论文的Abstract写法

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abstract写法

abstract写法
在编程中，抽象（Abstract）是一种重要的概念，它指的是对事物本质属性的概括和描述，而忽略其具体实现细节。

在抽象类（Abstract Class）和抽象方法（Abstract Method）中，抽象的概念被广泛应用。

抽象类的写法通常是在类的声明前加上abstract关键字，例如：
java复制代码
abstract class AbstractClass {
// 抽象方法的声明
public abstract void abstractMethod();
}
抽象方法则是在方法声明前加上abstract关键字，例如：
java复制代码
public abstract class AbstractClass {
// 抽象方法的声明
public abstract void abstractMethod();
}
抽象类不能被实例化，它只能作为其他类的基类。

抽象方法必须被子类实现，否则子类也必须声明为抽象类。

在抽象类中，可以有抽象方法和非抽象方法，非抽象方
法必须被子类覆盖（Override）。

通过抽象类和抽象方法，可以更好地封装和抽象出事物的本质属性，提高代码的可维护性和可扩展性。

论文的标准格式和字号要求

论文的标准格式和字号要求写毕业论文主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学知识和技能，理论联系实际，独立分析，解决实际问题的能力，使学生得到从事本专业工作和进行相关的基本训练。

接下来小编为你带来论文的标准格式和字号要求，希望对你有帮助。

一、封面题目：小二号黑体加粗居中。

各项内容：四号宋体居中。

章节条目：五号宋体。

行距：单倍行距。

三、论文题目：小一号黑体加粗居中。

四、中文摘要1、摘要：小二号黑体加粗居中。

2、摘要内容字体：小四号宋体。

3、字数：300字左右。

4、行距：20磅5、关键词：四号宋体，加粗。

词3-5个，每个词间空一格。

五、英文摘要1、ABSTRACT：小二号 Times New Roman.2、内容字体：小四号 Times New Roman.3、单倍行距。

4、Keywords：四号加粗。

词3-5个，小四号Times New Roman.词间空一格。

六、绪论小二号黑体加粗居中。

内容500字左右，小四号宋体，行距：20磅七、正文(一)论文的正文用小四号宋体(二)论文的安保、管理类毕业论文各章节按照一、二、三、四、五级标题序号字体格式章：标题小二号黑体，加粗，居中。

节：标题小三号黑体，加粗，居中。

一级标题序号如：一、二、三、标题四号黑体，加粗，顶格。

二级标题序号如：(一)论文的(二)论文的(三)论文的标题小四号宋体，不加粗，顶格。

三级标题序号如：1.2.3.标题小四号宋体，不加粗，缩进二个字。

四级标题序号如：(1)论文的(2)论文的(3)论文的标题小四号宋体，不加粗，缩进二个字。

五级标题序号如：①②③标题小四号宋体，不加粗，缩进二个字。

医学、体育类毕业论文各章序号用阿拉伯数字编码，层次格式为：1××××(小2号黑体，居中)论文的××××××××××××××(内容用4号宋体)论文的。

如何写好SCI论文投稿中的Abstract

如何写好SCI论文投稿中的Abstract Abstract是SCI论文投稿中不可或缺的一部分。

它通常作为论文的摘要，摘要的质量很大程度上决定了论文被接受的可能性。

因此，如何写好Abstract是每位研究者必须掌握的技能之一。

2023年，Abstract的写作依然是一项重要的任务。

面对越来越激烈的学术竞争，研究者需要通过Abstract来吸引读者的关注并明确表达自己的研究意义和成果。

下面将介绍一些具体的写Abstract的技巧和注意事项，帮助研究者撰写高质量的Abstract。

首先，Abstract的内容应该准确、简洁、具体。

为了达到这个目的，研究者应该遵循以下几个基本原则：1. 提炼核心内容Abstract不是论文的简单概述，而是针对论文的研究问题、方法和成果进行提炼和总结。

因此，研究者应该首先确定论文的核心问题和贡献，然后将其简洁明了地表达在Abstract中。

2. 使用适当的语言和术语研究者应该使用准确、专业的术语和语言来描述论文的问题和成果。

同时，也要注意使用简洁、易懂的语言，特别是在解释论文的复杂概念和模型时，以便读者能够快速理解。

3. 强调结果和贡献在Abstract中，研究者应该突出论文的贡献和创新点，让读者能够明确地看到论文的价值和意义，从而增加论文的吸引力和可读性。

除了上述基本原则，还有一些细节需要研究者注意，以确保Abstract的质量和可读性。

下面列举了一些具体的技巧和注意事项：1. 遵循SCI期刊的写作规范Abstract的格式和内容要符合SCI期刊的要求，这包括使用适当的字体、字号、行间距、段间距，以及指定Abstract的篇幅等。

研究者应该仔细阅读SCI期刊的投稿说明，确保自己的Abstract符合要求。

2. 遵循逻辑顺序和结构研究者应该遵循逻辑顺序和结构来组织Abstract的内容。

通常来说，Abstract应该包括论文的研究问题、研究方法、主要结果、贡献和意义等。

学术论文格式及字体大小要求

引言(introduction一级标题黑体小四号)引言又称前言，属于整篇论文的引论部分。

其写作内容包括：研究的理由、目的、背景、前人的工作和知识空白，理论依据和实验基础，预期的结果及其在相关领域里的地位、作用和意义。

引言的文字不可冗长，内容选择不必过于分散、琐碎，措词要精炼，要吸引读者读下去。

引言的篇幅大小，并无硬性的统一规定，需视整篇论文篇幅的大小及论文内容的需要来确定，长的可达700~800字或1000字左右，短的可不到100字。

1、题名(title,topic一级标题黑体小四号)题名又称题目或标题。

题名是以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合。

论文题目是一篇论文给出的涉及论文范围与水平的第一个重要信息，也是必须考虑到有助于选定关键词不达意和编制题录、索引等二次文献可以提供检索的特定实用信息。

1.1主标题(quot二级标题宋体五号字)论文的主标题十分重要，必须用心斟酌选定。

有人描述其重要性，用了下面的一句话：“论文题目是文章的一半”。

对论文题目的要求是：准确得体，简短精炼;外延和内涵恰如其分，醒目。

对这两方面的要求分述如下。

1.1.1准确得体，简短精炼(三级标题宋体五号)要求论文题目能准确表达论文内容，恰当反映所研究的范围和深度。

常见毛病是：过于笼统，题不扣文。

如：“不等式的应用”过于笼统，若改为针对研究的具体对象来命题。

效果会好得多，例如“贝塞耳不等式的应用”，这样的题名就要贴切得多。

再如：“中值定理在证明一类不等式中的应用”这样的论文题目不准确，题名中值定理是哪一个?，令人费解，何类不等式?请教不得而知，这就叫题目含混不清，解决的办法就是要站在读者的角度，清晰地点示出论文研究的内容。

假如上面的题目中，指的是微分中值定理，何类不等式可放在内文中说明，不必写在标题中，标题中只需反映运用微分中值定理这一事实即可。

可参考的修改方案为：“巧用微分中值定理”。

关键问题在于题目要紧扣论文内容，或论文内容与论文题目要互相匹配、紧扣，即题要扣文，文也要扣题。

英语摘要写法

摘要（Abstract）摘要(Abstract) 也成为内容提要，通常在学士论文中都必须附有摘要，其位置应放在论文的正文之前，对整个论文内容的概述。

无论对专业读者还是对非专业读者而言，摘要都是一个非常重要的文件。

摘要如果和论文一起发表，则被称为一次性出版物摘要，主要用于帮助读者评价文章内容及其潜在作用，使读者不必阅读全文就可以了解论文的内容。

除此之外，摘要也可以被单独收入文摘机构出版的摘要期刊如：生物学文摘（Biological Abstract）、化学文摘（Chemical Abstract）等、称为二次性出版物摘要。

此类脱离论文独立成篇的摘要主要用于方便读者检索文献、收集信息，帮助研究者寻找新的研究领域。

一．摘要的定义摘要的英文术语：有两个词汇，一个是abstract, 一个是summary.根据美国国家标准学会（American National Standard Institute）于1971年通过并颁布的《美国国家文摘写作标准》（American National Standard for Writing Abstracts）规定，Abstract 不应与summary 混同。

Abstract 对一篇论文的主要内容以精炼的文字进行高度概括，使读者不必阅读全文即可了解论文内容，或者让读者对即将阅读的文章有思想准备，或者让读者判断是否有通读全文的必要。

文中只对论文信息进行浓缩，而不加主观评论或解释，可以脱离原文而独立成篇。

字数通常在100~150个词左右，更确切地说，约为原文长度的1% ~ 5%（有的杂志规定摘要平均为全文的3% ~ 5%）。

现在越来越多的用法是abstract. 尤其是放在索引资料中一律要用abstract 这个术语，在论文的题目下也通常要用这个词。

Summary (概要) 与abstract 无明显差别。

严格地说，summary 一般附在论文的后面，对论文的主要结论和成果进行再叙述。

论文的Abstract写法

文摘要求对于科技期刊的文章，论文的 abstract 主要由三部分组成，即：研究的问题、过程和方法、结果。

文摘只有写得正确，写的好，才能起到帮助读者了解原文的作用。

因此必须对文献进行认真的主题分析，找出文献的主题概念，正确地组织好这些主题内容，简明准确完整地写出文摘来。

文摘长度一般不超过 150 words 。

少数情况下允许例外，视原始文献而定。

在不遗漏主题概念的前提下，文摘应尽量简洁。

（一）.缩短文摘方法:1.取消不必要的字句：如 ”t is reported here ”、 “new ”、 “ mainly ” 也尽量不要。

2. 对物理单位及一些通用词可以适当进行简化;3. 取消或减少背景信息（ Background Information ）;4. 不说无用的话，如“本文所谈的有关研究工作是对过去老工艺的一个极大的改进”， “本工作首次实现了 …” “经检索尚未发现与本文类似的文献”等词句切不可进入文摘;5. 作者在文献中谈及的未来计划不纳入文摘；6. 文摘第一句应避免与题目（Title ）重复。

7. 尽量简化一些措辞和重复的单元，如：（二）.文体风格 1. 文摘叙述要完整，清楚，简明；2. 尽量用短句子并避免句形单调；3. 用过去时态叙述作者工作，用现在时态叙述作者结论；如 “The structure of dislocation cores in GaP was investigated by weak-beam electron microscopy. Thedislocations are dissociated into two Shokley partials with separations of 80 edge and screw casesrespectively. The results show that... __________________________________ ”可直接用名词或名词短语作定语的情况下，要少用 of 句型。

英文Assignment和Dissertation的写作细节(珍藏版)

英文Assignment和Dissertation的写作细节（珍藏版）Dissertation一、Dissertation大体结构1.首先是Cover Page，即封面，包括论文的题目，作者姓名，所在学院，学校和上交时间等信息。

2.Declaration，也就是声明，“我声明，所有成果除了我已经注释的，其他均为我自己的研究成果，没有剽窃他人的”，之后是上交时间，指导导师，签名，学院等。

3.Acknowledgment，写要感谢的人，导师是必须要感谢的，当然还可以感谢其他人，这个随意。

4.Content，目录，这个要两端对其，整体格式一致，用Word中的目录索引功能自动生成。

一般三级目录就可以了。

比如3，3.1，3.1.2。

5.List of Figures，也就是所有图片的一个目录，包括所有在论文中出现的图片标题，不要把图片也贴上，只要标题。

比如：1.1 XXXX标题名称2.1 XXXX标题名称6.List of T ables，和上面类似，就是表格的目录。

(注：以上内容的页码为罗马数字，从下面的Abstract开始，为阿拉伯数字并从1重新开始，这个在word中可以设置。

目录第一条从Introduction开始，而不是Abstract，切记。

）7.Abstract，也就是摘要。

一般50-60页的论文摘要1页以内即可，最好控制在半页到3/4页，不要多。

8.Introduction，介绍部分。

9.Background 或者Literature Review，题目只要涉及这些方面即可，一般是这两个。

内容也是。

(具体写作我后面会具体说)。

10.Proposed Method也就是主体部分，题目自定或者问问导师，但是内容是你的研究成果的描述。

11.Analytical and T est Results，分析和测试结果，题目自定，内容主要就是测试结果。

12.Discussion,对结果产生的分析和解释，也有并入上面的一说。

优秀毕业设计(论文)缩写稿格式

（优秀毕业设计（论文）缩写稿格式）标题（黑体，加粗，小二号，居中）学院专业班级：作者姓名（宋体，小四号，居中）指导老师：姓名职称（宋体，小四号，居中）摘要（黑体，五号，加粗，顶格排）：内容（宋体，五号）关键词（黑体，五号，加粗，顶格排）：每个关键词（宋体，五号，关键词间用全角分号隔开）Abstract（Times New Roman 五号，加粗，顶格排）: 内容（Times New Roman，五号）Key words（Times New Roman 五号，加粗，顶格排）: 内容（Times New Roman，五号，关键词之间用半角分号隔开）正文第一级标题：1或一（黑体，加粗，四号）第二级标题1.1或（一）（宋体五号）内容（宋体五号）第三级标题1.1.1或1. （宋体五号）内容（宋体五号）参考文献：（黑体，加粗，五号，顶格排）标注格式举例如下（参考文献的内容全部用楷体GB2312 五号）：1.图书格式[序号] 作者.文献题名[文献类型标识].出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码.[1] 毛礼锐，沈灌群.中国教育通史[M].济南：山东教育出版社，1988.20-22.2.期刊格式[序号] 作者.文献题名[文献类型标识].刊名，年，卷（期）：起止页码.[2] 王英杰，高益民.高等教育的国际化[J].清华大学教育研究，2000，（2）：13-16.3.析出文献[序号] 作者.题名[文献类型标识]．见：所在文献名．出版地：出版者，出版年．起止页码[3] 王弼.周易注[A].见：四库全书[Z].上海：上海古籍出版社，1997.988-1002.4.网络文献[序号] 作者.文献题名[载体类型标识].网页域名，发表或更新日期/引用日期[4] 中华人民共和国国务院.计算机软件保护条例[J/0L].东方网,2001.12.28页码（居右）图片标注：图5 傅里叶变换补零并移位操作（黑体，小五，位于图片正下方）表格标注：表3.8（黑体，小五号，加粗，位于表格正上方）注：“*”为通过5%的假设检验。

AbstractWriting详解

Abstract Writing英文摘要的写法现在我国的科技期刊都要求一篇论文应包括：（ 1 ）题名；（2 ）作者及作者单位；（3 ）摘要；（ 4 ）关键词；（5 ）正文（可包括致谢词）；（ 6 ）参考文献六部分。

为了便于国际间的学术交流，中文期刊也要求同时包括一定的英文信息，如英文题名，作者（拼音或外文）及英文作者单位，英文摘要与英文关键词。

如果因为英文摘要写不好，结果无法被很多国际检索机构收录，就会直接影响文章的对外学术交流作用。

因此，提高科技期刊文章的英文摘要的质量是非常重要的，这是我国科技期刊（特别是中文版）与国际接轨的重要途径。

世界几大著名检索机构科学引文索引SCI ( Science Citation Index )工程索引EI ( Engineering Index )科学评论索引ISR ( Index to Scientific Reviews )科学技术会议索引ISTP ( Index to Scientific and TechnicalProceedings )化学文摘CA ( Chemical Abstracts )第一节：题名1.题名的写法：题名有三个作用：便于读者选读；便于审选编排：便于编制索引。

具体的写法：(1)首先遵循三个原则：准确，简练，清晰。

简称A ( accuracy )B ( brevity )C ( clarity ).例1：Development and Exploration on Utilization of New Resources for Countryside. 农村新能源的开发和探讨点评：此文章是研究沼气在农村的利用，所以题名太泛，应改为Utilization of Marsh Gas for Countryside. 农村沼气的利用。

例2: Actions of Antibiotics 抗生素的作用。

点评：文章是阐述苯锉青霉素对金黄色葡萄球菌的作用，由于抗生素的种类很多，因此这个题目太笼统，应该具体化为：Actions of Oxazolyl Penicillin onStaphylococcus Aureus. 苯锉青霉素对金黄色葡萄球菌的作用。

overleaf的abstract格式

Overleaf的Abstract格式什么是Overleaf？Overleaf是一款基于云端的LaTeX编辑器，它允许用户在云端进行LaTeX文档的协作编辑和编译。

LaTeX是一种专业的排版系统，广泛应用于科学、技术、工程和数学等领域。

Overleaf的出现使得多人协作编辑LaTeX文档变得更加简单和高效。

Abstract的作用和格式要求Abstract是一篇学术论文的摘要部分，它的作用是向读者介绍论文的主要内容和研究结果。

Abstract通常在论文的开头部分，但在目录、引言和正文之前。

一个好的Abstract应该能够概括全文的核心内容，让读者对论文有一个整体的了解，以便决定是否继续阅读全文。

在Overleaf中，编写Abstract需要遵循一定的格式要求。

通常，Abstract应该是单独的一个段落，包含100-250个单词。

它应该简明扼要地介绍论文的目的、方法、结果和结论。

Abstract的内容应该是完整的，不能遗漏关键信息。

另外，Abstract应该使用第三人称的形式，避免使用缩写词和引用其他文献。

编写一个符合要求的Abstract为了编写一个符合要求的Abstract，首先需要明确论文的主题和目的。

然后，根据论文的结构和内容，概括出论文的主要部分，并用简洁的语言进行表达。

下面是一个示例Abstract：**Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity in Tropical Rainforests****Abstract:**Climate change is a pressing global issue that has significant implications for the Earth's ecosystems. This study aims to investigate the impact of climatechange on biodiversity in tropical rainforests, which are known for their high levels of species richness.To achieve this goal, a comprehensive review of existing literature was conduc ted, and field surveys were carried out in several tropical rainforest regions. The study focused on analyzing changes in species composition, population dyn amics, and habitat suitability in response to climate change.The results of this study reveal that climate change has already begun to affect biodiversity in tropical rainforests. Shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns have led to changes in species abundance and distribution. Some species are facing increased risk of extinction due to habitat loss and reduced food availability. Additionally, the loss of keystone species has cascading ef fects on the overall ecosystem functioning.In conclusion, this study highlights the urgent need for conservation efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change on tropical rainforest biodiversity. It emphasizes the importance of preserving intact habitats, implementing sust ainable land-use practices, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Further res earch is necessary to fully understand the complex interactions between climat e change and biodiversity in tropical rainforests.Keywords: climate change, biodiversity, tropical rainforests, species composit ion, habitat suitability, conservation efforts以上是一个符合要求的Abstract示例。

论文的Abstract写法

文摘要求对于科技期刊的文章，论文的abstract主要由三部分组成，即：研究的问题、过程和方法、结果。

文摘只有写得正确，写的好, 才能起到帮助读者了解原文的作用。

因此必须对文献进行认真的主题分析，找出文献的主题概念，正确地组织好这些主题内容，简明准确完整地写出文摘来。

文摘长度一般不超过150 words。

少数情况下允许例外，视原始文献而定。

在不遗漏主题概念的前提下，文摘应尽量简洁。

（一）. 缩短文摘方法：1.取消不必要的字句：如”It is reported …”“Extensive investigations show that…”“The author discusses …”“This paper concerned with …”；一些不必要的修饰词，如“in detail”、“briefly”、“here”、“new”、“mainly”也尽量不要。

2. 对物理单位及一些通用词可以适当进行简化；3.取消或减少背景信息（Background Information）；4.不说无用的话，如“本文所谈的有关研究工作是对过去老工艺的一个极大的改进”，“本工作首次实现了...”，“经检索尚未发现与本文类似的文献”等词句切不可进入文摘；5. 作者在文献中谈及的未来计划不纳入文摘；6．文摘第一句应避免与题目（Title）重复。

7. 尽量简化一些措辞和重复的单元，如：（二）. 文体风格1. 文摘叙述要完整，清楚，简明；2. 尽量用短句子并避免句形单调；3. 用过去时态叙述作者工作，用现在时态叙述作者结论；如“The structure of dislocation cores in GaP was investigated by weak-beam electron microscopy. The dislocations are dissociated into two Shokley partials with separations of 80±10 and 40±10 A in the pure edge and screw cases respectively. The results show that...”4．能用名词做定语不要用动名词做定语，能用形容词做定语就不要用名词做定语。

英语论文格式规范

外国语学院英语论文格式规范(附样例)A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms（题目：二号，黑体，加粗，居中,除了英语小词外，其他单词首字母都要大写；另外：除了题目外，论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”）外国语学院2001级英语教育1030120011XX XXX 指导老师：XXX（学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名（小四号宋体字，加粗），依次排印在论文题目下，上空二行，居中）【Abstract】This paper centers on the different expressions of ……（英文摘要：上空二行；题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用其他任何标点符号；采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗；单倍行距。

）【Key Words】idiom; comparison; English; Chinese（英文关键词：题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，两个单词的首字母要大写，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用任何其他标点符号，采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗，除了专有名词外，其他单词的首字母不大写，各单词之间用分号“；”隔开，分号之后空一格；最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号；单倍行距。

）1. Introduction(顶格，除了第一个单词及专有名词外，其他单词首字母都不要大写；标题最后不用任何标点符号，上空两行)In both English and Chinese, …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences between Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999).(段落第一行缩进4个英文字符；夹注的标注法：出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系；注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号，时间、页码等的标注法；另外，汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现，不能出现汉语姓氏；夹注出现在标点符号之前) 2. The similarities between English idioms and Chinese idiomsIn English, …. And it can be clearly seen in the below e xamples:(1) I don’t know。

最强大的英文论文摘要模板句子 Abstract Appendix

Appendix 1 - ConcordancesFrequent patterns in the concordance of paper (cf. MB Abstracts)In this paper we provide a ranking of European economics institutionsWe se a unique enterprise level random survey of 150 firmsWe study the effect of certain types of public compulsory insuranceWe present a summary of recent microeconometric resultsWe study renegotiation in procurement auctionsWe develop a stochastic dynamic general equilibrium modelWe consider the organisation of international antitrust as an issueThe authors examine whether homeowning benefits childrenThe author investigates J.C. Harsanyi’s utilitarianism aggregationThe authors show that a non-cooperative game with a finite set ofThe authors analyse the impact of uncertainty on the level andThe author considers the principal multiple agents problemThe authors use an implementation approach to see whetherThe authors test the effectiveness of the arbitrage pricingThe authors study a large market in which sellers competeThe authors question the validity of using TFP growth rates as aThis paper reviews the literature discussing historical patterns in defenseThis paper reviews estimators for multiple regime selection models, which inThis paper reviews and appraises UNCED and outlines some of the developments The paper reviews some recent theoretical contributions on the modelizationThis paper reviews existing studies of the role of emerging market businessThe paper reviews the main findings on individual decision making underThis paper summarises a few useful methods, and shows how they can be suggests a plausible microstructural connection betweenThis paper reports new estimates of the elasticity of substitution betweenThis paper reports an experiment designed to separate these considerations,This paper reports on an empirical examination of this proposition, by linking This paper reports the first analysis of the structure of Russian cities after 70This paper reports quarterly ex ante forecasts of macroeconomic activity forThis paper reexamines the popular assumption that real estate commissions This paper reexamines the empirical evidence on the degree of spatial spillover This paper revisits the proposal to use options in corporate bankruptcy thatThis paper reconciles the different results by showing that they depend in large This paper reconciles some conflicting interpretations of recent literature onThis paper studies a broad class of infinite-horizon economies that areA large class of bounded-rationality, probabilistic learningThe welfare effect of foreign investment into an economyThe effects of regional integration on the location of labourThe simplest formulation of the general screening modelThree price-based policies for solid waste reduction: (1)The impact of profit sharing and bonus payment onThe relationship between the degree of regional integrationWhether the price charged to a competitor for the use ofThe provision of environmental quality inThe intertemporal allocation of funds through demandThe implications of buyer’s liquidity constraintsCoverage extension in a simple general equilibrium modelthe paper shows that integration may turn an honest country into an evadingThis paper shows how the model can be solved and the optimal escape clauseThis paper shows generic determinacy of equilibria for sender-receiver cheap-This paper shows that if, the consumption good production function is alpha-this paper shows that it can be characterized in terms of restrictions on playThis paper shows that asymmetric information between lenders and borrowerThis paper shows that additive purchasing power parity (PPP) methods, suchThis paper starts by discussing the goals that should guide the design ofThis paper uses a dynamic agency model to offer a resolution of theA precise formalism to state and prove the following result:Census evidence from mid-nineteenth century France to investi-Uses the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to provide some ofA simultaneous model of census tract population and employmentFirm level date to examine the effectiveness of agreementsThis paper provides a motivation for public involvement in internal improvement This paper provides evidence that the common factor restrictions (CFR) playthis paper provides an introduction and overview on the economics of international This paper provides a utility-theoretic interpretation of "Don't-Know" (DK)This paper provides an axiomatic basis for a representation of personal preferThe paper provides a theoretical insight into the causes of a recession and aThis paper provides a theoretical model of waste management which is dynamicThis paper provides a theory of diversification and financial structure of banksThis paper provides a simple model to discuss the financing of networkThe paper proposes a new method for computing these probabilities, andThis paper proposes a signaling model that offers a new perspective on whyThis paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the effects ofThis paper presents an approach to such multilateral bargaining problems. AThis paper presents a model of the beef sector of the Greek economy.The paper presents an overview of state trading activities in Russia in light ofThe paper presents a new social accounting matrix (SAM) for Argentina andThis paper presents a data system that gives consistent, complete and detailedThis paper presents a general equilibrium model of a multi-city economy whereThe paper presents a model which allows identification of long-run responseThis paper presents a simple game-theoretic model in which players decideThis paper presents new evidence concerning the importance of poor relief asThis paper presents the first attempt to explore recent changes in office-comThe following paper presents a simple neoclassical growth model where corruption isThis paper presents an amenity-based theory of location by income.This paper presents the results of a political stock market in the NetherlandsThis paper presents a simple model of the links between education, democracyThis paper presents an extension of the Alesina and Drazen (1991. AmericanThis paper offers a model of the allocation of funds in Chinese state-ownedthe paper offers insights into the transition from a socialist economy into aThe paper offers a refined version of the procedure, and it also responds toThis paper offers a counter-argument to Friedman's (In: Essays in PositiveThis paper offers a short survey of recent contributions about the information-This paper offers an alternative analysis that relates voting outcomes to theThe main conclusion of the paper is that the Italian depression, comparable to that of other The main finding of the paper is that the desirability of an electoral area between twoThe hypothesis examined in this paper is that the greater the investor's flexibility, the easier it is forThe aim of this paper is to evaluate whether structural change is a key element in accoThe contribution of this paper is to identify the presence of a profit-sharing system and an infor The purpose of this paper is to consider what determines the differences between the combi The purpose of this paper is to consider the effect of the composition of economic activity o The objective of this paper is threefold. First, to estimate the productivity performances realizA further distinguishing aspect of the paper is its attempt to incorporate the impact of unobservableThe purpose of the paper is to reconcile the willingness to pay technique as a means of coll The novelty of this paper is twofold. First, it defines a range of competition policy implemen The purpose of this paper is to assess the importance of spatial variability in physical param The aim of this paper is to construct theoretical models which help to shed light on theThe purpose of this paper is to explain empirical observations concerning the impact of exch The objective of this paper is to use input-output analysis to examine the resource allocation This paper investigates the empirical significance of underwriter reputation caThis paper investigates the knowledge that people have of the spatial distribuThe paper investigates one aspect of party governance, namely the allocatioThis paper investigates the relationship between agglomeration and specializThis paper investigates the impact on company behaviour of increases in finaThe paper investigates the optimal provision of public goods in the presenceThis paper investigates institutional reasons for the soft-budget constraint proThis paper investigates convergence for a group of seven countries during theThe paper investigates the impact of financial integration on asset return, risThis paper explores the possibility of using the classical concept of 'civil sociThis paper explores the hypothesis that high tax rates can distort the decisioThis paper explores two sets of potential determinants of this decision. Onethis paper explores the connections between the distribution of land, factorThis paper explores some relationships between promotion of competition anThe paper explains why bank loans and grants coexist with self-financing, wThis paper examines the effect of the MFC rules adopted by Medicaid on botThis paper examines the quantitative effects of the transitional system of valueThis paper examines the intertemporal optimal consumption and investment This paper examines an evolutionary model in which the primary source of This paper examines the access of small private-sector firms in Hungary toThis paper examines the relationship between community-level exposure to a This paper examines issues that senior human resource management execuThe paper examines a local public goods economy where individuals' tastes This paper examines the effects of age, occupation, population size of place The paper examines a large population analog of fictitious play in which play This paper examines how profit maximizing fishers respond to different types This paper examines incentive and valuation effects of debt financing on land This paper examines some general notions relating to the comparison of Cou This paper examines how a public wastewater treatment plant balances obje This paper examines the empirical validity of this explanation using data on o this paper examines to what extent licence contracts can internalize the bus This paper examines the impact of the various reform measures on the produ This paper examines the hypothesis of Harold Innis (1894¯1952) that there is this paper examines the roles of transportation policy and demographic chan This paper examines the spatial evolution of computers across 317 metro are This paper examines the implications of tax evasion for fiscal competition an This paper examines the argument that the availability of collateral rules out This paper examines the effects on technology transfer and spillovers derivin This paper examines the consequences of falling transport costs for intermed This paper examines the evolution of the role of income distribution in the pro This paper examines how the presence of a non-negligible fraction of reciproc This paper discusses some analytical and practical questions raised by MCI This paper discusses the structure of the individual AMT and examines the lo This short paper discusses recent insights of multitask agency theory. It considers The paper discusses the history of the plans beginning in the Soviet period, t This paper discusses some problems posed by foreign currency debt for em This paper develops an estimable model of recreation behavior in which the r This paper develops an econometric model that incorporates all three compo the paper develops a housing search model and measures the cost of discri This paper develops a general-equilibrium model of a system of core-peripher This paper develops a positive theory explaining pollution tax policy outcome This paper develops a model of price determination in insurance markets. Ins The paper develops conditions under which clusters of activity emerge. Auth This paper develops an analytical framework to assess these effects. Circum This paper develops a model of regulated open access resource exploitation. This paper develops and discusses a two-sector general equilibrium growth This paper develops a model of corporate hierarchy in which workers accumu This paper develops a model of the choice between bank and market finance This paper develops a dynamically consistent model of search, matching and This paper develops a particular technique for extracting market expectations This paper develops an interpretation of the Asian meltdown focused on mora This paper develops a model of an unregulated banking system based around This paper deals with t he problem by specifying an endogenous regime-switch This paper deals with c ompany expectations for l997 with regard to employment this paper deals with those two issues. It will be argued in favour of an anti-infThis paper considers how cooperative solutions to games of sharing fish reso This paper considers the 'weak announcement proofness' criterion of S. A. M the paper considers dynamic allocation in an altruistic overlapping generatio This paper considers model worlds in which there is a continuum of individual this paper considers Australia's post-July 1997 regulatory regime for telecom The paper considers international per capita output and its growth using a pa This paper considers the optimal selling mechanism for complementary item The paper considers economic processes that may lead to the consolidation This paper considers a school choice plan, open enrollment, that allows stud This paper considers interjurisdictional tax competition in a two-period model This paper considers the implications of the decision of the Australian Industr This paper considers a smooth and noisy version of the statistical prediction This paper considers a fixed normal-form game played among populations of This paper considers why firms often ban monetary exchange between their This paper considers bidding behavior in a repeated procurement auction sett The paper concludes by examining welfare issues. This paper examines ho The paper concludes by explaining the relationship between the options appr This paper compares Bertrand and Cournot equilibria in a differentiated duopo This paper compares four equilibrium business cycle models with increasing This paper compares the two societies which have encouraged the study of e This paper combines statistical with economic equilibrium analysis in the co This paper attempts to show how the International Bank for Reconstruction a This paper attempts an analysis of the impact of migration on the scale and The paper attempts to reconcile some views on the Piccione-Rubinstein abs This paper argues that the analysis of these games involves a key technical i This paper argues that successful states in the ancient world depended on th This paper argues that while both technological opportunity and appropriabilit This paper argues that the way fiscal redistribution has managed to countera This paper argues that the sign of external effects of coalition formation provi The paper argues that in centrist parties, the high congruence of interest bet This paper argues that risk is related to long-run volatility of income and there This paper argues that the liberalisation of foreign direct investment (FDI) has This paper argues that unemployment insurance increases labor productivity This paper analyzes competitive allocations of an exhaustible resource in an the paper analyzes the role of crises and foreign assistance in bringing abo The paper analyzes the highlights of the country's economic recovery, explor The paper analyzes the effects of central bank independence on the position The paper analyzes a simple discrete-time noncooperative coalititional barga This paper analyzes the formation of trading groups in a bilateral market wher This paper analyzes repeated games with private monitoring where in each p This paper analyzes the relationship between unemployment duration and th This paper analyzes D. Pearce's (1984) notion of extensive form rationalizabil This paper analyzes the theory that Soviet farm marketing was so price unre The paper analyzes the institutional conditions under which policymakers ca This paper analyzes the effects of information on participation and time-of-usThis paper analyzes the deadweight loss of delegated auditing in a three-tierThis paper analyzes the deadweight loss of delegated auditing in a three-tierThis paper analyzes the optimal interest rate policy in currency crises. FirmsThe paper analyses the welfare effects of these taxes as well as to what extThis paper analyses the employment effects of revenue-neutral green tax refo. This paper analyses the impact of modifying this assumption by allowing forThe paper analyses the switch from pay-as-you-go to funded pensions ¯ penThis paper analyses the decision by firms under Cournot oligopoly as to recoThis paper analyses the factors determining the scale and location of Japanethis paper addresses the effect of rent control laws on two groups considereIn addition, the paper addresses the effects of open enrollment on competition betweenthis paper addresses the formalization and implications of the hypothesis thThis paper addresses two general questions. First, what is the effect of markPurposeThe purpose of this paper is to consider what determines the differences between the combinations of financial and labour systems observed in some large market economies. The purpose of this paper is to consider the effect of the composition of economic activity on innovation.The purpose of this article is to explain the major changes made by the Basle Committee to its previous set of proposals (Basle Committee 1995) which were outlined in Hall 1995. The purpose of the paper is to reconcile the willingness to pay technique as a means of collecting information, put forward in earlier studies, with the growth theoretical approachto social acThe purpose of this study is to compare the performance of the public sector with that of the private sector for the various sub-sectors of manufacturing in Turkey. The purpose of this paper is to assess the importance of spatial variability in physical parameters in the design of efficient pollution regulations. The purpose of this paper is to explain empirical observations concerning the impact of exchange rate changes on industrial prices.Framework1 The optimum currency area analysis is reexamined in a Mundell¯Fleming framework withlocal-currency pricing.2 The authors consider Amartya Sen's familiar paradox of the Paretian liberal in a frameworkwhere individual rights are represented as a game form.3 Using a three-period framework, we provide approximate solutions for optimal consumptionchoices4 This paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the effects of central bankindependence, of the degree of centralization of wage bargaining and of the interaction betweenthose institutional variables, on real wages, unemployment and inflation,5 The present paper extends the standard framework to cover the case of labour-augmentingtechnological progress.6 This paper develops an analytical framework to assess these effects.7 This paper applies this framework to an exchange-rate escape clause but is unable to solvehis model given a triangular distribution of the supply shocks.8 In order to understand how self-fulfillment can be realized in a dynamic framework, theauthors investigate the relationship between9 Using this bargaining framework, the paper analyzes the role of crises and foreign assistancein bringing about a settlement to the distributional conflict.10 Nonconvexities are not fundamental in this framework.11 We use a framework that nests an increasing returns model of economic geography featuringhome market effects' with that of Heckscher¯Ohlin.12 We introduce a framework that has known models of oligopolistic competition withdifferentiated products (the circle, the logit, and the CES) as limit cases.13 the pros and cons of these different approaches within a coherent conceptual framework thatapplies contract theory to the regulation of banking.14 Conversely, it is shown in a general framework that any convex (thus progressive) taxfunction satisfies the principle of equal sacrifice.15 o show that the most important predictions of the standard theory hold in the general finiteframework studied here.16 In this framework, prescription drug discounts appear to make some consumers (those in themanaged care sector) better off and other consumers (those outside the managed care sector)worse off.17 This paper analyzes the theory that Soviet farm marketing was so price unresponsive that rapidindustrialization within the framework of the NEP would have been choked off by rising farm prices and inadequate sales.18 We first point out that the current framework of public international law allows for widediscretion in the assertion of jurisdiction.19 The analysis is carried out in the framework of a general equilibrium model of a mixedeconomy with production.20 We find that in this framework, much of the scope for conflict disappears.21 Although seldom modeled outside the monopolistic competition framework, marketincompleteness and imperfect competition are central to the new growth theories.22 A simple game-theoretic framework is applied to analyse international cooperation byfocusing on the prisoner's dilemma on the one hand and bargaining in the Coasian sense on theother.23 The model provides a simple theoretical framework in which the level of corruption as well asthe effects of corruption on income, consumption, and growth are identifiable.24 This is modeled in the context of a political economy framework in which social cohesionreduces wasteful rent seeking, and thus strengthens incentives for investment in human captial.25 recently demonstrated a potential conflict between stability and efficiency in this framework.26 Based on the principal¯agent framework I develop a simple model of policy loans, which aregranted by the government on non-market terms, to formalize this important bankingphenomenon in both China and other developing countries.27 The model serves as the framework for an econometric study of participation in theConservation Reserve Program by Northeastern landowners.28 In the absence of an institutional framework facilitating more dispersed ownership,29 Studies of optimal growth in a multisector framework are generally addressed in reduced-form models, defined by an indirect utility function which summarizes the consumer'spreferences and the technologies.30 Instead, an incentive framework and legal environment should be created for the majornongovernment creditors to initiate restructuring.31 The authors develop this conceptual framework and assess the findings from three studies ofmajor commercial banks undergoing privatisationResult in (Vb)1 Ruggiero et al- (1997) argue that the 'Pythagorean Theorem' is an inappropriate basis forevaluating baseball managers and has an illogical arithmetic property that can result in amanager's evaluation being dependent upon the strength of his team.2 Olewiler (1993 and 1995) describe a model in which some competition can result insuboptimal Nash equilibrium.3 Rather, they may result in the formation of a megalopolis that consists of large core cities thatare connected by an industrial belt, i.e., a continuum of cities, where economic activities aredispersed over an interval on the location space.4 Violation of (ii) may result in cyclical behaviour of actions on each sample path.5 Violation of (i) may result in an 'anything is possible' result: any stochastic process of actions isconsistent with maximizing behaviour and Bayesian updating.6 and how the soft-budget constraint problem creates conditions which may result in a financialcrisis.7 empirical finding suggests that the missing common factor restrictions may result in a quitedifferent and perhaps misleading inference.8 In our benchmark, small reductions in working time, starting from the laissez-faire equilibriumsolution, always result in a small increase in the equilibrium employment, while largerreductions reduce employment.9 a one unit increase in (subsidized) free parking will result in more than one additional parker,adding to neighbourhood spillovers.10 says that the Board believes that this bill would improve the efficiency and competitiveness ofthe financial services industry and result in better service to consumers11 programs converge to a fixed point or to a cycle of finite period, and hence result in theconservation of the resource.As a result1 some of these payments are made purely as a result of asymmetry in bargaining power and havenothing to do with2 increased parcel sizes would be associated with lower unit prices as a result of the concavity ofthe land price function.3 1.8 million defense-related jobs in the private sector would be lost as a result of the actual andproposed cuts in spending4 yields the corresponding consistent bankruptcy rule as a result of a unique outcome of Nashequilibria.5 As a result, international bodies such as the EU, ITU, OECD and WTO are6 As a result, his finding undermines the credibility of the existing conclusion7 As a result, Geary¯Khamis comparisons tend to underestimateResult (N)1 The main result states that if the payoff functions are semicontinuous and strong2 The main result of this study is that a financial constraint may serve as a discipli3 The main result obtained from the simulation of the theoretical model is that, alt4 The main result is that regional integration, in the form of a reduction in transport5 The main result is that if we take a certain order is greater than or equal to6 The main result is convergence with probability one to a fixed pattern of pure7 This result is consistent with suggestions that agricultural districts where t8 This result is obtained by using martingale techniques to reformulate the in9 This result is applied to game theory to obtain a natural interpretation of co10 This result is shown to be consistent with available evidence on working11 This result has implications for empirical work. Moreover, this negative effect13 However, the fundamental reason for this result has nothing to do with vintages; rather,14 This result follows the presumption that women are poorly motivated by15 An example shows that this result does not carry over to stationary stochastic environments.16 Their result is robust to a variety of specification tests. Using panel data15The importance of the result is exemplified by the graduate tax.16The result holds for a large class of consistent and monotone rules, including17The result does not come from an effect of instability on investment.Evidence1. New evidence is presented that reaffirms the predominance of local-currency pricing2. Evidence is found of local spatial externalities between university research and3. Evidence is presented that it was the Ford Motor Company that first develope4. Evidence is presented showing that job-finding probabilities of the unemployed5. First, detailed historical evidence is studied. Second, Innis's ideas are translated into aformal6. Evidence is lacking on the extent to which groups facilitate rent-seeking or7. Evidence is then presented showing that inflation is positively correlated with8. Evidence is also lacking on the extent to which groups hamper the future deve9. Furthermore, quantitative evidence is presented supporting the view that Federal Reserve10. Empirical evidence is found in favour of a stable long-run M2 money demand function11. Evidence from the French experience Thomas Piketty* CEPREMAP, 142 ru12. It provides evidence from British and German data that is consistent with this view.13. Evidence from industrial and developing countries: Francesco Giavazzi,14. This paper uses census evidence from mid-nineteenth century France to investigate howand to15. Insider power and wage setting in transition: Evidence from a panel of large Polish firms,16. The effects of wage distortions on the transition: Theory and evidence from China RogerH.17. Our evidence supports the finding that the social security system has substantially18. The evidence suggests that migration between industry and agriculture was quite19. I then argue that the existing evidence suggests that the performance effects of groupaffiliation20. The evidence suggests that five price series exhibit stochastic trends, while the21. Empirical evidence strongly supports this finding for industrialized countries and Europe22. Evidence shows that firms build their market position by accumulating knowledge23. However, other evidence shows that general training is financed by firms, especially in24. The evidence provides considerable support for the diversity thesis but little support25. The evidence provides ways for the People's Bank of China to improve the effective26. There exists evidence of a sizable shift of elderly households away from homeownership.27. The author finds strong evidence of MAR (Marshall-arrow-Romer) (own industry, orlocalization)28. The model is consistent with the empirical evidence of SOEs restructuring in transition29. We find strong evidence of significant dynamic own industry externalities for single plantfirm30. Evidence of superior forecasting skill would imply that U.S. monetary authorities31. found to provide strong evidence of local spillovers at the state level. At the MSA level, a32. and little evidence of urbanization-Jacobs-knowledge type externalities. Corporate plant。

英文摘要(Abstract)的写作应用很广。论文摘要是全文的

中文含义黑色蓝色棕色绿色深色浅色深蓝色深绿色浅蓝色浅绿色橙色粉红色紫色红色褐色白色黄色
Table 6-8 Color abbreviation of harnnesses (GM)
5.2.2 Electrical Symbols
TOYOTA (丰田)
1. battery 2. ground 3. cigarette lighter 4. horn 5. capacitor (condenser) 6. circuit breaker 7. headlight (1) headlight ,single filament (2) headlight, double filament 8. diode, Zenner 9. diode 10. LED(light emitting diode) 11. photodiode 12. motor 13. ignition coil C 14. distributor 15. meter, analog 16. meter, digital 17. light
“was”, “are”和“were”这样的弱动词。
英文摘要的写作技巧
4、摘要的英文写作风格
9）构成句子时，动词应靠近主语。避免形如以下的句子：
“The decolorization in solutions of the pigment in dioxane, which were exposed to 10 hr of UV irradiation, was no longer irreversible.”
ABS system (Jeep)
BRAKE FLUID LEVEL SWITCH CIRCUIT CAB POWER FEED CIRCUIT CLUSTER FAULT CONTROLLER FAILURE “G” SWITCH NOT PROCESSABLE LEFT FRONT SENSOR CIRCUIT FAILURE LEFT FRONT SENSOR SIGNAL FAILURE LEFT REAR SENSOR CIRCUIT FAILURE LFET REAR SENSOR SIGNAL FAILURE PCI BUS COMMUNICATION PUMP MOTOR NOT WORKING PROPERLY RIGHT FRONT SENSOR CIRCUIT FAILURE RIGHT FRONT SENSOR SIGNAL FAILURE RIGHT REAR SENSOR CIRCUIT FAILURE RIGHT REAR SENSOR SIGNAL FAILURE SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGE SYSTEM UNDERVOLTAGE NO RESPONSE FROM CAB CONTROLLER

科技论文abstract写法说明

Abstract1 StructureThe structure and content of the Abstract have changed in recent decades. Before on-line publication databases such as the Science Citation Index, the Abstract was printed at the top of a research article and its function was mainly to encourage the reader to continue reading the article and to facilitate that reading by providing a brief preview. The reader and the writer didn’t consider the Abstract of a research article as an independent unit because it was not normally read without reference to the article itself.The Internet has influenced the way that science research is communicated and the way that scientists access published research. Abstract databases allow scientists to search and scan the scientific literature and then decide which research articles they want to read in detail. Some readers simply want to know what is going on in their research area and may not be interested in the details; others may want to know details but are only interested in research articles which are directly relevant to their own research. However, if readers are going to actually read your research article, the Abstract now needs to persuade them to obtain a copy of it, not just encourage them to keep reading a paper theyhave already accessed.Abstracts compete for attention in on-line databases. Many more people will read the title than the Abstract, and many more will read the Abstract than the whole paper. This means that however ‘good’ and wellwritten the Abstract is, it needs to have independent validity. It should make sense as a standalone, self-contained description of the research article, and readers should be able to understand the key points and results of the research even if they never see the whole article. The Abstract, in this sense, is a representation of the research article.Why does the unit on Abstracts come at the end of this book rather than at the beginning?In the first place, the style and the length of the Abstract depend on where you plan to submit it and that decision may be taken late in — or even after —the writing process. However, the most important reason for putting this unit on Abstracts at the end of the book is that you are in a better position to create an Abstract after you have finished writing the other sections of your paper. The content of the Abstract is derived from the rest of the article, not the other way around. Although you should not simply cut and paste whole sentences from the body of the article, the Abstract does not contain material which is not already in the paper. Thismeans that you don’t need to create completely new sentences; once you have decided what should go in the Abstract you can select material, including parts of sentences and phrases, from the relevant sections of the paper and adapt or modify them to meet the demands of an Abstract. This also means that the Abstract is easier to write than the rest of the paper!Does every Abstract follow the same model?No, and the title of the Abstract reflects this. Some are called Summary, some are called Background, some are called Abstract and others have no title at all. Most Abstracts are results-focused and there are basic similarities in all Abstracts, but there are two quite distinct models. The first model is similar to a summary, and is very structured. It deals with all the main subsections of the research article and can even have subtitles such as Background/Method/Results/Conclusions. The second model is more common, and focuses primarily on one or two aspect of the study, usually — but not always — the method and the results. Both models will be discussed here. Note that the models for an Abstract described here are appropriate for articles, papers, theses etc. Abstracts for conferences may not follow either of these models.How do I know which model to choose?This decision is based on the type of research you have done and theGuide for Authors of the journal where you want to publish your research. The decision is normally determined by the journal rather than the author. If the choice is yours, then generally speaking, the more narrow and specified your research topic, the less likely you are to use the summary format. This is because in a narrow research field, most readers already know the background. The word limit set by each journal also has a significant effect on the structure and therefore also on the content of the Abstract.So as you can see, when we come to ask our three questions:How do I start the Abstract? What type of sentence should I begin with? What type of information should be in the Abstract, and in what order? How do I end this section?You already know a lot about what the Abstract should include and in what order.Here are examples of both models.Remember that Model 2 Abstracts are more common than Model 1. Start by reading the Abstract below, which is an example of a structured Abstract using the summary format (Model 1). The title of the paper is: Physical properties of petroleum reservoir fluids derived from acoustic measurements. Don’t worry if you have diffi culty understanding terms such as bubble point. Just try to get a general understanding at this stage and familiarise yourself with the structure.MODEL 1Abstract: The speed of sound in a fluid is determined by, and therefore an indicator of, the thermodynamic properties of that fluid. The aim of this study was to investigate the use of an ultrasonic超声波cell to determine crude oil properties, in particular oil density. An ultrasonic cell was constructed to measure the speed of sound and tested in a crude oil sample. The speed of sound was measured at temperatures between 260 and 411 K at pressures up to 75 MPs.The measurements were shown to lead to an accurate determination of the bubble point沸点of the oil. This indicates that there is a possibility of obtaining fluid density from sound speed measurements and suggests that it is possible to measure sound absorption with an ultrasonic cell to determine oil viscosity黏度.Now look at an example of the second, more common, type of Abstract. The title of this paper is: Effect of polymer coatings on drug release.MODEL 2Abstract: This study investigated the use of a novel water-soluble polymer blend as a coating to control drug release. It was found that using a blend of methylcellulose甲基纤维素and a water-soluble copolymer 共聚物significantly slowed the release rate of ibuprofen布洛芬compounds in vitro and allowed for a more consistent release rate of 10–20% per hour.2 Grammar and Writing SkillsBecause the Abstract is derived from the rest of the article, most of the grammar and writing skills have already been covered in previous units. The use of VERB TENSE, however, is very important in the Abstract. This section also deals with the LENGTH and LANGUAGE of the Abstract.2.1 Verb tenseVerb tense is especially important in the Abstract because the strict word limit means that you may need to omit phrases that tell the reader whose work you are referring to, or what you think about your results. In this case, these can be achieved by careful and accurate use of verb tense.Remember that the tense you use in a sentence may be grammatically correct —and therefore no editor or proofreader will notice it or draw your attention to it — but if you have not chosen the appropriate tense the sentence will not mean what you wanted it to mean and it will not have the effect you hoped it would have.The gap/problem is normally in the Present Simple tense，for example: The main problem, however, is…We examine why these models have diffi culty with…However, this assumption is not valid when…This is complicated复杂的，难懂的by…However, this assessment cannot be based so lely on…Although it is known theoretically that…When you are referring to what the paper itself does or what is actually in the paper itself, use the Present Simple tense, for example:论文中实际有什么，研究得到了什么结果This paper presents a new methodology for…In th is paper we apply…This study reports an improved design for…In this paper we extend an existing approach to…We consider a novel system of…The implications for learning algorithms are discussed…New numerical results are presented here for…When you are referring to your methodology, or what you did during the research period, it is common to use the Past Simple tense,也有可能是一般现在时for example:Two catalysts催化剂were examined in order to…Samples were prepared for electron microscopy using…A crystalliser was constructed using…The effect of pH was investigated by means of…The data obtained were evaluated using…A pe rmeameter was used to investigate…It is also possible to use the Present Simple tense to talk about your methodology, especially when you are referring to calculations计算or equations方程式which can be found in the paper itself:Numerical examples are ana lysed in detail…The calculated wavelengths are compared to…Several models are created using…The accuracy is evaluated by…A detailed comparison is made between…The method is illustrated on blends of homopolymers…Results can be expressed in either the Present Simple tense, for example: We find that oxygen reduction may occur up to 20 microns from the interface…No dilation was observed…This was consistent with…Organised fibers were found after 6 weeks…These profiles were affected by…This f inding correlated with…But be aware that the sentence may use two different tenses. Even if the first part of the sentence is in the Past Simple tense (We found/It was found etc.) you can decide to put the finding/result itself or the implication of the result in the Present Simple tense if you believe it is strong enough to be considered as a fact or truth:The experiments demonstrated there are two matrices…It was found that proteins are produced from…The results demonstrated that the morphology i s different…This image suggested that there is a direct relationship between…Some of the reasons behind that choice are discussed in the unit on Introductions (Section 1.2.1) and the unit on Results (Section 3.4.2). In addition to the reasons given there, it is worth noting that the Abstract tends to present the contents of the paper in fairly direct way, not only because of the word limits imposed by editors, but also to engage the attention of the reader. This influences the decision to use the Present Simple for the results or the implications, even though those implications may have been stated in the Past Simple in the article itself.Achievements can be expressed in the Present Perfect tense, as in theDiscussion/Conclusion:We have obtained ac curate quantitative LIF measurements…This investigation has revealed that…We have devised a strategy which allows…We have demonstrated the feasibility of this approach by…A novel material has been produced which…Three-dimensional FE predictions h ave confirmed that… Considerable insight has been gained concerning…The model consistently underpredicts…The ratio shifts towards…We show that this theory also applies to…The most accurate readings are obtained from…We find that this does not vary…These examples illustrate that overpotential is better described in terms of…Or, more commonly, in the Past Simple tense, for example: The Y-type was found to produce…The hydrocarbons showed a marked increase in…and also in the Present Simple tense:This process can successfully be combined with…The framework described here is both simple and universal…The value of our approach lies in…This provides a powerful tool for…This novel film is mechanically robust and is able to…The algorithm p resented here ensures that…Applications are normally stated in the Present Simple tense:This process is suitable for the production of…This framework can be used to evaluate…This approach can be applied to…This demonstrates potential for general applicability to…These profiles may serve as a predictor for…This framework can be used to evaluate…2.2 LengthThe Abstract usually has a strict word limit. Most are between 80– 150 words and are written as a single paragraph. Even longer Abstracts (150–250 words) are usually written as a single paragraph. Don’t submit an Abstract that is over the word limit or it may be cut by an editor in a way that does not represent your work appropriately. For your first draft, don’t worry too much about the word limit. Once you have decided which of the two Abstract models you will use, start by including whatever you think is important, and then gradually remove words, phrases and evensentences that are not essential.2.3 Language不用太专业，尽量少用缩略词，需要Think of the search phrases and keywords that people looking for your work might use. Make sure that those exact words or phrases appear in your Abstract, so that they will turn up at the top of a search result listing. The Abstract is sometimes written in a slightly less technical way than the article itself in order to attract a wider audience. This may mean that some of your readers do not know a particular technical term or acronym 首字母缩写that you want to include. To solve this problem, you can use the acronym, abbreviation缩写词or technical term in the Abstract but you should first say what it means or stands for. For example: Granules颗粒of hydroxyapatite (HA)羟磷灰石were implanted.3 Build a Model3.1 sample analysisYou are now ready to build a model of the Abstract by writing a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided below. This should be very easy, because all the components of the Abstract have occurred in previous subsections. As before, the Key is on the next page.GUIDELINESThis time you will need to build two models, to cover the two types of Abstracts. You should only need to spend 10–20 minutes on this task, because the sentenc e types are familiar to you from previous units. Don’t forget that your models are only useful if they can be transferred to other Abstracts, so don’t include content words or you won’t be able to use the models to generate your own Abstract.Remember that one way to find out what the writer is doing in a sentence, rather than what s/he is saying, is to imagine that your computer has accidentally deleted it. What changes for you, as a reader, when it disappears? If you press another key on the computer and the sentence comes back, how does that affect the way you respond to the information?As mentioned in previous sections, another way to figure out what the writer is doing is to look at the grammar and vocabulary clues. What is the tense of the main verb? What is that tense normally used for? Is it the same tense as in the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense? What words has the writer chosen to use?Model Analysis—AbstractMODEL 1KeyIn Sentence 1 ‘Th e speed of sound in a fluid is determined by, and therefore an indicator of, the thermodynamic properties of that fluid.’the writer provides background factual information.In Sentence 2 ‘Th e aim of this study was to investigate the use of an ultrasonic cell to determine crude oil properties, in particular oil density.’ the writer combines the method, the general aim and the specific aim ofthe study in one sentence.In Sentences 3 and 4 ‘An ultrasonic cell was constructed to meas ure the speed of sound and tested in a crude oil sample. 4 The speed of sound was measured at temperatures between 260 and 411 K at pressures up to 75 MPs.’ the writer summarises the methodology and provides details.In Sentence 5 ‘Th e measurements were shown to lead to an accurate determination of the bubble point of the oil.’ the writer indicates the achievement of the study.In Sentence 6 ‘Th is indicates that there is a possibility of obtaining fluid density from sound speed measurements and suggests that it is possible to measure sound absorption with an ultrasonic cell to determine oil viscosity.’ the writer presents the implications of the study.Model 2KeyIn Sentence 1 ‘Th is paper reports the use of a novel water-soluble polymer blend as a coatin g to control drug release.’ the writer combines what the paper does (This paper reports), the method or materials used (water-soluble polymer blend), the contribution (novel) and the aim of thestudy (to control drug release).In Sentence 2 ‘It was found that using a blend of methylcellulose and a water-soluble copolymer significantly slowed the release rate of ibuprofen compounds in vitro and allowed for a more consistent release rate of 10–20% per hour.’ the writer refers to the method in more detail and provides numerical details of the results.3.2 The modelHere are the sentence descriptions we have collected:MODEL1MODEL 2Rather than construct two different models, the model description given in the box below will include both types of Abstracts. We can streamline the sentence types we have collected so that the model has five basic components.The more structured type, Model 1, typically includes the first four components in the box below in approximately the order presented; in this type of Abstract, each component tends to occur separately. These structured Abstracts occasionally include the fifth component, LIMITATIONS and/or FUTURE WORK.Model 2 selects just two or three of the components and tends to combine components in a single sentence where possible. The components generally include RESULTS and/or ACHIEVEMENTS and frequently METHODOLOGY, but this depends on the research area and the level of specificity. A wider research focus may require BACKGROUND or AIM in the Abstract. In Model 2, the order of components is very flexible indeed — the only pattern that is generally METHODOLOGY tends to come before RESULTS.Model5.4.2 Vocabulary for the Abstract 1. BACKGROUNDAIMPROBLEMWHAT THE PAPER DOESNote: It is also possible to use many of these verbs with it or, i.e. In this paper it is shown/argued that… or in the passive, i.e. A framework is presented…2. METHODOLOGY/MATERIALS3. RESULTSACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTIONIMPLICATIONSYou can find more in Unit 3, Section 3.4.2, as well as examples of how these are used, but remember not to use the weaker forms such as seem to suggest or tend to be related to in the Abstract.4. APPLICATIONS5. LIMITATIONS and FUTURE WORKLimitations and future work are rarely mentioned in an Abstract and then only briefly.。

abstract introduction conclusion 的区别

abstract introduction conclusion 的区别"Abstract," "Introduction," 和"Conclusion" 是学术论文或研究报告中常见的三个部分，它们在结构和功能上有一些区别：
1. Abstract（摘要）：
•位置：通常位于论文的开头，但在目录之后。

•内容：提供对整篇论文的简要概述，包括研究的目的、方法、主要结果和结论。

•长度：通常为100至300字之间，具有高度概括性。

•目的：使读者能够迅速了解研究的主要方向和结果，以决定是否继续阅读全文。

2. Introduction（引言）：
•位置：位于摘要后面，是论文的第一节。

•内容：引入研究的主题，提供背景信息，明确研究问题，并概述研究的目的、范围和方法。

•长度：通常比摘要更详细，但仍然是对整篇论文的总体概述。

•目的：引导读者进入论文的主题，并说明为什么研究是有意义的，解决了什么问题，以及采用了什么方法。

3. Conclusion（结论）：
•位置：通常位于论文的最后一节。

•内容：总结研究的主要发现，回答研究问题，提供对研究的贡献和局限性的讨论，以及可能的未来工作建议。

•长度：相对较短，但足以概括整个研究的要点。

•目的：提供对整个研究工作的总结，强调研究的重要性，以及未来研究方向的建议。

总体而言，Abstract 提供了对整篇论文的高度概括，Introduction 引导读者进入论文的主题，而 Conclusion 提供对整个研究的结论和未来工作的展望。

这三个部分协同工作，帮助读者更好地理解和评估研究的价值。

中英文摘要写作要求及格式

中、英文摘要写作要求及格式1．摘要写作要求摘要的内容要包括研究的目的、方法、结果和结论。

计量单位一律换算成国际标准计量单位。

除特殊情况外，数字一律用阿拉伯数字。

中、英文摘要的内容应严格一致。

2．中文摘要中文摘要前打印毕业论文（毕业设计）的标题。

主标题一般不超过20个汉字。

如有副标题，应另起一行（副标题前加破折号），副标题（包括破折号在内）同样不得超过20个汉字。

中文主标题格式：可选用本模板中的样式所定义的“论文中文主标题”，或手动设置（黑体，三号，居中，段前1行、段后0行，单倍行距）。

中文副标题格式：可选用本模板中的样式所定义的“论文中文副标题”，或手动设置（楷体_GB2312，四号，居中，段前0.5行，段后0行，单倍行距）。

中文标题下空一行为摘要。

“摘要：”格式：首行缩进2字符，黑体，小四。

“摘要：”后紧接摘要正文。

字数在200字左右。

中文摘要正文格式：可选用本模板中的样式所定义的“中文摘要正文”，或手动设置（楷体_GB2312，小四，行距为固定值20磅）。

中文摘要正文后空一行，另起一行列出3－5个关键词。

“关键词：”格式：首行缩进2字符，黑体，小四。

“关键词：”后紧接关键词。

关键词之间用分号间隔，最后一个关键词末尾不加标点。

中文关键词格式：楷体_GB2312，小四，行距为固定值20磅。

3．英文摘要中文关键词下空两行打印毕业论文（毕业设计）的英文标题。

英文主标题首字母大写，标题中其他单词实词首字母大写，其他均为小写。

英文主标题格式：可选用本模板中的样式所定义的“论文英文主标题”，或手动设置（Times New Roman，四号，加粗，居中，段前段后均为0行，单倍行距）。

英文副标题格式：可选用本模板中的样式所定义的“论文英文副标题”，或手动设置（Times New Roman，小四，加粗，居中，段前0.5行，段后0行，单倍行距）。

英文标题下空一行为英文摘要。

“Abstract：”格式：首行缩进2字符，Times New Roman，小四，加粗。

论文摘要一般写法-如何写论文摘要

论文摘要一般写法论文摘要是文章的内容不加诠释和评论的简短陈述。

为了国际交流，还应有外文(多用英文)摘要。

摘要是在文章全文完成之后提炼出来的，具有短、精、完整三大特点。

摘要应具有独立性的自含性、即不阅读原文的全文．就能获得必要的信息。

摘要中有数据、有结论、是一篇完整的短文．可以独立使用，也可以引用，还可以用于工艺推广。

其内容应该包含与报告论文同等量的主要信息．以供读者确定有无必要阅读原论文全文，也可提供给文摘第二次文献采用。

目录论文摘要简介摘要一般应说明研究工作目的、实验方法、结果和最终结论等．而重点是结果和结论。

中文摘要一般不宜超过300字，外文摘要不宜超过250个实词。

除了实在迫不得已，摘要中不用图、表、化学结构式、非公知公用的符号和术语。

摘要可用另页置于题名页(页上无正文)之前，学术论文的摘要一般置于题名和作者之后，论文正文之前。

论文摘要又称概要、内容提要。

摘要是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释，简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。

其基本要素包括研究目的、方法、结果和结论。

具体地讲就是研究工作的主要对象和范围，采用的手段和方法，得出的结果和重要的结论，有时也包括具有情报价值的其它重要的信息。

摘要应具有独立性和自明性，并且拥有与文献同等量的主要信息，即不阅读全文，就能获得必要的信息。

摘要不容赘言,故需逐字推敲。

内容必须完整、具体、使人一目了然。

英文摘要虽以中文摘要为基础,但要考虑到不能阅读中文的读者的需求,实质性的内容不能遗漏。

摘要的类型根据内容的不同, 摘要可分为以下三大类: 报道性摘要、指示性摘要和报道-指示性摘要.(1) 报道性摘要(informative abstract): 也常称作信息性摘要或资料性摘要, 其特点是全面、简要地概括论文的目的、方法、主要数据和结论. 通常, 这种摘要可以部分地取代阅读全文.(2) 指示性摘要 (indicative abstract): 也常称为说明性摘要、描述性摘要(descriptive abstract)或论点摘要(topic abstract), 一般只用二三句话概括论文的主题, 而不涉及论据和结论, 多用于综述、会议报告等. 该类摘要可用于帮助潜在的读者来决定是否需要阅读全文.(3) 报道-指示性摘要(informative-indicative abstract): 以报道性摘要的形式表述一次文献中的信息价值较高的部分, 以指示性摘要的形式表述其余部分.摘要组成我国的科技期刊近年来陆续采用结构式摘要,明确写出目的、方法、结果和结论四部分。