。

2.边际效用和边际成本边际效用和边际成本是微观经济学中的重要概念。

边际效用是指每增加一单位商品或服务对个体的满足程度或效用的增加量，而边际成本是指每增加一单位商品或服务所需要付出的额外成本。

这两个概念可以帮助个体做出最优的决策，例如在追求最大化满足的情况下，边际效用应该等于边际成本。

此外，边际效用和边际成本也可以应用在企业生产决策上，帮助企业确定最优的生产量和生产要素的使用。

3.市场结构市场结构是指市场上的竞争程度和市场上企业的数量和类型。

微观经济学研究了不同市场结构下的市场行为和市场效率。

常见的市场结构包括完全竞争市场、垄断市场、寡头市场和垄断竞争市场。

不同市场结构下企业的定价、定位和行为均不同，因此也会对市场价格和效率产生影响。

4.成本和产出成本和产出是企业生产活动中的重要概念。

企业需要考虑成本和产出之间的关系来做出生产决策。

成本包括固定成本和变动成本，产出是指企业所生产的产品或服务的数量。

微观经济学研究了企业如何最大化利润，通过分析成本和产出的关系来确定最优的生产量和生产要素的使用。

5.垄断和竞争垄断和竞争是微观经济学中的重要议题。

垄断是指市场上只有一个卖方或者少数几个卖方，它们可以通过定价和市场行为来控制市场价格和数量。

PPT_standard_微观经济学ECON103Ch01

PART I INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS
The Scope and Method of Economics
CHAPTER 1 The Scope and Method of Economics
1
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Why Study Economics? To Learn a Way of Thinking To Understand Society To Understand Global Affairs To Be an Informed Voter The Scope of Economics Microeconomics and Macroeconomics The Diverse Fields of Economics The Method of Economics Theories and Models Economic Policy An Invitation
iPod and the World
An iPod Has Global Value. Ask the (Many) Countries That Make It. The New York Times
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Principles of Microeconomics 9e by Case, Fair and Oster
scarce Limited.
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Principles of Microeconomics 9e by Case, Fair and Oster

曼昆微观经济学英文答案ch01

1WHAT’S NEW:The discussions of Principle #4, “People respond to incentives,” Principle #7, “Governments cansometimes improve market outcomes,” and Principle #10, “Society faces a s hort-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment” have been shortened. A definition for the term “business cycle” has been added. A new FYI box on “How to Read This Book” has been added and provides students with tips on studying.LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, students should understand:➢ that economics is about the allocation of scarce resources.➢ that individuals face tradeoffs.➢ the meaning of opportunity cost.➢ how to use marginal reasoning when making decisions.➢ how incent ives affect people’s behavior.➢ why trade among people or nations can be good for everyone.➢ why markets are a good, but not perfect, way to allocate resources.➢ what determines some trends in the overall economy.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 1 is the first chapter in a three-chapter section that serves as the introduction to the text. Chapter 1 introduces ten fundamental principles on which the study of economics is based. In a broad sense, the rest of the text is an elaboration on these ten principles. Chapter 2 will develop how economists approach problems while Chapter 3 will explain how individuals and countries gain from trade. The purpose of Chapter 1 is to lay out ten economic principles that will serve as building blocks for the rest of the text. The ten principles can be grouped into three categories: how people makedecisions, how people interact, and how the economy works as a whole. Throughout the text, references1 TEN PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS2 Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economicswill be made repeatedly to these ten principles.KEY POINTS:1. The fundamental lessons about individual decisionmaking are that people face tradeoffs among alternative goals, that the cost of any action is measured in terms of forgone opportunities, thatrational people make decisions by comparing marginal costs and marginal benefits, and that people change their behavior in response to the incentives they face.2. The fundamental lessons about interactions among people are that trade can be mutually beneficial,that markets are usually a good way of coordinating trades among people, and that the government can potentially improve market outcomes if there is some sort of market failure or if the market outcome is inequitable.3. The fundamental lessons about the economy as a whole are that productivity is the ultimate sourceof living standards, that money growth is the ultimate source of inflation, and that society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.CHAPTER OUTLINE:A. The word “economy” comes from the Greek word meaning “one who mana ges a household.”B. This makes some sense since in the economy we are faced with many decisions (just as a household is).C.Fundamental economic problem: resources are scarce. D. Definition of scarcity : the limited nature of society’s resources.E. Definition of economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources.Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics 3A. Principle #1: People Face Tradeoffs1. “There is no such thing as a free lunch.” Making decisions requires trading of fone goal for another.2. Examples include how a student spends her time, how a family decides to spendits income, how the U.S. government spends tax dollars, how regulations mayprotect the environment at a cost to firm owners.3. A special example of a tradeoff is the tradeoff between efficiency and equity.a. Definition of efficiency: the property of society getting the most itcan from its scarce resources.b. Definition of equity: the property of distributing economicprosperity fairly among the members of society.c. For example, tax dollars paid by wealthy Americans and then distributedto those less fortunate may improve equity but lower the return to hardwork and therefore reduce the level of output produced by our resources.d.This implies that the cost of this increased equity is a reduction in theefficient use of our resources.4. Recognizing that tradeoffs exist does not indicate what decisions should be made.B. Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It1. Making decisions requires individuals to consider the benefits and costs of someaction.2. What are the costs of going to college?a. We cannot count room and board (at least all of the cost) because theperson would have to pay for food and shelter even if he was not inschool.b. We would want to count the value of the student’s time since he couldbe working for pay instead of attending classes and studying.4 Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics3. Definition of opportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtainsome item.C. Principle #3: Rational People Think at the Margin1. Many decisions in life involve incremental decisions: Should I remain in schoolthis semester? Should I take another course this semester? Should I study anadditional hour for tomorrow’s exam?2. Definition of marginal changes: small incremental adjustments to a planof action.3. Example: You are trying to decide how many years you should stay in school.Comparing the lifestyle of an individual with a Ph.D. to that of an individual whohas dropped out of grade school would be inappropriate. You are likely decidingwhether or not to remain in school for an additional year or two. Thus, you needto compare the additional benefits of another year in school (the marginalbenefit) with the additional cost of staying in school for another year (themarginal cost).4. Another example: Suppose that flying a 200-seat plane across the country coststhe airline $100,000, which means that the average cost of each seat is $500.Suppose that the plane is minutes from departure and a passenger is willing topay $300 for a seat. Should the airline sell the seat for $300? In this case, themarginal cost of an additional passenger is very small.D. Principle #4: People Respond to Incentives1. Because people make decisions by weighing costs and benefits, their decisionsmay change in response to changes in costs and benefits.a. When the price of a good rises, consumers will buy less of it because itscost has risen.b. When the price of a good rises, producers will allocate more resources tothe production of the good because the benefit from producing the goodhas risen.2. Sometimes policymakers fail to understand how policies may alter incentives andbehavior.3. Example: Seat belt laws increase use of seat belts and lower the incentives ofindividuals to drive safely. This leads to an increase in the number of caraccidents. This also leads to an increased risk for pedestrians.If you include any incentive-based criteria on your syllabus, discuss it now. Forexample, if you reward class attendance (or penalize students who do not attendclass), explain to students how this change in the marginal benefit of attending classcan be expected to alter their behavior.Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics 5III. How People InteractA. Principle #5: Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off1. Trade is not like a sports competition where one side gains and the other sideloses.2. Consider trade that takes place inside your home. Certainly the family isinvolved in trade with other families on a daily basis. Most families do not buildtheir own homes, make their own clothes, or grow their own food.3. Just like families benefit from trading with one another so do countries.4. This occurs because it allows for specialization in areas that countries (or families)can do best.6 Chapter 1/Ten Principles of EconomicsB. Principle #6: Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity1. Many countries that once had centrally planned economies have abandoned thissystem and are trying to develop market economies.2. Definition of market economy: an economy that allocates resourcesthrough the decentralized decisions of many firms and households asthey interact in markets for goods and services.Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics 73. Market prices reflect both the value of a product to consumers and the cost ofthe resources used to produce it. Therefore, decisions to buy or produce goodsand services are made based on the cost to society of providing them.4. When a government interferes in a market and restricts price from adjustingdecisions that households and firms make are not based on the properinformation. Thus, these decisions may be inefficient.5. Centrally planned economies have failed because they did not allow the marketto work.6. FYI: Adam Smith and the Invisible Handa. Adam Smith’s 1776 work suggested that although individuals aremotivated by self-interest, an invisible hand guides this self- interest intopromoting society’s economic well-being.b. Smith’s astute perceptions will be discussed more fully in the chap ters tocome.C. Principle #7: Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes1. There are two broad reasons for the government to interfere with the economy:the promotion of efficiency and equity.2. Government policy can be most useful when there is market failure.a. Definition of market failure: a situation in which a market left onits own fails to allocate resources efficiently.3. Examples of Market Failurea. Definition of externality: the impact of one person’s actions onthe well-being of a bystander.b. Definition of market power: the ability of a single economic actor(or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence onmarket prices.c. Because a market economy rewards people for their ability to producethings that other people are willing to pay for, there will be an unequaldistribution of economic prosperity.8 Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics4. Note that the principle states that the government can improve market outcomes.This is not saying that the government always does improve market outcomes. IV. How the Economy as a Whole WorksA. Principle #8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce Goods andServices1. Differences in living standards from one country to another are quite large.2. Changes in living standards over time are also great.3. The explanation for differences in living standards lies in differences inproductivity.4. Definition of productivity: the quantity of goods and services producedfrom each hour of a worker’s time.5. High productivity implies a high standard of living.6. Thus, policymakers must understand the impact of any policy on our ability toproduce goods and services.B. Principle #9: Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money1. Definition of inflation: an increase in the overall level of prices in theeconomy.2. When the government creates a large amount of money, the value of moneyfalls.3. Examples: Germany after World War I (in the early 1920s), the United States inthe 1970s.C. Principle #10: Society Faces a Short-Run Tradeoff between Inflation and Unemployment1. Definition of Phillips curve: a curve that shows the short-run tradeoffbetween inflation and unemployment.2. This is a controversial topic among economists.3. This tradeoff is only temporary but it can last for several years.4. The Phillips curve is important for understanding the business cycle.5. Definition of business cycle: fluctuations in economic activity, such asemployment and production.Chapter 1/Ten Principles of Economics 96. Policymakers can exploit this tradeoff by using various policy instruments, butthe extent and desirability of these interventions is of continuing debate.D. FYI: How to Read this Book1. Economics is very useful to understand, but it can be a difficult subject to grasp.2. There are five tips to make reading and understanding the material inthe book easier.a. Summarize, don’t highlight.b. Test yourself.c. Practice, practice, practice.d. Study in groups.e. Don’t forget the real world.10 Chapter 1/Ten Principles of EconomicsSOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. The four principles of economic decisionmaking are: (1) people face tradeoffs; (2) the cost ofsomething is what you give up to get it; (3) rational people think at the margin; and (4) peoplerespond to incentives. People face tradeoffs because to get one thing that they like, they usually have to give up another thing that they like. The cost of something is what you give up to get it, not just in terms of monetary costs but all opportunity costs. Rational people think at the margin by taking an action if and only if the marginal benefits exceed the marginal costs. Peoplerespond to incentives because as they compare benefits to costs, a change in incentives maycause their behavior to change.2. The three principles concerning economic interactions are: (1) trade can make everyone betteroff; (2) markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity; and (3) governments can sometimes improve market outcomes. Trade can make everyone better off because it allowscountries to specialize in what they do best and to enjoy a wider variety of goods and services.Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity because the invisible hand leadsmarkets to desirable outcomes. Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes because sometimes markets fail to allocate resources efficiently because of an externality or market power.3. The three principles that describe how the economy as a whole works are: (1) a country’sstandard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services; (2) prices rise when thegovernment prints too much money; and (3) society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods andservices, which in turn depends on its productivity, which is a function of the education ofworkers and the access workers have to the necessary tools and technology. Prices rise whenthe government prints too much money because more money in circulation reduces the value of money, causing inflation. Society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment that is only temporary and policymakers have some ability to exploit this relationship usingvarious policy instruments.Questions for Review1. Examples of tradeoffs include time tradeoffs (such as studying one subject over another, orstudying at all compared to engaging in social activities) and spending tradeoffs (such as whether to use your last ten dollars on pizza or on a study guide for that tough economics course).2. The opportunity cost of seeing a movie includes the monetary cost of admission plus the timecost of going to the theater and attending the show. The time cost depends on what else youmight do with that time; if it's staying home and watching TV, the time cost may be small, but if it's working an extra three hours at your job, the time cost is the money you could have earned.3. The marginal benefit of a glass of water depends on your circumstances. If you've just run amarathon, or you've been walking in the desert sun for three hours, the marginal benefit is very high. But if you've been drinking a lot of liquids recently, the marginal benefit is quite low. The point is that even the necessities of life, like water, don't always have large marginal benefits.4. Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond tothe policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions canhave quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a verydifferent type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.5. Trade among countries isn't a game with some losers and some winners because trade can makeeveryone better off. By allowing specialization, trade between people and trade betweencountries can improve everyone's welfare.6. The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals andfirms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.7. The two main causes of market failure are externalities and market power. An externality is theimpact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander, such as from pollution or thecreation of knowledge. Market power refers to the ability of a single person (or small group ofpeople) to unduly influence market prices, such as in a town with only one well or only one cable television company. In addition, a market economy also leads to an unequal distribution ofincome.8. Productivity is important because a country's standard of living depends on its ability to producegoods and services. The greater a country's productivity (the amount of goods and servicesproduced from each hour of a worker's time), the greater will be its standard of living.9. Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. Inflation is caused byincreases in the quantity of a nation's money.10. Inflation and unemployment are negatively related in the short run. Reducing inflation entailscosts to society in the form of higher unemployment in the short run.Problems and Applications1. a. A family deciding whether to buy a new car faces a tradeoff between the cost of the carand other things they might want to buy. For example, buying the car might mean theymust give up going on vacation for the next two years. So the real cost of the car is thefamily's opportunity cost in terms of what they must give up.b. For a member of Congress deciding whether to increase spending on national parks, thetradeoff is between parks and other spending items or tax cuts. If more money goesinto the park system, that may mean less spending on national defense or on the policeforce. Or, instead of spending more money on the park system, taxes could be reduced.c. When a company president decides whether to open a new factory, the decision is basedon whether the new factory will increase the firm's profits compared to other alternatives.For example, the company could upgrade existing equipment or expand existing factories.The bottom line is: Which method of expanding production will increase profit the most?d. In deciding how much to prepare for class, a professor faces a tradeoff between thevalue of improving the quality of the lecture compared to other things she could do withher time, such as working on additional research.2. When the benefits of something are psychological, such as going on a vacation, it isn't easy tocompare benefits to costs to determine if it's worth doing. But there are two ways to think aboutthe benefits. One is to compare the vacation with what you would do in its place. If you didn'tgo on vacation, would you buy something like a new set of golf clubs? Then you can decide ifyou'd rather have the new clubs or the vacation. A second way is to think about how much work you had to do to earn the money to pay for the vacation; then you can decide if thepsychological benefits of the vacation were worth the psychological cost of working.3. If you are thinking of going skiing instead of working at your part-time job, the cost of skiingincludes its monetary and time costs, which includes the opportunity cost of the wages you aregiving up by not working. If the choice is between skiing and going to the library to study, then the cost of skiing is its monetary and time costs including the cost to you of getting a lower grade in your course.4. If you spend $100 now instead of saving it for a year and earning 5 percent interest, you aregiving up the opportunity to spend $105 a year from now. The idea that money has a time value is the basis for the field of finance, the subfield of economics that has to do with prices offinancial instruments like stocks and bonds.5. The fact that you've already sunk $5 million isn't relevant to your decision anymore, since thatmoney is gone. What matters now is the chance to earn profits at the margin. If you spendanother $1 million and can generate sales of $3 million, you'll earn $2 million in marginal profit,so you should do so. You are right to think that the project has lost a total of $3 million ($6million in costs and only $3 million in revenue) and you shouldn't have started it. That's true, but if you don't spend the additional $1 million, you won't have any sales and your losses will be $5million. So what matters is not the total profit, but the profit you can earn at the margin. In fact, you'd pay up to $3 million to complete development; any more than that, and you won't beincreasing profit at the margin.6. Harry suggests looking at whether productivity would rise or fall. Productivity is certainlyimportant, since the more productive workers are, the lower the cost per gallon of potion. Ronwants to look at average cost. But both Harry and Ron are missing the other side of theequation−revenue. A firm wants to maximize its profits, so it needs to examine both costs andrevenues. Thus, Hermione is right−it’s best to examine whether the extra revenue wouldexceed the extra costs. Hermione is the only one who is thinking at the margin.7. a. The provision of Social Security benefits lowers an individual’s incentive to save forretirement. The benefits provide some level of income to the individual when he or sheretires. This means that the individual is not entirely dependent on savings to supportconsumption through the years in retirement.b. Since a person gets fewer after-tax Social Security benefits the greater is his or herearnings, there is an incentive not to work (or not work as much) after age 65. Themore you work, the lower your after-tax Social Security benefits will be. Thus thetaxation of Social Security benefits discourages work effort after age 65.8. a. When welfare recipients who are able to work have their benefits cut off after two years,they have greater incentive to find jobs than if their benefits were to last forever.b. The loss of benefits means that someone who can't find a job will get no income at all,so the distribution of income will become less equal. But the economy will be moreefficient, since welfare recipients have a greater incentive to find jobs. Thus the changein the law is one that increases efficiency but reduces equity.9. By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If youdivided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose ittakes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers canmake wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit ifSpanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and theyexchange some wine for some clothes.10. a. Being a central planner is tough! To produce the right number of CDs by the right artistsand deliver them to the right people requires an enormous amount of information. Youneed to know about production techniques and costs in the CD industry. You need toknow each person's musical tastes and which artists they want to hear. If you make thewrong decisions, you'll be producing too many CDs by artists that people don't want tohear, and not enough by others.b. Your decisions about how many CDs to produce carry over to other decisions. You haveto make the right number of CD players for people to use. If you make too many CDsand not enough cassette tapes, people with cassette players will be stuck with CDs theycan't play. The probability of making mistakes is very high. You will also be faced withtough choices about the music industry compared to other parts of the economy. If youproduce more sports equipment, you'll have fewer resources for making CDs. So alldecisions about the economy influence your decisions about CD production.11. a. Efficiency: The market failure comes from the monopoly by the cable TV firm.b. Equityc. Efficiency: An externality arises because secondhand smoke harms nonsmokers.d. Efficiency: The market failure occurs because of Standard Oil's monopoly power.e. Equityf. Efficiency: There is an externality because of accidents caused by drunk drivers.12. a. If everyone were guaranteed the best health care possible, much more of our nation'soutput would be devoted to medical care than is now the case. Would that be efficient?If you think that currently doctors form a monopoly and restrict health care to keep theirincomes high, you might think efficiency would increase by providing more health care.But more likely, if the government mandated increased spending on health care, theeconomy would be less efficient because it would give people more health care than theywould choose to pay for. From the point of view of equity, if poor people are less likelyto have adequate health care, providing more health care would represent animprovement. Each person would have a more even slice of the economic pie, thoughthe pie would consist of more health care and less of other goods.b. When workers are laid off, equity considerations argue for the unemployment benefitssystem to provide them with some income until they can find new jobs. After all, no oneplans to be laid off, so unemployment benefits are a form of insurance. But there’s anefficiency problem why work if you can get income for doing nothing? The economyisn’t operating efficiently if people remain unemployed for a long time, andunemployment benefits encourage unemployment. Thus, there’s a tradeoff betweenequity and efficiency. The more generous are unemployment benefits, the less income islost by an unemployed person, but the more that person is encouraged to remainunemployed. So greater equity reduces efficiency.13. Since average income in the United States has roughly doubled every 35 years, we are likely tohave a better standard of living than our parents, and a much better standard of living than our grandparents. This is mainly the result of increased productivity, so that an hour of workproduces more goods and services than it used to. Thus incomes have continuously risen overtime, as has the standard of living.14. If Americans save more and it leads to more spending on factories, there will be an increase inproduction and productivity, since the same number of workers will have more equipment towork with. The benefits from higher productivity will go to both the workers, who will get paidmore since they're producing more, and the factory owners, who will get a return on theirinvestments. There is no such thing as a free lunch, however, because when people save more, they are giving up spending. They get higher incomes at the cost of buying fewer goods.15. a. If people have more money, they are probably going to spend more on goods andservices.b. If prices are sticky, and people spend more on goods and services, then output mayincrease, as producers increase output to meet the higher demand rather than raisingprices.c. If prices can adjust, then the higher spending of consumers will be matched withincreased prices and output won't rise.16. To make an intelligent decision about whether to reduce inflation, a policymaker would need toknow what causes inflation and unemployment, as well as what determines the tradeoff between them. Any attempt to reduce inflation will likely lead to higher unemployment in the short run. A policymaker thus faces a tradeoff between the benefits of lower inflation compared to the cost of higher unemployment.。

微观经济学原理有哪些

微观经济学原理有哪些微观经济学是研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业）和市场的经济行为和决策的学科。

在微观经济学中，有一些基本原理是我们需要了解和掌握的。

下面我们来看看微观经济学原理有哪些。

首先，供求关系是微观经济学的基本原理之一。

供求关系是指在市场中，商品的供给和需求之间的关系。

供给方面，随着商品价格的上升，供给量也会相应增加；需求方面，随着商品价格的下降，需求量会相应增加。

供求关系决定了市场价格的形成和商品的分配。

其次，边际分析是微观经济学的重要原理之一。

边际分析是指在经济决策中，考虑一单位变动所带来的影响。

例如，边际成本是指生产一个额外单位产品所需要增加的成本，边际收益是指生产一个额外单位产品所带来的收益。

边际分析帮助我们理解在资源有限的情况下，如何做出最优的决策。

再次，市场结构是微观经济学的重要内容之一。

市场结构是指市场中的买卖双方的数量和规模以及它们之间的关系。

常见的市场结构包括完全竞争市场、垄断市场、寡头垄断市场等。

不同的市场结构会影响市场价格和资源配置的效率。

此外，效用理论也是微观经济学的重要原理之一。

效用理论是研究人们在做出消费决策时，如何最大化自身的满足感。

边际效用递减是效用理论的核心概念，它指的是随着消费量的增加，每一单位的边际效用会逐渐减少。

效用理论帮助我们理解消费者的选择行为和需求曲线的形成。

最后，外部性和公共物品是微观经济学的另一个重要原理。

外部性是指生产或消费活动对第三方造成的影响，它可能是正面的（正外部性）也可能是负面的（负外部性）。

公共物品是指不排他性和非竞争性的商品，例如国防、环境保护等。

外部性和公共物品的存在会影响市场的效率，需要政府进行干预和调节。

综上所述，微观经济学原理涉及供求关系、边际分析、市场结构、效用理论、外部性和公共物品等内容。

了解和掌握这些原理，有助于我们更好地理解市场经济运行的规律，指导个体和市场做出更加理性和有效的决策。

范里安微观经济学英文课件Ch01

Then p = $490 QD = 2.
Modeling Apartment Demand
The lower is the rental rate p, the larger is the quantity of close apartments demanded
p QD .
The quantity demanded vs. price graph is the market demand curve for close apartments.
Modeling the Apartment Market
How are apartment rents determined? Suppose
apartments are close or distant, but otherwise identical
distant apartments rents are exogenous and known
Market Supply Curve for Apartments
p
100
QS
Competitive Market Equilibrium
“low” rental price quantity demanded of close apartments exceeds quantity available price will rise.
--- John Maynard Keynes
Economic Modeling
What causes what in economic systems?
At what level of detail shall we model an economic phenomenon?

微观经济学ch01

Supply-Demand Equilibrium
• A more general model is
qD = a + bp
qS = c + dp
Equilibrium qD = qS
a + bp = c + dp
ac p* d b
Supply-Demand Equilibrium
• What happens to the equilibrium price if either demand or supply shift?
– focus on only a few forces at a time – other variables are assumed to be unchanged
Optimization Assumptions
• Many models assume that economic actors are rationally pursuing some goal
Supply-Demand Equilibrium
Price
Equilibrium QD = Q s
S
The supply curve has a positive slope because marginal cost rises as quantity increases The demand curve has a negative slope because the marginal value falls as quantity increases
• primarily affected by labor costs
– diamond-water paradox
• producing diamonds requires more labor than producing water

微观经济学教学课件：Ch01-What Is Economics

Definition of Economics
Economics is the social science that studies the choices that individuals, businesses, governments, and entire societies make as they cope with scarcity and the incentives that influence and reconcile those choices.
whom goods and services get produced? ▪ When do choices made in the pursuit of self-interest
also promote the social interest?
Two Big Economic Questions
What, How, and For Whom? Goods and services are the objects that people value and produce to satisfy human wants. What? What we produce changes over time. Seventy years ago, almost 25 percent of Americans worked on farms. Today that number is 3 percent. Seventy years ago, 45 percent of Americans produced services. Today, almost 80 percent of Americans have service jobs.

微观经济学的核心概念与原理

微观经济学的核心概念与原理微观经济学是经济学中最基本和最重要的学科之一，它研究的是个体经济单位的经济行为，以及这些行为如何影响整体经济。

在微观经济学中，有几个核心的概念和原理，这些是理解市场经济运行的关键。

首先，最基本的概念是供需曲线和均衡价格。

在任何特定商品或服务的市场上，需求和市场供给之间的相互作用决定了价格。

需求曲线表示消费者愿意支付的价格，而供给曲线则表示生产者愿意以每个单位产量提供给市场的价格。

当供需达到平衡时，市场价格就确定了。

这个价格不仅决定了买卖双方能接受的交易条件，也反映了市场上的供求关系。

其次，弹性理论也是微观经济学中的重要概念。

它描述了价格变动对需求和供给的影响，以及这些变化如何影响市场价格。

弹性理论包括需求价格弹性、供给弹性、交叉弹性、预期价格弹性和国际价格弹性等概念，这些都在决定市场动态和政策影响方面起着关键作用。

再者，消费者行为理论也是微观经济学的重要组成部分。

它研究的是消费者如何在既定收入和偏好下做出最优购买决策，以实现效用最大化。

这个理论基于预算约束线和消费者偏好的研究，帮助我们理解消费者的购买决策如何影响市场价格和整体经济。

此外，生产理论也是微观经济学的重要组成部分。

它研究的是生产者如何使用投入要素（如土地、劳动力和资本）来生产产品和服务。

生产函数描述了投入和产出之间的关系，以及生产者的最优决策策略。

还有市场失灵和公共品理论也是微观经济学的重要组成部分。

市场失灵是指市场不能有效或公正地分配资源的情况。

公共品理论则研究的是那些增加一个人福利所增加的也恰好是另一个人福利的情况。

这两个概念对于理解政府在市场经济中的作用至关重要。

最后，博弈论和信息经济学也是微观经济学的重要领域。

博弈论研究的是在不确定环境下的决策制定，而信息经济学则关注信息不对称和市场效率问题。

这两个领域的研究对于理解市场动态和政策影响至关重要。

微观经济学中的这些概念和原理构成了我们理解市场经济运行的基础。

秋石微观经济学ch01

© 2011-13 王秋石 37/67
看不见的手价格机制就是指“看不见的手”。市场机制之所以会使经济活动有序地进行,就在于价格在市场经济中有两大相关的功能。
第一,价格提供了信息。价格的相对高低在市场经济中反映了商品和生产要素的稀缺程度,它为消费者、生产者以及中间商提供了各自所需的信息。第二,价格提供了激励。正是价格所提供的信息,加上企业的利润动机,生产者便决定应该生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产等问题。
© 2011-13 王秋石
15/67
资源配置生产也是一种配置资源的活动。所谓资源配置,就是将生产要素按一定比例进行组合、用于生产的活动。资源配置有好坏优劣之分。经济学家的根本任务之一就是努力寻找某种最优的资源配置的方式或方法,简单地说,即优化资源配置。生产就要讲效率。经济学就是研究如何提高效率的一门学问。生产的效率表现为以下两个方面:
生产什么(what to produce)、如何生产(how to produce) 为谁生产(for whom to produce) 。
三大基本经济问题在任何社会都是共同存在的，而且必须面临和回答的问题。
© 2011-13 王秋石 23/67
生产什么生产什么包括了生产什么品种、生产多少数量、生产什么品质、什么时间以及什么地点生产等五个方面的问题。一个国家和地区以及一个个人生产什么、不生产什么不是以她的主观意志为转移的，而是由她隐藏的比较优势所决定。
© 2011-13 王秋石
31/67
计划经济计划经济(planned economy)，亦称“指令型经济 ” (command economy)，是以计划调节作为资源配置主要工具的一种经济。在计划经济中，所有的经济决策，包括资源利用的水平、生产的组合和分配以及生产的组织形式都是由中央计划或地方计划当局所决定的。在计划经济体制中，效率是一个严重被忽略的概念。

什么是微观经济学

微观经济学又称个体经济学，小经济学，是宏观经济学的对称。

微观经济学主要以单个经济单位(•单个的生产者、单个的消费者、单个市场的经济活动)作为研究对象，分析单个生产者如何将有限的资源分配在各种商品的生产上以取得最大的利润；单个消费者如何将有限的收入分配在各种商品的消费上以获得最大的满足。

同时，微观经济学还分析单个生产者的产量、成本、使用的生产要素数量和利润如何确定；生产要素供应者的收入如何决定；单个商品的效用、供给量、•需求量和价格如何确定等等。

微观经济学——分析个体经济单位的经济行为,在此基础上,研究现代西方经济社会的市场机制运行及其在经济资源配置中的作用,并提出微观经济政策以纠正市场失灵。

微观经济学关心社会中的个人和各组织之间的交换过程，它研究的基本问题是资源配置的决定，其基本理论就是通过供求来决定相对价格的理论。

所以微观经济学的主要范围包括消费者选择，厂商进行的供给和收入分配。

微观”是希腊文“μικρο”的意译，原意是“小”。

微观经济学是研究社会中单个经济单位的经济行为，以及相应的经济变量的单项数值如何决定的经济学说。

亦称市场经济学或价格理论。

微观经济学的中心理论是价格理论。

微观经济学的一个中心思想是，自由交换往往使资源得到最充分的利用，在这种情况下，资源配置被认为是帕累托（Pareto）有效的。

微观经济学知识点总结

微观经济学知识点总结微观经济学是研究个体经济行为以及个体经济决策对市场的影响的学科。

在这篇文章中，我将总结一些微观经济学的重要知识点，帮助读者更好地理解个体经济行为和市场运作的原理。

首先，我们来谈谈个体经济行为中的效用理论。

效用是指个体对特定商品或服务的满足程度，而效用理论则试图解释个体在面临选择时如何最大化其效用。

效用理论中的两个重要概念是边际效用和边际效用递减原理。

边际效用是指个体对一单位额外消费的商品或服务所得到的额外满足程度，而边际效用递减原理则指随着个体对某种商品或服务的消费量增加，其边际效用逐渐减少。

了解效用理论可以帮助个体做出理性的经济决策，以使其效用最大化。

其次，市场需求和供给是微观经济学中另一个重要的概念。

市场需求是指在一定价格水平下，所有个体对某种商品或服务的需求总和。

市场供给则是指在一定价格水平下，所有供应者愿意与市场交易的某种商品或服务的数量总和。

市场需求和供给的交互作用决定了市场上商品或服务的价格和数量。

当供给超过需求时，价格下降；而当需求超过供给时，价格上升。

了解市场需求和供给的变化对于个体和企业做出适应性决策非常重要。

第三个知识点是市场失灵。

尽管市场通常能够有效地分配资源，但在某些情况下，市场可能会发生失灵。

常见的市场失灵包括外部性和市场势力。

外部性指个体或企业的活动对其他个体或企业产生的影响，该影响在市场交易中无法内部化。

市场势力则指个体或企业在市场上具有的能够影响价格和数量的能力，这可能导致垄断或寡头垄断等不完全竞争市场形式的出现。

了解市场失灵对于政府政策的制定和市场的监管至关重要。

第四个知识点是成本理论。

成本理论是微观经济学中探讨企业生产决策的一个重要工具。

在成本理论中，包括固定成本和可变成本。

固定成本是指在企业生产过程中不随产量变化的成本，如租金和折旧费用。

可变成本是指在企业生产过程中与产量变化相关的成本，如原材料和劳动力成本。

了解成本理论可以帮助企业做出生产规模和定价策略的决策。

Ch01 导论

Ch01导论微观经济学的主要问题和分析方法经济学的基本问题：资源配置。

如何将稀缺资源用于不同的用途。

因此，我们要问：（1）价格由什么决定？（2）谁得到此资源（此资源用于哪些用途）？（3）有哪些不同的机制来决定这种配置？（4）如何评价这些机制的合意性？对这些问题的回答需要我们建立模型。

通过模型，我们可以对现实进行简化，除去无关的细节，把重点放在我们想要弄明白的经济现实的基本特征上。

因此，一个好的模型有两个特征：（1）能够抓住描述经济现实的基本特征，（2）尽量简单。

我们考虑一个住房租赁市场。

一个城市的分为内城区和外城区。

内城区的住房由于上班方便，因此更受欢迎。

这样，只要付得起房租，人们都愿意租内城区的住房。

我们仅考察内城区的住房市场：（1）内城区的住房价格由什么决定？（2）谁将住在内城区？1.1 建立模型假设：（1）外城区有许多住房可以供应，其价格固定在某个已知的水平上。

（2）除了位置不同之外，内城区和外城区的住房在其他任何方面都是相同的。

外生变量：外城区的住房价格（由本模型以外的因素决定）内生变量：内城区的住房价格（由本模型所讨论的因素决定）1.2 分析框架（1）最优化原理，或者“理性人”假设：人们总是选择他们能够支付的最佳消费方式。

（2）均衡原理：经济活动中的各种因素相互作用，达到某种状态，在这种状态下没有任何人愿意做出进一步调整或改变（也就是说，给定其他人的选择，每一个参与者的选择都是最优的），这时各种经济变量达到一种稳定状态，经济学称这种状态为均衡。

在这里，均衡原理是指价格会自行调整，直到人们的需求数量与供给数量相等。

1.3 需求曲线我们考察一下所有的潜在住房租赁者，问问他们对于一套住房所愿意支付的最高价格。

如果只有一人愿意每月付500美元租一套住房，并且房租的价格是每月500美元。

那么p = $500 ⇒Q D = 1假设第二个人愿意支付的最高价格是490美元，且房租的价格是每月490美元。

微观经济学 chap1PPT课件

自由放任思潮的复兴时期（ 20c709
第二节经济学的研究对象
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一、稀缺、选择与经济学的产生
稀缺（Scarcity）
含义:在一定时期内,相对于人类的无穷欲望而言可用生产物
品和提供劳务的资源总是不足的,即资源的相对有限性.
★没有稀缺就不存在任何经济学问题,稀缺是经济学的前提 ★稀缺是普遍存在的 ★按是否稀缺，可把物品区分为自由物品（或非经济物
产品种类
可供选择的产品组合
A
B
C
D
E
黄油
0
1
2
3
4
（亿公斤）
大炮 10
9
7
4
0
（万门）
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★生产可能性边界
Production-Possibilities Frontier
按上表，给出几何的表达，就形成生产可能性边界。
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图：生产可能性边界
Guns
所表示的组合，在已定的条件下是不可能实现的，W点。
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C、一个经济必须做出选择。
现实的生产，只能在AE曲线上选择一个点。
选择了B，就意味着必须放弃作出A、C、D、E的选择。其它也然。
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D、选择是有机会成本的。
从A-E的各点的关系来看，在既定条件下，要增加大炮的生产，必须以减少黄油的生产为代价。
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二、资源配置、资源利用、经济制度与经济学
1.大炮与黄油的矛盾 ★假设： A、资源量已定；
B、生产技术已定； C、只生产两种产品：黄油与大炮；

微观经济学-Ch01_Pindyck

Do I work or go on vacation? Do I purchase a new car or save my money? Do we hire more workers or buy new
machinery?
How are these trade-offs best made?
much insigrson Education, Inc.
Chapter 1
12
Positive & Normative Analysis
Positive Analysis – statements that describe the relationship of cause and effect
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 1
16
What is a Market?
Defining the Market
Many of the most interesting questions in economics concern the functioning of markets
What choices do individuals make in terms of jobs or workplaces?
How many hours do individuals choose to work?
Trade-off of labor and leisure
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
Determination of the buyers, sellers, and range of products that should be included in a particular market

微观经济学的基础原理

微观经济学的基础原理在经济学领域中，微观经济学是研究个体经济行为和市场交互的分支学科。

它探讨了个人和企业在资源有限的情况下，如何作出决策，以及市场中的价格形成和资源配置等核心问题。

微观经济学的基础原理是该学科的骨干，下面将为您详细介绍。

1. 稀缺性原理稀缺性原理是微观经济学的核心概念之一。

它指出，资源是有限的，而需求却是无限的。

由于资源有限，个体或企业在做出决策时，需要面临取舍和权衡。

稀缺性原理涉及到资源的有效配置和利益最大化问题，对于经济主体的决策具有重要的影响。

2. 机会成本原理机会成本原理是微观经济学中的另一个基础原理。

它指出，在做出决策时，个体或企业所放弃的最好的替代选择就是机会成本。

举个例子，当一个企业决定使用某一种生产技术时，它就放弃了其他可能的技术选择，这些放弃的选择所带来的成本就是机会成本。

机会成本的考量能够帮助个体和企业做出更加明智的决策。

3. 边际效应原理边际效应原理指的是当个体或企业增加或减少一单位的行为时，所产生的效果。

边际效应可以是正的，也可以是负的。

正的边际效应意味着当个体或企业增加一单位的行为时，会获得更多的满足或利益；而负的边际效应意味着当个体或企业减少一单位的行为时，会遭受到损失或成本增加。

边际效应原理对于个体和企业的决策具有指导意义，帮助他们在不同的选择之间做出权衡。

4. 需求和供给的相互作用微观经济学中的需求和供给是两个关键概念。

需求指的是消费者对某种商品或服务的愿望和能力，而供给则是生产者愿意提供的商品或服务的数量。

需求和供给的相互作用决定了市场价格和交易数量。

当需求增加时，价格往往上升，供给减少时，价格往往下降。

需求和供给的均衡决定了市场的价格和数量，是市场调节机制的基础。

5. 市场失灵理论市场失灵理论是微观经济学中的一个重要概念。

它指出，在某些情况下，市场无法有效地分配资源，导致资源配置的效率低下。

市场失灵的原因可以是信息不对称、垄断、外部性等。

在这些情况下，政府干预往往是必要的，以实现资源的有效配置。

微观经济学的核心概念

微观经济学的核心概念微观经济学是经济学的重要分支，研究个体经济单位（如个人、家庭、企业）的经济行为和决策。

在微观经济学的研究中，有一些核心概念是我们必须要了解的。

本文将介绍并讨论这些核心概念，包括需求与供给、边际效用、市场均衡、生产要素和效率等。

1. 需求与供给需求与供给是微观经济学中最基本的概念之一。

需求是指消费者愿意并有能力购买某种商品或服务的数量。

供给则是指生产者愿意并有能力出售某种商品或服务的数量。

需求与供给的平衡决定了市场上商品的价格和数量。

2. 边际效用边际效用是指增加或减少一单位产品或服务所带来的额外满足程度。

在决策过程中，人们往往会考虑边际效用来判断是否继续购买或消费。

边际效用递减原则认为，随着消费数量的增加，每单位产品的边际效用会逐渐减少。

3. 市场均衡市场均衡是指市场上的需求与供给达到平衡状态。

在市场均衡中，商品或服务的供给数量等于需求数量，市场价格也会因此确定下来。

市场均衡通常会使得资源分配效率最大化，并且不存在供过于求或者求过于供的情况。

4. 生产要素生产要素是指用于生产商品和服务的资源，包括劳动力、资本、土地和创新等。

这些生产要素的组合和投入将直接影响产出和生产成本。

5. 效率效率是指在资源有限的情况下，如何有效地分配和利用这些资源。

在经济学中，有两种主要的效率：生产效率和配置效率。

生产效率是指以最少的资源获得最多的产出；配置效率是指资源的分配能够使得社会福利最大化。

总结：微观经济学的核心概念涵盖了需求与供给、边际效用、市场均衡、生产要素和效率等方面。

这些概念是我们了解和分析个体经济行为和市场运作的基础。

通过研究这些核心概念，我们可以更好地理解和解释市场经济中的各种现象和问题，为经济决策提供理论支持和指导。

微观经济学的应用领域广泛，包括个人消费决策、市场竞争、价格形成、资源配置等，对于我们认识和理解整个经济体系具有重要意义。

微观经济学平狄克 PR8e_ch01

做出选择。
既然“不可能要什么有什么”，我们就必须
选择要什么和不要什么。
经济学的定义
经济学
研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源的学科
是关于选择的学科
解释在我们解决稀缺性问题时做出的选择
以及这些选择如何变化的学科
经济学的两个主要分支
•微观经济学（microeconomics）
•经济学的分支，主要研究个体经济单位（消费者、厂
解释并预测了一系列需要被解释和预测的现象。
因而，理论将持续被观察到的事实所检验，而检验的结果是，
理论需要经常地被修改和提炼，有时候甚至被抛弃。
经济学作为一门科学，它的发展绝对地依赖于这种检验和修改
的过程。

评价一种理论时需要牢记的一点是
理论是永无完美的
或者说不完美是理论的一个本质
经济模型
萨缪尔森: 《经济学》,曼昆《经济学原理》，
高鸿业主编《西方经济学》（微观部分）
中级微观经济学
已经学完了初级经济学课程的二年级学生。
理论知识的扩展和分析层次的深化，教学内容涉
及的范围更广
不仅要求学生熟练掌握图形分析工具，而且还要
掌握严密科学的经济数学模型和较高层次的数学
分析手段
培养学生分析现实问题的能力和兴趣，开展互动
•建立新的模型，经济学家通常采取以下步骤
•决定用于建立模型的假设
•形成可以加以检验的假说
•利用经济数据对假说进行检验
•如果模型无法很好地解释经济数据，则对模型进行
修正。
•保留修正后的模型，用于回答类似的经济问题。
实证分析和规范分析
实证分析
描述因果关系的分析
实证问题主要是解释和预测