管理经济学托马斯版
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托马斯管理经济学课件第一讲课件
术发展。
培养跨学科的思维方式，结合其 他领域的知识提高决策质量。
关注全球化和国际市场的动态， 拓展企业的国际视野和竞争力。
THANKS
感谢观看
资源配置和生产决策
资源配置的原则和方法
原则
效率、公平和经济可行性。
方法
市场机制、计划配置、混合经济等。
生产决策的制定和优化
制定
根据市场需求、企业目标和技术条件 确定生产计划。
优化
通过生产要素的最佳组合实现成本最 小化或利润最大化。
生产效率和生产力的提升
效率
投入与产出之间的比例，低投入 高产出。
02
它探讨如何利用稀缺资源，通过合理配置和有效利用，实现企
业经济效益的最大化。
管理经济学融合了微观经济学、宏观经济学、计量经济学等学
03
科的理论和方法，为企业经营提供科学的决策依据。
管理经济学的重要性
管理经济学有助于企业制定合理的战 略规划和经营策略，提高市场竞争力。
管理经济学为企业提供了一种系统化 的决策方法，有助于减少决策中的主 观性和盲目性，降低经营风险。
管理经济学对于培养企业经营 管理人才、提高企业经济效益 具有重要意义。
课程目标
掌握管理经济学的基 本概念、原理和方法。
培养创新思维和批判 性思维，提高综合素 质。
学会运用管理经济学 理论分析实际问题， 提高解决实际问题的 能力。
02
管理经济学概述
管理经济学的定义
01
管理经济学是一门研究如何将经济学原理和方法应用于企业管 理决策的学科。
响。
管理经济学未来的发展趋势
1
更加注重跨学科的研究，如心理学、社会学等究数字化和人工智能对管理经济学的影响， 以及如何运用新技术提高企业效率和竞争力。
培养跨学科的思维方式，结合其 他领域的知识提高决策质量。
关注全球化和国际市场的动态， 拓展企业的国际视野和竞争力。
THANKS
感谢观看
资源配置和生产决策
资源配置的原则和方法
原则
效率、公平和经济可行性。
方法
市场机制、计划配置、混合经济等。
生产决策的制定和优化
制定
根据市场需求、企业目标和技术条件 确定生产计划。
优化
通过生产要素的最佳组合实现成本最 小化或利润最大化。
生产效率和生产力的提升
效率
投入与产出之间的比例，低投入 高产出。
02
它探讨如何利用稀缺资源，通过合理配置和有效利用，实现企
业经济效益的最大化。
管理经济学融合了微观经济学、宏观经济学、计量经济学等学
03
科的理论和方法，为企业经营提供科学的决策依据。
管理经济学的重要性
管理经济学有助于企业制定合理的战 略规划和经营策略，提高市场竞争力。
管理经济学为企业提供了一种系统化 的决策方法，有助于减少决策中的主 观性和盲目性，降低经营风险。
管理经济学对于培养企业经营 管理人才、提高企业经济效益 具有重要意义。
课程目标
掌握管理经济学的基 本概念、原理和方法。
培养创新思维和批判 性思维，提高综合素 质。
学会运用管理经济学 理论分析实际问题， 提高解决实际问题的 能力。
02
管理经济学概述
管理经济学的定义
01
管理经济学是一门研究如何将经济学原理和方法应用于企业管 理决策的学科。
响。
管理经济学未来的发展趋势
1
更加注重跨学科的研究，如心理学、社会学等究数字化和人工智能对管理经济学的影响， 以及如何运用新技术提高企业效率和竞争力。
托马斯《管理经济学》12e_Chapter1
第1章
管理者、利润与市场
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
1-1
Hale Waihona Puke 习目标 （1.1） 理解为什么管理经济学依赖于微观经济学和产业组织理 论来分析商业实践，并制定企业战略；
（1.2） 解释经济利润和会计利润的不同，把经济利润与企业价 值联系起来；
（1.3） 描述当企业主和管理者的目标不一致，且企业主不可能 对管理者进行监督，或者监督成本高昂时，企业所有权和经营权的 分离如何导致委托-代理问题；
1-3
微观经济学
微观经济学
~ 研究经济个体行为的科学
商业实践或经营策略
~ 通过边际分析,微观经济学为理解日常商业决策提供了 基础
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
管理者、利润与市场
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
1-1
Hale Waihona Puke 习目标 （1.1） 理解为什么管理经济学依赖于微观经济学和产业组织理 论来分析商业实践，并制定企业战略；
（1.2） 解释经济利润和会计利润的不同，把经济利润与企业价 值联系起来；
（1.3） 描述当企业主和管理者的目标不一致，且企业主不可能 对管理者进行监督，或者监督成本高昂时，企业所有权和经营权的 分离如何导致委托-代理问题；
1-3
微观经济学
微观经济学
~ 研究经济个体行为的科学
商业实践或经营策略
~ 通过边际分析,微观经济学为理解日常商业决策提供了 基础
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
管理经济学托马斯版Chap005
• Requires that consumers can rank all consumption bundles based on the level of satisfaction they would receive from consuming the various bundles
5-3
Quantity of burgers
5-19
Individual Consumer Demand
• An individual’s demand curve for a specific commodity relates utilitymaximizing quantities purchased to market prices
5-7
Typical Indifference Curve
(Figure 5.2)
5-8
Marginal Rate of Substitution
• MRS shows the rate at which one good can be substituted for another while keeping utility constant
A is preferred to B B is preferred to A The consumer is indifferent between A and B
• Transitivity
• If A is preferred to B, and B is preferred to C, then A must be preferred to C
C
B
D
125
200
250
Quantity of X
5-3
Quantity of burgers
5-19
Individual Consumer Demand
• An individual’s demand curve for a specific commodity relates utilitymaximizing quantities purchased to market prices
5-7
Typical Indifference Curve
(Figure 5.2)
5-8
Marginal Rate of Substitution
• MRS shows the rate at which one good can be substituted for another while keeping utility constant
A is preferred to B B is preferred to A The consumer is indifferent between A and B
• Transitivity
• If A is preferred to B, and B is preferred to C, then A must be preferred to C
C
B
D
125
200
250
Quantity of X
Thomas12e_Chapter3托马斯管理经济学章3
3-12
边际量和总量的关系
TC 4,000 100 F 320 3,000 520 100 2,000 640 1,000 C’ 100
(图 3.2)
TB
总收益和总成本（美元）
•B
B’
• D’•
D 100
•
820
•G•C •100•520
100 340
A 350 = A* 600 800 1,000
3-10
边际收益 & 边际成本
总收益的变化 TB MB 行动的变化 A 总成本的变化 TC MC 行动的变化 A
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
行动水平
3-13
用边际分析找到最优行动水平
如果边际收益 > 边际成本
~ 应该增加行动以实现最高净收益
如果边际成本 > 边际收益
~ 应该减少行动以实现最高净收益
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
管理经济学托马斯版Chap004
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 4: Basic Estimation Techniques
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Basic Estimation
• Parameters
Performing a t-Test
• First determine the level of significance
• Probability of finding a parameter estimate to be statistically different from zero when, in fact, it is zero
Yˆ aˆbˆX
Sample Regression Line
(Figure 4.2)
Sales (dollars)
S
70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000
0
•• •
SSii=6600,,000000
•
ei
•
•
SˆiŜi =464,367,3676
zero)
• Slope parameter (b) gives the change in Y associated with a one-unit change in X:
bY X
Simple Linear Regression
• Parameter estimates are obtained by
Unbiased Estimators
• An estimator is unbiased if its average value (or expected value) is equal to the true value of the parameter
Chapter 4: Basic Estimation Techniques
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Basic Estimation
• Parameters
Performing a t-Test
• First determine the level of significance
• Probability of finding a parameter estimate to be statistically different from zero when, in fact, it is zero
Yˆ aˆbˆX
Sample Regression Line
(Figure 4.2)
Sales (dollars)
S
70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000
0
•• •
SSii=6600,,000000
•
ei
•
•
SˆiŜi =464,367,3676
zero)
• Slope parameter (b) gives the change in Y associated with a one-unit change in X:
bY X
Simple Linear Regression
• Parameter estimates are obtained by
Unbiased Estimators
• An estimator is unbiased if its average value (or expected value) is equal to the true value of the parameter
管理经济学托马斯版Chap006
Price falls
TR rises
No change in TR
TR falls
Factors Affecting Price Elasticity of Demand
• Availability of substitutes
• The better & more numerous the substitutes for a good, the more elastic is demand
• When calculating price elasticity at a point on demand, multiply the slope of demand
(Q/P), computed at the point of measure,
times the ratio P/Q, using the values of P and Q at the point of measure • Method of measuring point elasticity depends on whether demand is linear or curvilinear
Responsiveness E
%∆Q> %∆P E> 1 %∆Q= %∆P E= 1 %∆Q< %∆P E< 1
Price Elasticity of Demand (E)
• Percentage change in quantity demanded can be predicted for a given percentage change in price as:
• When calculating price elasticity of demand over an interval of demand, use the interval or arc elasticity formula
管理经济学托马斯版Chap.ppt
or
Y M PX X PY PY
5-13
Consumer’s Budget Constraint
(Figure 5.5)
5-14
Typical Budget Line (Figure 5.6)
• M A
PY Y M PX X PY PY
Quantity of Y
•B
M
Quantity of X
• Substitution effect • Income effect
5-25
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
• Nonsatiation
• More of a good is always preferred to less
5-5
Utility
• Benefits consumers obtain from goods & services they consume is utility
• A utility function shows an individual’s perception of the utility level attained from consuming each conceivable bundle of goods
Y M PX X PY PY
5-13
Consumer’s Budget Constraint
(Figure 5.5)
5-14
Typical Budget Line (Figure 5.6)
• M A
PY Y M PX X PY PY
Quantity of Y
•B
M
Quantity of X
• Substitution effect • Income effect
5-25
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
• Nonsatiation
• More of a good is always preferred to less
5-5
Utility
• Benefits consumers obtain from goods & services they consume is utility
• A utility function shows an individual’s perception of the utility level attained from consuming each conceivable bundle of goods
Thomas12e_Chapter2托马斯管理经济学章2
~ 在一定的时间段内，消费者愿意并且有能力 购买的商品或服务的数量。
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
（2.6）
阐述政府制定限制价与支持价的影响。
2-2
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
2-12
需求曲线(图 2.1)
Qd = 1,400 – 10P
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
（2.6）
阐述政府制定限制价与支持价的影响。
2-2
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
2-12
需求曲线(图 2.1)
Qd = 1,400 – 10P
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Thomas12e_Chapter3托马斯管理经济学章
06
托马斯管理经济学 的实践意义和价值
对企业管理的指导作用和实践意义
帮助企业制定合理的战略规划 提高企业的市场竞争力 优化企业的资源配置 提高企业的经济效益
对政府政策制定和公共管理的启示和借鉴价值
政府政策制定：借鉴托马斯管理经济学的理论和方法制定更加科学、有效 的政策。
公共管理：借鉴托马斯管理经济学的理论和方法提高公共管理的效率和质 量。
对学术界产生了 深远的影响推动 了管理经济学的 发展
感谢观看
汇报人：
企业社会责任和可持续发展
企业社会责任：关 注环境保护、员工 福利、社会责任等
方面的问题
可持续发展：关注 企业的长期发展注 重资源的合理利用
和环保
社会责任和可持续 发展的关系：社会 责任是实现可持续
发展的重要手段
企业社会责任和可 持续发展的应用： 在企业管理中注重 社会责任和可持续 发展可以提高企业 的竞争力和形象促 进企业的长期发展。
管理经济学与心理学的交叉研究：探讨管理者的心理因素对经济决策的影响
管理经济学与计算机科学的交叉研究：利用大数据和人工智能技术提高经济决策的准确性和 效率
管理经济学与环境科学的交叉研究：关注经济活动对环境的影响寻求可持续发展的解决方案
管理经济学与金融学的交叉研究：探讨金融市场对经济决策的影响以及如何利用金融工具进 行风险管理
市场需求：消费者对环保和绿色产品 的需求为企业提供市场机会
绿色发展：企业需要采用环保技术和 生产方式提高资源利用效率
社会责任：企业需要承担社会责任关 注环境保护和可持续发展
政策支持：政府对环保和绿色发展的支 持为企业提供政策支持和激励
投资机会：环保和绿色发展领域的投 资机会为企业提供新的投资方向
管理经济学托马斯版Chap005.pptx
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 5: Theory of Consumer Behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
The Consumer’s Optimization Problem
MU U X
5-12
Consumer’s Budget Line
• Shows all possible commodity bundles that can be purchased at given prices with a fixed money income
M PX X PYY
or
Quantity of Y
Indifference Map (Figure 5.4)
IV III II I
Quantity of X
5-11
Marginal Utility
• Addition to total utility attributable to the addition of one unit of a good to the current rate of consumption, holding constant the amounts of all other goods consumed
• Individual consumption decisions are made with the goal of maximizing total satisfaction from consuming various goods and services
• Subject to the constraint that spending on goods exactly equals the individual’s money income
Chapter 5: Theory of Consumer Behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
The Consumer’s Optimization Problem
MU U X
5-12
Consumer’s Budget Line
• Shows all possible commodity bundles that can be purchased at given prices with a fixed money income
M PX X PYY
or
Quantity of Y
Indifference Map (Figure 5.4)
IV III II I
Quantity of X
5-11
Marginal Utility
• Addition to total utility attributable to the addition of one unit of a good to the current rate of consumption, holding constant the amounts of all other goods consumed
• Individual consumption decisions are made with the goal of maximizing total satisfaction from consuming various goods and services
• Subject to the constraint that spending on goods exactly equals the individual’s money income
托马斯管理经济学
❖“套餐”：轿车价格105000元，送3000元油卡， 1500元装饰，500元保养，……
❖“普通”：轿车价格100000元，但是，不送其 它总值超过5000元的东西。
“我”应该选择哪一个“价格”？
现实生活中的例子
❖ 2006年6，7月间，世纪城旺市百利超市告诉顾客：
❖“如果顾客发现并证实：同样的产品，其它超市销 售的价格低于旺市百利的价格，那么旺市百利将赔 付顾客6倍产品价差。”
管理者、企业与市场
Managers, Firms, and Markets
机会成本的概念
【例子1】某企业有一笔闲置资金，如果用来购买设备， 当年可盈利70000元，也可入银行，每年得到利息50000元， 那么，企业主是否应将这笔钱用来购买设备？
【例子2】投资者王某可以选择股票和储蓄存款两种投资 方式。他于1999年9月1日用1万元购进某种股票，经过一年 的操作，到2000年9月1日，投资股票的净收益为450元。如 果当时他将这1万元存入银行，一年期定期储蓄存款的年利 率为2.25％，扣除利息税，则有180元的实际利息净收益。
终日奔波只为饥 衣食两般皆俱足 取得美妻生下子 买到田园多广阔 槽头扣了骡和马 县丞主簿还嫌小 作了皇帝求仙术 若要世人心里足
方才一饱便思衣 又想娇容美貌妻 恨无天地少根基 出入无船少马骑 叹无官职被人欺 又要朝中挂紫衣 更想登天跨鹤飞 除是南柯一梦西
经济学的中心命题
稀缺的经济资源
机会成本的概念
❖ 机会成本的两个条件
所使用的资源具有多种用途 把可能获得的最大收入视为机会成本
❖ 企业在进行经营决策时为何必须要考虑机会成本
作为决策分析中经常使用的一个特定概念“机会成本”，是在决策 分析过程中，从多个供选方案中选取最优方案而放弃次优方案，从而放 弃了次优方案所能取得的利益而成为损失。这种由于放弃次优方案而损 失的“潜在利益”就是选取最优方案的机会成本。
❖“普通”：轿车价格100000元，但是，不送其 它总值超过5000元的东西。
“我”应该选择哪一个“价格”？
现实生活中的例子
❖ 2006年6，7月间，世纪城旺市百利超市告诉顾客：
❖“如果顾客发现并证实：同样的产品，其它超市销 售的价格低于旺市百利的价格，那么旺市百利将赔 付顾客6倍产品价差。”
管理者、企业与市场
Managers, Firms, and Markets
机会成本的概念
【例子1】某企业有一笔闲置资金，如果用来购买设备， 当年可盈利70000元，也可入银行，每年得到利息50000元， 那么，企业主是否应将这笔钱用来购买设备？
【例子2】投资者王某可以选择股票和储蓄存款两种投资 方式。他于1999年9月1日用1万元购进某种股票，经过一年 的操作，到2000年9月1日，投资股票的净收益为450元。如 果当时他将这1万元存入银行，一年期定期储蓄存款的年利 率为2.25％，扣除利息税，则有180元的实际利息净收益。
终日奔波只为饥 衣食两般皆俱足 取得美妻生下子 买到田园多广阔 槽头扣了骡和马 县丞主簿还嫌小 作了皇帝求仙术 若要世人心里足
方才一饱便思衣 又想娇容美貌妻 恨无天地少根基 出入无船少马骑 叹无官职被人欺 又要朝中挂紫衣 更想登天跨鹤飞 除是南柯一梦西
经济学的中心命题
稀缺的经济资源
机会成本的概念
❖ 机会成本的两个条件
所使用的资源具有多种用途 把可能获得的最大收入视为机会成本
❖ 企业在进行经营决策时为何必须要考虑机会成本
作为决策分析中经常使用的一个特定概念“机会成本”，是在决策 分析过程中，从多个供选方案中选取最优方案而放弃次优方案，从而放 弃了次优方案所能取得的利益而成为损失。这种由于放弃次优方案而损 失的“潜在利益”就是选取最优方案的机会成本。
管理经济学托马斯版Chap005
•80 •F
•Z •B •N •16 •20 •24 00 0
•Quantity of X
•Panel A – Changes in money income
•A •100
•C
•B
•D
•12
•20
•25
5
0
0
•Quantity of X
•Panel B – Changes in price of X
•Px=$5
•20
0 •Quantity of X
•Demand for X
•50•65 •90
•Quantity of X
•Price of X ($)
Market Demand & Marginal Benefit
• List of prices & quantities consumers are willing & able to purchase at each price, all else constant
• Substitution effect • Income effect
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
•
3 •= •5
•+ •(-2)
•Z •B •N •16 •20 •24 00 0
•Quantity of X
•Panel A – Changes in money income
•A •100
•C
•B
•D
•12
•20
•25
5
0
0
•Quantity of X
•Panel B – Changes in price of X
•Px=$5
•20
0 •Quantity of X
•Demand for X
•50•65 •90
•Quantity of X
•Price of X ($)
Market Demand & Marginal Benefit
• List of prices & quantities consumers are willing & able to purchase at each price, all else constant
• Substitution effect • Income effect
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
•
3 •= •5
•+ •(-2)
托马斯《管理经济学》12e中文PPT Thomas12e_Chapter5
1-1
学习目标
（5.1） 解释效用的概念，以及属于消费者偏好的一些 基本假设；
（5.2） 定义无差异曲线的概念，并解释无差异曲线和 无差异图的特性；
（5.3） 构建一个消费者预算线，并解释当价格或收入 变化时预算线如何旋转或移动；
（5.4） 推导并解释单个消费者在ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้限预算条件下效用 最大化的均衡条件；
~ 消费的多总比消费的少好
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
5-5
消费者偏好的性质
完备性
~ 对于A和B两个组合, 消费者能够做出下面三个选 择一个:
偏好组合A超过偏好组合B 偏好组合B超过偏好组合A 对组合A和组合B的偏好是一样的
传递性
~ 对组合A的偏好大于组合B，且对组合B的偏好大 于组合C，那么对组合A的偏好一定大于组合
多多益善
（5.5） 用无差异曲线推导单个消费者的需求曲线，并 通过把消费者的需求曲线横坐标相加的方法来构建市场 需求曲线；
（5.6） 定义角解，并解释形成角解的条件。
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Thomas12e_Chapter1托马斯管理经济学章1
1-10
隐性成本的类型
所有者向企业提供的现金的机会成本
~ 权益资本
使用企业所有的土地或者资金的机会成本 所有者为管理企业或为企业工作所花时间 的机会成本
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
1-13
企业价值最大化
企业价值
~ 企业所能卖出的价格 ~ 等于企业预期能够挣得的经济利润的现值
风险升水
~ 解释企业将来未知利润的风险 ~ 变动越大，风险升水越大，企业价值越低
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
第1章 管理者、利润与市场
管理经济学托马斯版Chap005.ppt
• Substitution effect • Income effect
5-25
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
Typical Consumption Bundles for Two Goods, X & Y (Figure 5.1)
5-4
Properties of Consumer Preferences
• Completeness
• For every pair of consumption bundles, A and B, the consumer can say one of the following:
• Individual consumption decisions are made with the goal of maximizing total satisfaction from consuming various goods and services
• Subject to the constraint that spending on goods exactly equals the individual’s money income
A is preferred to B B is preferred to A The consumer is indifferent between A and B
5-25
Substitution & Income Effects
• Substitution effect
• Change in consumption of a good after a change in its price, when the consumer is forced by a change in money income to consume at some point on the original indifference curve
Typical Consumption Bundles for Two Goods, X & Y (Figure 5.1)
5-4
Properties of Consumer Preferences
• Completeness
• For every pair of consumption bundles, A and B, the consumer can say one of the following:
• Individual consumption decisions are made with the goal of maximizing total satisfaction from consuming various goods and services
• Subject to the constraint that spending on goods exactly equals the individual’s money income
A is preferred to B B is preferred to A The consumer is indifferent between A and B
管理经济学-托马斯版Chap006
(Figure 6.5)
6-20
MR, TR, & Price Elasticity
(Table 6.4)
Marginal revenue MR > 0
MR = 0
MR < 0
Total revenue
TR increases as Q increases
(P decreases)
TR is maximized
MR = TR/Q
--
$4.00 $3.00 $2.30 $1.90 $0.80
$0 $-1.50
6-17
Demand, MR, & TR (Figure 6.4)
Panel A
Panel B
6-18
Demand & Marginal Revenue
• When inverse demand is linear, P = A + BQ (A > 0, B < 0)
• Then express demand as Q = a′ + bP , where a′ = a + cM + dPR and the slope parameter is b = ∆Q ∕ ∆P
6-11
Point Elasticity When Demand is Linear
• Compute elasticity using either of the two formulas below which give the same value for E
Chapter 6: Elasticity and Demand
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
6-20
MR, TR, & Price Elasticity
(Table 6.4)
Marginal revenue MR > 0
MR = 0
MR < 0
Total revenue
TR increases as Q increases
(P decreases)
TR is maximized
MR = TR/Q
--
$4.00 $3.00 $2.30 $1.90 $0.80
$0 $-1.50
6-17
Demand, MR, & TR (Figure 6.4)
Panel A
Panel B
6-18
Demand & Marginal Revenue
• When inverse demand is linear, P = A + BQ (A > 0, B < 0)
• Then express demand as Q = a′ + bP , where a′ = a + cM + dPR and the slope parameter is b = ∆Q ∕ ∆P
6-11
Point Elasticity When Demand is Linear
• Compute elasticity using either of the two formulas below which give the same value for E
Chapter 6: Elasticity and Demand
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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4-9
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ Statistical Significance
• Must determine if there is sufficient statistical evidence to indicate that Y is truly related to X (i.e., b 0)
• Even if b = 0, it is possible that the
the true values of a & b • â& bˆ are random variables computed using
data from a random sample
• The distribution of values the estimates might take is centered around the true value of the parameter
zero)
• Slope parameter (b) gives the change in Y
associated with a one-unit change in X:
b Y X
4-4
Simple Linear Regression
• Parameter estimates are obtained by
•
Sample regression line Ŝi = 11,573 + 4.9719A
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
A
10,000
Advertising expenditures (dollars) 4-6
Unbiased Estimators
• The estimates â& bˆ do not generally equal
4-2
Regression Analysis
• Regression analysis
• A statistical technique for estimating the parameters of an equation and testing for statistical significance
choosing values of a & b that minimize the
sum of squared residuals
• The residual is the difference between the actual
and fitted values of Y: Yi – Ŷi
• The sample regression line is an estimate of the true regression line
4-7
Unbiased Estimators
• An estimator is unbiased if its average value (or expected value) is equal to the true value of the parameter
4-8
Relative Frequency Distribution*
• Probability of finding a parameter estimate to be statistically different from zero when, in fact, it is zero
(Figure 4.3)
Relative frequency of bˆ
1
Relative Frequency Distribution* for bˆ when b 5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Least-squares estimate of b (bˆ )
*Also called a probability density function (pdf)
sample will produce an estimate bˆ that is different from zero
• Test for statistical significance using
t-tests or p-values
4-10
Performing a t-Test
• First determine the level of significance
Chapter 4: Basic Estimation Techniques
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Basic Estimation
• Parameters
4-3
Simple Linear Regression
• Simple linear regression model relates dependent variable Y to one independent (or explanatory) variable X
Y a bX
• Intercept parameter (a) gives value of Y where regression line crosses Y-axis(value of Y when X is
Yˆ aˆ bˆX
4-5
Sample Regression Line
(Figure 4.2)
Sales (dollars)
S
70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000
0
•• •
SSii = 6600,,000000
•
ei
•
•
SˆiŜi =464,367,3676
• The coefficients in an equation that determine the exact mathematical relation among the variables
• Parameter estimation
• The process of finding estimates of the numerical values of the parameters of an equation