语言学第四组

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语言学第四章PPT课件

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cp
C
S
NP
VP NP
N Infl V P N
cp
S
Infl VP PN
xp
(spec)(Mod) X (Complement*)(Mod)
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The Expanded XP rule
6.What is deep structure and what is surface structure?
• Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure).
Chapter 4
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By: J.W.
1.What is syntax?
• Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
• Sentence: • A set of words expressing a statement, a question
• The phrase stucture rule for NP ,VP, AP, and pp.
NP
(Det) N (PP) the pretty girl
VP
(Qual) V (NP) often dream a dream
AP
(Deg) A (PP) very careful about you
• a) rich in minerals. • b) often read detective stories. • c) the argument against the proposals • d) already above the window.

语言学chapter4PPT课件

Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).
Conclusion: structure of the sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not vice versa. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
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4.5: A grammar which analyzes

语言学分支

语言学分支语言学是研究普遍存在的语言现象的科学。

语言学是一个跨学科的研究，涉及到多种学科的知识，如语言和文学、心理学、认知心理学、神经生物学、社会学、普通语言学、语用学、语义学、口译翻译、发音学、词汇学、文本学、社会语言学、计算语言学、视觉语言研究等。

从语言学的研究来看，语言学可以被划分为几个分支，这些分支有：语法学，发音学，词汇学，语义学，文本学，社会语言学，语用学，普通语言学等。

语法学是语言学的重要分支之一，它研究语言的结构特点，也就是语言的词汇、句子、文章的规则，及各种结构形式。

语法学的任务是探究语言的结构原理，研究语法系统或句法形式。

语法学是语言学最核心的分支，其任务是探究语言的结构特征，以及语言的表达方式。

发音学是语言学的另一个分支，它主要研究语言的发音系统，以及如何运用发音系统进行语言表达。

发音学的研究是以口腔和鼻腔为媒介，对语音的波形特征和声学特征进行分析的研究。

发音学的研究重点是揭示不同语言的发音系统，包括语音系统、音节系统和声调系统。

发音学在现代语言学中被认为是一个重要分支，它让我们能够更清楚地理解语言的发音特征。

词汇学是语言学中另一个重要分支，它主要研究语言的词汇系统，也就是语言的表达模式。

词汇学的任务是提供语言研究中所需要的基础知识，以便于我们更好地理解语言的表达形式。

词汇学的研究重点是揭示不同语言之间的发展历史，以及词汇在不同语言中的演变。

语义学是语言学中另一个分支，它主要研究什么是语言表达的意义。

语义学的任务是探究语言表达中涉及到的术语和概念，以及它们表达的意义。

语义学是一门研究语言表达的意义的研究。

它的研究重心在于揭示语言表达的内涵，以及语言的语义特征。

文本学是语言学的另一个重要分支，它主要研究语言的文本特征，以及文本的结构特征。

文本学的任务是研究文本的各种结构特征，以及如何更有效地理解文本。

文本学的研究重点是揭示不同文本中的叙述模式，及文本表达中所涉及到的文化内涵。

chapter 4戴炜栋语言学

Complements
---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl; There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent. I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clau ses introdu ced b y co mpl emen tiz e rs are complement clause.
Phrase elements
Specifier
Head
complement
Specifiers
---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.

语言学知识系统图解

传统语法动词的语法范畴---时态、体和语气
4句法学范畴之间的关系---一致与支配
句子的种类---简单句、并列句和复合句
组合和聚合关系
结构语法直接成分分析
内向结构和外向结构
生成语法（略）
功能语法（略）
语义学的定义
命名论
概念论
意义理论语境论
使用论
行为论
利奇的意义七分法
意义的分类
其他意义分类法
同义关系
互补反义词
英语语言学各章节系统图解
语言的定义及定义的理解
语言的甄别性特征
语言语言的功能
语言的起源
1语言和语言学
语言学的定义及定义的理解
语言学普通语言学及其研究范围
常见的重要区别性概念
语音学的定义
听觉语音学
声学语音学
语音学分类（清辅音、浊辅音）
辅音描述（发音部位、发音方式、清浊性）
标音（宽式标音、严式标音）
发音语音学
分类（前、中、后元音）
元音描述（唇、舌位、开口度/舌高度、紧/松）
标音（宽式标音、严式标音）
2语音学
音系学最小对立体
音位、音位变体
音位理论自由变异
音位对立、区别性特征
音位分布、互补分布
音系学
序列规则
音系规则同化规则（顺同化、逆同化）
省略规则
超切分音位特征（音节、重音、声调、语调）
定义
形态基本模块：词素、形素、词素变体
5语义学反义关系等级反义词
词之间的意义关系关系反义词
上下义关系
一词多义
同音/同形异义
蕴含
预设
矛盾
句子之间的意义关系不一致
同义关系
语义异常
语义成分分析

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结（共10篇）

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)：语言学名词解释第四版教程语言学教程第四版笔记语言学教程考试题语言学教程中文版pdf篇一：新编语言学教程名词解释(部分重点)(1) linguistics: （语言学）the scienti?c or systematic study of language.(2) language: （语言）a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: （任意性）the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:（双重性）the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:（语言能力）knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use,i.e. performance.(6) performance:（语言运用）Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: （共时语言学）the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: （历时语言学）the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:（音位）the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: （音位学）the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:（形态学）the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:（词素）the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: （自由词素）a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: （黏着词素）a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:（语素变体）the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.（句法学）(5) IC analysis:（Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法）the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function（概念功能）: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function（人际功能）: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function（语篇功能）: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:（上下义关系）the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym:（整体部分关系）the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:（语用学） a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:（指示）the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors in?uence the structure and use of language.（社会语言学）(8) diglossia:（双语） a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:（双语现象）the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region ora nation.(11) taboo:（禁忌）a word or expression that is prohibited by thepolite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:（委婉语）a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room”for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.（认知语言学）篇二：]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》前四章名词解释胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax 句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals 喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音 Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素 morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀 derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound 向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme 语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonologicalconditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化 contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative 离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction 向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程篇三：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1. design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysisin linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization.11. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics includepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et15. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.17. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.this an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspiratedt.Boththand tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.26. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.30. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.34. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,w hich do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39. allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60. Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.68. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.69. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.70. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on. 71. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied intoseparate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in languageprocessing.79. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.81. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.82. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87. sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.92. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its。

语言学的学科分类

应用语言学
将语言学的基本原理与有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的应用型学科。
理论语言学
普通语言学专语语言学
历时语言学共时语言学
应用语言学
语言学学科分类
四、传统语言学和现代语言学
根据西方座标，以历史语言学的出现为分界。这之前属于传统语言学研究，这之后进入现代语言学研究时期。
传统语言学还不是完全独立的学科，往往处于附属地位；现代语言学是一门独立学科，随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边缘学科。
布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写主义学派
[俄]特鲁贝茨科依《音位学原理》 [丹麦]叶尔姆斯列夫《语言理论导论》 [美]布龙菲尔德《语言论》 [美]赵元任《国语入门》（《北京口语语法》）
《中国话的文法》（《汉语口语语法》） [法]特思尼耶尔《结构句法基础》
结构主义三大流派
4.转换生成学派
第一、研究对象不同
传统语言学以书面语为主，而现代语言学重视口语研究。
第二、研究目的不同
传统语言学主要为经典作注和语文规范研究，而现代语言学主要是分析语言结构和探索语言规律。
五、语言学流派和主要语言学家
1.历史比较语言学
通过语言关系的比较研究构拟共同母语，以探索语言的演化规律。（19世纪）
初始阶段，英国的琼斯首先提出梵语和希腊、拉丁语具有亲属关系。丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆朴是历史比较语言学的奠基者。格里姆定律：凡语音演变的规律皆有例外。
19世纪中期，代表性人物是德国的施莱歇尔和施密特。
19世纪的最后25年，是“新语法学派”时期。代表人物是德国的布鲁克曼、奥斯特霍夫和维尔纳。维尔纳定律认为：凡语音演变的例外皆有规律。
语言学常识

语言学4(2023最新最全小抄排版必过)

语言学4(2023最新最全小抄排版必过)
1. 语言学概述
语言学是研究语言的科学，涵盖语音学、语法学、语义学等多个方面。

它旨在深入了解语言的结构、功能和使用方式。

2. 语音学
语音学研究语言中的音素和音系，以及它们的产生、传播和接受。

它包括语音的声音特征、语音音位的识别和描述等内容。

3. 语法学
语法学是研究语言的结构和用法的学科。

它包括词汇、句法、语义和语用等方面的内容。

通过分析句子的结构、成分和关系，可以揭示语言系统的规则和约束。

4. 语义学
语义学研究语言的意义，包括词义、短语的意义以及句子的意义。

它关注词语和句子如何表达意义，以及意义如何与实际世界相对应。

5. 社会语言学
社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的关系。

它探讨语言社会化、方言、语言变体、语言政策等问题，以及不同社会群体对语言的使用和认同。

6. 应用语言学
应用语言学将语言学理论应用于实际问题。

它研究语言教学、翻译、语言政策制定等领域，旨在解决语言使用和交流中的实际困难。

7. 语言学的发展与挑战
语言学在不断发展和演变。

新的理论和方法不断涌现，为我们更深入地理解语言提供了新的工具和视角。

但同时，也面临着一些挑战，比如语言变体多样化和语言技术的快速发展等。

以上是对语言学的简要介绍，希望能对你的研究有所帮助。

*注意：以上内容是根据2023最新的语言学资料整理而成。

*。

语言学 chapter5(胡壮麟版)---group 4

The classification is not comprehensive, or it still has something unclear, because the seven meanings are inseparable. Generally, the affective meaning for the often are usingthe existence of connotative meaning, social meaning or rational meaning; With a sense of meaning is sometimes rational transfer performance, and so on. Therefore, our sense of significance to facilitate the classification is analyzed and studied, and they can't arbitrary isolation and dividing them. And, our main concern is the actual communication effect, this will involve a pragmatic category, which requires more we grasp the meaning from the general went up.
Q2. Why does G. Leech recognize 7 types of meaning?
• Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981) classified seven types of meaning:
– Conceptual meaning – Connotative meaning – Social meaning – Affective meaning – Reflected meaning – Collocative meaning – Thematic meaning

语言学的分类

语言学的分类语言学是研究人类语言的学科，主要包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、历史语言学等多个分支。

下面将会对这些分支进行详细介绍。

一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科。

它主要研究的是人类语音的音素系统，包括音素的分类、音素的发音、音素的音位学特征等。

语音学可以分为两类：描述性语音学和实验性语音学。

描述性语音学主要研究语音的音位学特征，并用音标来描述不同语言的音位系统。

例如，国际音标就是描述性语音学的重要成果之一。

描述性语音学对于语音合成和自然语言处理等领域的研究有着重要的作用。

实验性语音学主要是基于实验数据，研究语音的物理和生理基础，例如语音的声波、共振、喉部构造和喉部的生理特征等。

实验性语音学对于语音识别和语音合成等领域的研究有着重要的作用。

二、语法学语法学是研究语言规则的学科，主要研究语言的句子结构、成分关系、语法范畴、语法规则等。

形式语法学是研究语法规则的结构和逻辑的学科。

形式语法学主要关注的是语法的形式和逻辑结构，例如短语结构文法和依存句法等。

形式语法学在语言学和计算机科学等领域都有着广泛的应用。

功能语法学是研究语言规则的功能和交际的学科。

功能语法学主要关注的是语法的功能和语言的交际意义，例如功能语法、语篇分析等。

功能语法学对于语言教学、语言翻译等领域都有着重要的作用。

三、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究的是词汇和句子的意义、句子的语用特征以及逻辑语义学等。

四、语用学五、历史语言学历史语言学是研究语言演化和历史关系的学科，主要研究语言的历史演变、语言的起源和发展、语言变异等。

历史语言学可以分为两类：比较历史语言学和语言学家历史语言学。

比较历史语言学是研究不同语言之间的历史关系和演变的学科。

比较历史语言学主要关注的是语言的比较、语言的起源和演变、语言之间的接触和影响等。

比较历史语言学对于语言文化研究、语言保护等领域都有着重要的应用。

以上就是语言学的分类。

不同的语言学分支相互依存，构成了整体语言学的研究范畴，对于理解人类语言这一现象有着重要的意义。

语言学第四章ppt课件.ppt

The arrow can be read as “consist of ” or
“branches into”. The parentheses mean that the
element in them can be omitted and the three
dots in each rule indicate that other complement
Syntactic category can be divided into two groups:
Lexical category and phrase category
Lexical category is most central to the study of syntax.
Lexical categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP,
and PP can be written as follows:
NP →
(Det) N
(PP) …
VP → (Qual) V
(NP) …
AP →
(Deg) A
(PP) …
PP →
(Deg) P
(NP) …
options are available.
Phrase structure rule
Examples: a phrase consisting of a specifier, a head, and a complement

戴炜栋语言学教程讲义

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter1IntroductionChapter2PhonologyChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxChapter5SemanticsChapter6PragmaticsChapter7Language ChangeChapter8Language and SocietyChapter9Language and CultureChapter10Language AcquisitionChapter11Second Language Acquisition Chapter12Language And The BrainChapter1Introduction考情分析本章分为两个部分，第一部分介绍了什么是语言学，主要是对语言学的定义、语言学的研究范围以及语言学中6对重要的概念进行了区分。

第二部分介绍了什么是语言，主要对语言的属性，语言的区别性特征以及语言的功能进行了详细的介绍。

本章常出的题型有填空题、翻译术语、术语解释、简答题以及论述题，大家在复习的时候尤其要注意以下重点内容:◆语言学中6对重要的概念区分Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)◆语言的识别性特征Design features of language(5)◆语言的功能Functions of languageContents1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1Definition1.1.2The scope of linguistics1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)Prescriptive规定性vs.Descriptive描写性Synchronic共时性vs.Diachronic历时性Speech口语and Writing书面语Langue语言and Parole言语---Saussure索绪尔Competence语言能力and Performance语言运用---Chomsky乔姆斯基Traditional grammar传统语法and modern linguistics现代语言学1.2What is language?1.2.1Definitions1.2.2Design features of language(5)Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity创造性Duality/Double Articulation二重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递性1.2.3Functions of languageVersion1Social function社会功能Expressive function表达功能Descriptive function描述功能Version2Code语码---Metalinguistic元语言功能Jakobson Addressee受话者---Conative意动功能Context语境---Referential所指功能Message信息----Poetic诗学功能Contact接触---Phatic communication寒暄功能Addresser说话者---Emotive情感功能Version3ideational概念功能Halliday interpersonal人际功能textual functions语篇功能Chapter1Introduction1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.◆It studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.◆It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisticdata,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Q1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?1.1.2The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学Phonetics(语音学)——The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Phonology(音系学)——It studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology（形态学）——The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study.Syntax(句法学）—It studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantics(语义学）——It studies the meaning conveyed.Pragmatics(语用学）——It studies the meaning in the context of language use.跨学科分支Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学）：The study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics(应用语言学）【2017术语解释104points】：The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguitics.In a narrow sense,it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,especially the teaching of foreign andsecond languages.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(1)Prescriptive vs descriptive【2013简答题2710points】①Prescriptive（规定性）The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.（为语言的“正确和规范”规定一系列的语法规则，例如告诉人们应该说什么和不应该说什么）【2015翻译术语18prescriptive grammar规约性语法】②Descriptive(描写性）The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.（对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析）For example,traditional grammar is prescriptive because it aims to set models for people to follow.While modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use.Q2.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?（2）synchronic vs diachronic①Synchronic(共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述)②Diachronic(历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time.It is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.【2011填空1】【2016术语解释216points】(它是对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述，是一种历史性的研究，研究的是语言在某一段时间内的历史发展)Q4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?why?a.In modern linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更重要。

语言学概论 (完整版).

一、语言学的对象和任务（一）“语言学”定义语言学是研究语言的科学。研究和探讨语言的功能、性质、结构规律和发展演变规律。语言的功能：1、人类最重要的交际工具；2、人类的思维工具；语言的性质：符号系统。语言的结构：1、由语音（外在形式）[+载体：文字]、意义（内容）统一构成。语言的发展：产生、演变规律、历史发展情况。
（3）美国描写语言学派：是上世纪二十年代美国学者在调查美洲印地安语基础上形成的，是结构主义语言学中发展最完善，最重要的一个学派，注重对语言结构形式的描写。先驱是鲍阿斯（《美洲印地安语手册》）和萨丕尔（《语言论》），强调对语言作客观的共时描写；重要人物布龙菲尔德《语言论》是该派奠基之作，其后哈里斯《结构语言学的方法》是在理论和方法方面最为严谨的代表作。三个学派各有特色：布拉格学派注重对语言结构的功能进行研究，哥本哈根学派重视语言结构之间的关系，描写语言学学派则着重语言结构形式的描写。
（2）语文学的局限性 ①研究对象狭窄，不重口语→经典古文语法的规定性，与现实脱节。 ②研究目的单纯，读懂古籍→不重语言结构本身，缺乏科学认识。 ③研究地位低下，历史比较语言学的建立标志着真正独立的语言科学诞生。英国人威廉· 琼斯提出“印欧语假设”，成为历史比较语言学的先驱。施列格尔（德）第一个提出“比较语法”。丹麦的拉斯克，德国的博普和格里木。他们运用“ 历史比较法”，即通过对不同语言的比较研究，揭示语言间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展。
一、什么是语音？
语音是语言符号系统的载体，是由人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言意义的声音。语言依靠语音实现它的社会交际功能。
二、语音和一般的声音有什么区别？
六、语言学的功用 1.提高文化水平，掌握科学技术的基础：研究本族语的结构规律→指导语文教学实践 2.指导我们学习语言、运用语言和研究语言：方言、本族语和外语 3.有利于各项语文政策的制定和推行：扫除文盲、汉字改革、推广普通话、语言规范化 4.提高文学作品的分析和鉴赏能力 5.有利于科学技术的现代化：语言是信息载体，发挥很大作用——计算机对自然语言的处理 6.对哲学也有重要意义：语言与思维的关系、语言的起源、语言的本质、语言习得等

戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter4

A transformation can only change an element’s position. It does not change the categories of words.
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Auxiliary movement (助动词移位)
Two steps: Step 1: Use XP rule to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl. Step 2: Use the transformation of inversion (倒置) to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.
Determiner (Det) 限定词: the, a, an, this, those, … Degree word (Deg) 程度词: quite, very, more, so, … Qualifier (Qual) 修饰语: often, always, seldom, … Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词: must, should, can, will, … Conjunction (Con) 连词: and, but, or, …
Figure 4-4: Infl realized by a tense label
Figure 4-5: Infl position realized by an auxiliary
Ex. 9, 10, 11 (p60)
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Transformations (转换)

语言学第二、三、四节

也可以表现在共时阶段内某一段时间内语言的变化情况。它是在语言形式在共时言语运用中产生后，经过一段时间的使用进而被人们约定的一种语言变化。
克隆是英文clone的音译，简单讲就是一种人工诱导的无性繁殖方式。但克隆与无性繁殖是不同的。无性繁殖是指不经过雌雄两性生殖细胞的结合、只由一个生物体产生后代的生殖方式，常见的有孢子生殖、出芽生殖和分裂生殖。由植物的根、茎、叶等经过压条或嫁接等方式产生新个体也叫无性繁殖。绵羊、猴子和牛等动物没有人工操作是不能进行无性繁殖的。科学家把人工遗传操作动物繁殖的过程叫克隆，这门生物技术叫克隆技术。
临时性变化的类型： 1、个别性临时变化：只发生在某个人或某几个人的交际过程中，受具体的交际环境、背景的限制的临时变化。
没过多久，一到晚上男生窑里就不见了金涛。他和徐悦悦一块去 ‚家访‛。…… “干嘛去嘿，又往外溜。‛ ‚去家访。‛ ‚美其名曰‘家访’？‛ ‚向毛主席保证，真是家访。‛（史铁生《风之舞》）
3、方言和方言间的差异
主要的差别在语音方面：
声母方面：汉口话n、l不分。
鲁西南方言z、c、s和zh、ch、sh不分。
山东话：普通话中r发为零声母。韵母方面：即墨话：eng和ong 不分聊城莘县话：I和ei不分济南话：经常把韵腹鼻化
词汇方面：

普通话白天晚上脖子睡觉丈夫妻子
如语法中的活用现象：
他比医生还医生。他比纸老虎还纸。
2、普遍性临时变化：发生所有语言使用者间的临时变化。
如儿化现象：韵母是i[i]和ü[y]的，儿化后要加[ər]，如米粒儿、玩意儿、小鸡儿、有趣儿、金鱼儿、蛐蛐儿等。
如语法中一些变式句也属于这种情况：
通常情况下，汉语都是svo结构，但是语境中也常会出现这样的句子。

语言学概论课本目录及部分课程课本

语言学概论课本目录及部分课程课本《语言学概论》课程目录第一章语言和语言研究第一节语言和语言学一、语言的内涵与外延二、语言的若干属性三、语言学第二节语言功能一、社会文化方面的功能二、心理方面功能第三节语言历史一、语言起源二、语言分化三、语言的接触和融合四、语言发展的原因和特点第四节西方语言学简史一、传统语言学二、历史比较语言学三、现代语言学四、当代语言学第二章语言结构第一节语言的结构系统一、语言的层级与层面二、语言结构的共性和个性三、语言结构类型第二节语音一、语音和语音学二、音素和音位三、语音特征四、语音组合第三节语义一、语义和语义学二、语义单位三、义素分析四、语义场五、语义的组合第四节语汇一、语汇和语汇学二、语汇层级三、语汇聚类四、语汇构成第五节语法一、语法和语法学二、语法形式和语法意义三、词类四、短语五、句子六、语段第三章语言运用第一节言语交际一、语言运用与语用学二、言语交际的过程三、言语交际的原则四、言语交际的制约因素第二节言语行为一、言语行为的概念二、言语行为的类型三、间接言语行为第三节话语表达和话语理解一、话语表达二、话语理解第四节交际变体和语用对策一、交际变体二、语言交际障碍三、社会语用对策第四章语言学习第一节第一语言获得一、第一语言获得理论二、儿童语言的发展第二节第二语言获得一、第二语言获得理论二、中介语三、对比分析和偏误分析四、第二语言教学法附录世界语言谱系分类表参考文献语言学概论课程名称：语言和语言研究（一）教学目标：掌握语言的内涵和外延；知识点：语言与言语、口语与书面语、共同语与方言、自然语言与其他符号系统重难点：语言与言语、自然语言与其他符号系统课程内容：第一章语言和语言研究第一节语言和语言学一、语言的内涵与外延（一）语言是什么语言学界至今对语言还没有一个清晰而统一的定义。

因为不同的时代、不同的学派对语言有不同的看法。

一般来说，可以把语言定义为：人类用于交际和思维的最重要的符号系统。

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版(总5页)-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除Chapter 4syntactic （句法的） relationspositional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential （有序的） arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointlysubstitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的） relations or in Hjemslev ’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.grammatical construction and its constituentsGrammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:SNP VPDe t N V NPDe t NThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分A Word-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:. Syntactic（句法） FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in（范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voiceNumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.(or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SVA Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列（嵌入）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章

Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。

实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。

直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。

Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。

Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。

语言学第四章PPT

• The students smile to the teacher. • NP VP NP
•
S
V
O
Positional Relation
• Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. eg. the, boy, ball, the, kicked The boy kicked the ball * Boy the ball kicked the *The ball kicked the boy
• 简言之，共现就是句子构建的环境，在这个环境中一个结构体能够与其他相关成分一起出现，即合乎语法又符合规范。
4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents(语法结构与成分）
4.2.1 Grammatical Construction
Grammatical Construction or Construct can be used to mean any syntactic（句法的） construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language.
• 它研究的是句子构造中各个成分之间的相互关系
Positional Relation
Syntactic Relation
Relation of Substitutability
Relation of Co-occurrence
Positional Relation
• For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.

语言学第4章

第四章语法第一节语法和语法单位一、说话要符合规则我们平常说话，往往脱口而出，除了在特殊场合需要斟酌字句以外，一般不会在说话以前完考虑这么说合不合规则。

那么，说话的时候是不是没有规则呢？如果说有，你怎么证明这种规则呢？这可以从人们用外族语（假定他们还没有学到家）说话时结结巴巴的费劲样子得到证明。

他们不但说话困难，而且常常出错。

我们不妨举一些外国学生使用汉语时出错的例子：（1）太阳升起在浩荡的平原上。

（2）我们充分利用本地资源制造农业机械化的道路。

（3）在参观期间发生的个人感动的美丽事情层出不穷。

（4）其实对这一点我也以前不十分清楚。

（5）尽管天塌下来，我也能顶得住。

（6）我看书的入神时，不时门开了，好几个同学进来。

我们汉族人听到或者读到这些句子，都会感到别扭，觉得有些地方不像中国话。

怎么会有这种感觉呢？因为我们心底里有一种“像”中国话的“像”的标准，并且会根据这种标准去修改上面的各个句子。

比方说，“浩荡”一般见于“浩荡的队伍”“东风浩荡”等说法，不能说“浩荡的平原”，“平原”只能说“广阔”“一望无际”等。

“农业机械”可以制造，而“农业机械化的道路”不能“制造”，只能“开辟”。

“事情”不说“美丽”，只说“生动”，年龄比较大的人还会批评说，“层出不穷”指不好的事，这里要改成“举不胜举”“真是说不完”之类的说法。

这些可以说是用词不当，词的意义之间的配合不合适。

从第四句开始，牵涉到词序、虚词，问题比较复杂一些。

例（4）的“也”要挪到“以前”的后面；例（5）的“尽管”意味着天已经塌下来，要改成“即使”或者“就是”；例（6）里“的”（得）必须紧跟动词（“看得”“看书看得”），下半句可改成“不时有同学开门进来”，因为“不时”和“了”在时态上不能相配。

经过这样的修改，上面所引的那些句子都“像”中国话了。

从这里可以看到，语言是有规则的，说话必须符合大家共同遵守的规则，违背这种规则，就会使对方感到别扭甚至产生误会。

在上面的六个例子中，头三句主要是用词不当，后三句涉及造句的语法规则。