pragmatic presupposition2

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预设和蕴含的区别

摘要预设和蕴含有着一定的联系，不易区别开来。

对于预设和蕴含，弗雷格、罗素、斯特劳森等都有所论及。

本文旨在区别预设和蕴含，并探讨预设只涉及语句的名词性成分，而蕴含与所陈述的命题有关。

且预设不是语句中固定不变的，不受语境制约的成分，它是可消除的。

而蕴含是一种纯逻辑推理，具有不可消除性。

蕴含是语句中信息的一部分，而预设则是信息的背景。

Abstract: Presupposition has so many relations with entailment that the subtle distinctions between them become the barrier to some scholars. The arguments of Frege, Russell and others represent the hard study process of the problems above. The thesis distinguishes between the presupposition and the entailment from many viewpoints. It argues that the presuppositions only relate to the nominal elements in a sentence, but the entailments to the proposition of a statement. And it says that the presupposition can be defeasible because ifits being ungoverned by context, while the entailment just is a pure logical reasoning. Taking the theory of Grice into account, the thesis author thinks that the entailment is a part of the information of a sentence, but the presupposition is the background of the information.所谓蕴含，是指下列命题关系：在所有情况下P 为真，Q也为真时，那么P蕴含Q。

Pragmatics4---Presupposition

• (d) Stop being lazy.
• (e) Lucy knows that George
• You are being lazy
• George is a crook.
Presuppositions
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Since not all utterances consist of full declarative sentences, presupposition can be a useful concept when analyzing speaker meaning.
(a) Abraham Lincoln is the current president of the USA.
(b) The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.
(c) A car is an automobile. (d) Have a cookie. (e) Be careful of the crumbs. (f) Where was Abraham Lincoln born? (g) How much did the car cost?
Existential presupposition
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What we notice is that in each of those utterances the noun cake is part of a larger noun phrase. The words the, that, this, these, those, and possessives like Annie's, my, your, etc. make it a definite noun phrase and trigger this very basic kind of presupposition. possessives lead to a particularly strong presupposition about the existence of the chocolate cake. This basic type of presupposition is sometimes called an existential presupposition.

pragmatic competence

Pragmatic competence and L2 instruction
The goals of teaching English to Chinese students
– Linguistic competence: the imparting of sound patterns, vocabulary and grammar of English etc. – Pragmatic competence: relating to the appropriate use of English in dynamic contexts (social; cultural)
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Bachman, L.F. Fundamental Consideration in Language Testing, Oxford University Press, 1900. Bachman, L.F.& Palmer, A.S. Language Testing in Practice, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Leech G N.Principles of Pragmatics [M].London:Longman,1983. Kasper, L. F. (1997a). The impact of content-based instructional programs on the academic progress of ESL students. English for Specific Purposes, 16(4), 309-320. Cohen, A.D., & Olshtain, E., (1993): “The production of speech acts by EFL learners”, in TESOL Quarterly, 27 (1), 33-56. House, J. (1996). Developing pragmatic fluency in English as a foreign language: Routines and metapragmatic awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 225-252. Ellis Rod.(1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 冉永平。语用学：现象与分析[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2006.

PragmaticPresupposition英文版

Research value
The results of this study will help deepen our understanding of language, promote the development of linguistics and philosophy, and also provide new ideas and methods for interdisciplinary research.
Research background: With the continuous development of linguistics and philosophy, scholars have begun to pay attention to the phenomenon of presupposition in language use and attempt to conduct in-depth research from different perspectives.
Overview of Pragmatic Presumption Theory
CATALOGUE
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Pragmatic presupposition, also known as pragmatic presupposition, is a linguistic phenomenon that refers to the implicit and non explicitly stated information conveyed by the speaker to the listener through specific contexts and language usage in verbal communication.

7 Pragmatic Presupposition语用预设

7.1 Entailment and presupposition
◦ Two conditions necessary for A to presupposes B (A >>B): Condition A: If A is true, B is true. Condition B: If A is not true, B is still true.
◦ H. Cleft sentences分裂句 ◦ I. Non-restrictive attributive clauses非限定性关系从句 ◦ J. Counterfactual conditionals反事实类条件句 ◦ K. Questions疑问句 ◦ L. Marked stress有标记重音
◦ Both semantic entailment and semantic presupposition:
Information which is not stated but implicitly communicated. Both require inferring. Sentences or propositions, not speakers, contain semantic entailments and communicate semantic presuppositions.
7 PRAGMATIC PRESUPPOSITION 语用预设/前提
Contents
◦ 7.1 Entailment and presupposition ◦ 7.2 Pragmatic presupposition ◦ 7.3 Cancelation of presupposition ◦ 7.4 Projection problems with presupposition ◦ 7.5 Presupposition triggers

语言学--Pragmatics ppt课件

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• Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”
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6.2.3 Anaphora
• You need to know: definition of anaphora, antecedent, anaphor indirect anaphora and direct anaphora
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6.2.4 Presupposition
• a. Can I look at your Shakespeare? • b. Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. • You need to know • inference: process • reference: the act
9ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
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6.2.2 Deixis
• You need to know: definition of deixis five types of deixis
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definition of deixis

语义学蕴含与预设

句子语义学词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系，我们称之为sense relation。

句子也一样，可以有各种意义关系。

句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究，并把句子当成一个整体来看待。

◆Presupposition前提/预设，这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格（G.Frege）首先提出来的。

在言语交际中，我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的，相互之间毫无联系的。

相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。

Please open the door.这句话的意思很清楚，就是“请把们打开”，但是说这句话必须有一个前提，那就是“现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。

所以从语义的角度来看，句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的意义有十份密切的关系句子的前提有这样的特点：否定了句子本身，句子的前提保留不变。

John is married.John exists.John is not married.◆Semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析，他面对的是一种不变的关系：即如果P在语义上预设Q, 则P总是在语义上预设Q。

但在实际的语言活动中（语用预设），预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。

这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。

一个重要的事实是，在一定的语境里，预设会消失，也就是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility)。

例如：Sue cried before she finished her thesis.Sue died before she finished her thesis.◆What is Semantic Presupposition?In many discussions of the concept, presupposition is treated as a relationship between two propositions by the linguists. If we say the sentence in (1a.) contains the proposition p and the sentence in (1b.) contains the proposition q, then, using＞＞to mean …presupposes‟, we can represent the relationship as in (1c.).(1) a. Mary‟s dog is cute. (＝p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. p ＞＞qInterestingly, when we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1a.) by negating it (= NOT p), as in (2a.), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (2b.), continues to be presupposedby NOT p, as shown in (2c.).(2) a. Mary‟s dog isn‟t cute. (＝NOT p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. NOT p ＞＞qPresupposition is an inference（推论）to the proposition of the sentence. Take the following sentences for example again:e.g. (3) John is married.(4) John exists.(5) John is not married.Comment: if (3) is true, (4) is true; if (3) is not true, (4) is still true. In this case, we can say both (3) and (5) presuppose (4). A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.◆Semantic presupposition would be based on the following definition:Sentence A semantically presupposes another sentence B iff:if and only if, iff是充分必要条件(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true◆Types of presuppositionPotential presupposition: in the analysis of how speakers‟ assumptions are typically expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms shall be considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. The following kinds of presuppositions are all potential presuppositions. Now we‟ll look at the major presupposition types marked by different linguistic features.◆Existential presupposition: presuppose the existence of something.(my). It is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more generally in any definite descriptions such as definite noun phrase with determines …the‟, …this‟, …that‟, …these‟, …those‟, etc. By using any of the expressions in (16), the speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named.(16) e.g. The king of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door (Yule, 2004: 27)◆Factive presupposition: presuppose something as a fact.(know). A number of factive verbs, such as …realize‟in (17a) and …regret‟in (17b), as well as phrases involving …be‟ with …aware‟ in (17c), …odd‟ in (17d), and …glad‟ in (17e) have factive presuppositions.(17) a. She didn‟t realize he was ill.(＞＞He was ill)b. We regret telling him.(＞＞We told him)c. I wasn‟t aware that she was married.(＞＞She was married)d. It isn‟t odd that he left early.(＞＞He left early)e. I‟m glad that it‟s over.(＞＞It‟s over)The presupposed information following the verb …know‟ can be treated as a fac t, and is described as a factive presupposition. Words like know, realize, regret as well as phrases involving …be‟ with …aware‟, …odd‟, and …glad‟ have factive presuppositions. (Yule, 2004: 27-28)◆Lexical presupposition: when a specific word triggers a presupposition. It is featured by implicative verbs like …manage‟, …start‟, …stop‟, …forget‟, etc. Generally speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.Each time you say that someone …managed‟to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. When you say that someone …didn‟t manage‟, the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, however, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person …tried‟to do that something. So, …managed‟ is conventionally interpreted as asserting …succeeded‟ and presupposing …tried‟.(18) a. He stopped smoking.(＞＞He used to smoke)b. They started complaining.(＞＞They weren‟t complaining before)c. You‟re late again.(＞＞You were late before)Lexical presupposition: in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another(non-asserted) meaning is understood. For example, someone …managed‟ to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. Someone …didn‟t manage‟; the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person …tried‟ to do that something. So …managed‟is conventionally interpreted as asserting …succeeded‟ and presupposing …tried‟. Other examples, involving the lexical items, are …stop‟, …start‟, and …again‟. (Yule, 2004: 28)◆Structural presupposition: certain sentence structures presuppose something to be true.(wh-questions). We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by the listener.For example, the wh-question construction in English, as shown in (19a) and (19b), is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case.a. When did he leave?(＞＞He left)b. Where did you buy the bike?(＞＞You bought the bike)Certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be true. We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by listener. For example, the wh-question construction in English is conventionally interpreted as that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case. Such structurally-based presuppositions may represent subtle ways of making information that the speaker believes appear to be what the listener should believe.(wh-questions)◆Non-factive presupposition: It is one that is assumed not to be true. Verbs like …dream‟, …imagine‟, and …pretend‟, as shown in (20), are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true.(20). a. I dreamed that I was rich.(＞＞I was not rich)b. We imagined we were in New York.(＞＞we were not in New York)He pretends to be ill.(＞＞He is not ill)◆Counter-factural presupposition: What is presupposed is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or …contrary to facts‟. (Conditional structure)A conditional structure of the type shown in (21), generally called a counterfactual conditional, presupposes that the information in the if-clause is not true at the time of utterance.(21). If you were my friend, you would have helped me.(＞＞you are not my friend)Summary:◆The properties of presuppositions★Cancel ability / Defeasibility:Levinson(1983:186) states that they can be cancelled out by either the immediate linguistic context or by some wider context or mode of discourse. If we say …The committee failed to reach a decision‟, it presupposes that they tried, but we can cancel out that presupposition if we add …because they didn‟t even get round to discussing it‟. Similarly, we can argue presupposition out of the way by a variant on the reductio ad absurdum (the disproof of a proposition by showing that its conclusion can only be absurd) mode of discourse: …He didn‟t do it, and she didn‟t do it…In fact, nobody did it ‟. They are defensible in (a) certain discourse contexts, (b) certain intra-sentential context. This property will prove to be the undoing(doing away with) of any possible semantic theory of presupposition. They are defeasible in certain intra-sentential contexts and certain discourse context, for example,(1) Sue cried before she finished her thesis.(2) Sue finished her thesis.(3)Sue died before she finished her thesis.In Sentence(3) the presupposition seems to drop out, since we generally hold that people do not do things after they die, it follows that she could not have finished her thesis. They are liable to evaporate in certain contexts, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or on circumstances where contrary assumptions are made.(Levinson,2001, p187)Another kind of contextual defeasibility arises in certain kinds of discourse contexts. For example, the cleft sentence 1 is supposed to presuppose 2:1. It isn‟t Luke who will betray you.2. Someone will betray you.You say that someon e in this room will betray you. Well maybe so. But it won‟t be Luke who will betray you, it won‟t be Paul, it won‟t be Matthew, and it certainly won‟t be John. Therefore no one in this room is actually going to betray youHere each of the cleft sentence(It won‟t be Luke, etc.)should presuppose that there will be someone who will betray the addressee. But the whole purpose of the utterance 1 is, of course, to persuade the addressee that no one will betray him, as stated in the conclusion. So the presupposition is again defeated; it was adopted as a counterfactual assumption to argue to the untenability (站不住脚) of such an assumption.So far we have shown that some of the core examples of presuppositional phenomena are subject to presupposition cancellation in certain kinds of context, namely:(i)Where it is common knowledge that the presupposition is false, the speaker is not assumed to be committedto the truth of the presupposition(ii) Where what is said, taken together with background assumptions, is inconsistent with what is presupposed, the presuppositions are cancelled, and are not assumed to be held by the speaker(iii) In certain kinds of discourse contexts, presuppositions can systematically fail to survive.3.4.2 Presuppositions are apparently tied to particular aspects of surface structure. This property may serve to distinguish presupposition from conversational implicatures (which are tied to the context rather than the surface structure.), the other major form of pragmatic inference.( Levinson, S. C. 2001)There are no doubt many other kinds of contextual defeasibility as well, but these examples are sufficient to establish that presuppositions are defeasible by virtue of contrary beliefs held in a context. There are also many kinds of intra-sentential cancellation of suspension of presuppositions.(Levinson, 190)3.4.3 Projection in presupposition There is a basic expectation that the presupposition of a simple sentence will continue to be true when that simple sentence becomes part of a more complex sentence. This is one version of the general idea that the meaning of the whole sentence is a combination of the meaning of its parts. However, the meaning of some presuppositions (as …parts‟) does not survive to become the meaning of some complex sentences (as …wholes‟). This is known as the projection problem. (Yule, 2004: P30-33) Another explanation given by Levinson (Levinson, 1983: 191) is that Frege held that meanings of sentences are compositional, i.e. that the meaning of the whole expression is a function of the meaning of the parts. It was originally suggested by Langendoen & Savin (1971) that this was true of presuppositions too, and moreover that the set of presupposition of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2…S n as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 …+ the presuppositions of S n .But such a simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct, and it has proved in fact extremely difficult to formulate a theory that will predict correctly which presuppositions of component clauses will in fact be inherited/maintained by the complex whole. This compositional problem is known as the projection problem for presuppositions, and the particular behaviour of presuppositions in complex sentences turns out to be the really distinctive characteristic of presuppositions. (The Chinese version may be a little easier to understand:详见索振羽,《语用学教程》2000.北京大学出版社P136-140)◆Presupposition triggers: Some of the kinds of words and structures that seem to trigger presuppositions. Definite noun phrase/definite descriptions: words like the, this, that, these, those and possessives like my, Mary’s, your, prepositional phrase like with(two heads), in, etc. trigger the basic kind of presupposition. The possessives lead to a particularly strong presupposition about the existence of something; this is sometimes called existential presupposition. (Peccei, p20)John saw/didn‟t see the man with two heads.》there exists a man with two headsWH-words like when, why, how, etc. used either to ask questions or to introduce a subordinate clause to trigger the presupposition that the speaker has assumed “the person in question did something” is true. (Peccei, p 21)Mr. Givens, why is it important for people to understand body language---that is, communication by means of movements and gestures?Where do we get mannerisms such as these?Verbs that can trigger presuppositions: implicative verbs, factive verbs, change of state verbs and verbs of judging.1) Implicative verbs（含蓄动词）: manage, forget, happen, avoid etc. triggers the presupposition that some actions were conducted(manage), not expected(happen), or should have been conducted(forget).John managed/didn‟t manage to open the door》John tried to open the doorJohn forg ot /didn‟t forget to lock the door》John ought to have locked, or intended to lock, the doorsome further implicative predicates: X happened to V 》X didn‟t plan or intend to V; X avoid Ving 》X was expected to, or usually did, or ought to V2) factive verbs(述实动词/事实动词a verb followed by a clause which the speaker or writer considers to expressa fact:know, realize, regret, deplore（谴责）, I am aware, it is strange, it is odd that, be sorry that, be proud that, be indifferent that, be glad that, be sad that, etc. triggers the presupposition that what follows is a fact。

Pragmatic presupposition

– John, who visited China last year, is (isn’t) fond of Chinese tea. » >>?
• Counterfactual conditionals
– John could have passed the exam if he didn’t get too nervous. » >>?
» Sue finished her thesis. – Sue died before she finished her thesis. »?
• John doesn’t know that Bill came.
» Bill came. – I don’t know that Bill came. »?
• 娜娜，打扫房间。
» >>?（妈妈在什么情况下才会发出这样的言语行为？）
• 姗姗是舞蹈演员还是歌唱家？
» >>?（提问者什么情况下才会这样问？）
• Will you open the door?
» >>?
• Tu es dégoûtant. (You’re disgusting) （何兆熊et al.1999:282）
• Questions
– Who is the professor of linguistics in MIT? » >>?
• Marked stress
– John FLEW to Hangzhou yesterday. » >>? – John flew to HANGZHOU yesterday. » >>? – John flew to Hangzhou YESTERDAY. » >>?

中国语用学研究会第二届年会论文摘要汇编

中国语用学研究会第二届年会论文摘要汇编目录Distinctions Between pragmatic presuppositions and activated propositions Bai Huiling（白会凌）5巴塞尔姆小说语言的语篇特征曹路漫6汉语篇章中的间接否定昌薇6模糊数字的顺应性分析陈琳霞7范畴的模糊性与意义理论---话语意义的认知解读陈善敏7布農族人和閩南人在拒絕時語言使用的比較--以兩個不同族群的農業村落為例陳葚慈8论语用的真实性陈新仁9语用预设与教师话语陈艳清9Pragmatic Analysis of Indirectness in Listening Comprehension 陈玉红王晓晨9规范与原则——社会文化语用学与认知语用学之整合陈治安万敏10概念系统和语言操作程琪龙11Study on English Euphemisms From a Pragmatic Perspective 崔桂华12关联理论在幽默文本翻译中的运用戴光荣12Promotion-to-Subject in Communication，A Pragmatic Consideration 邓隽13从联结主义看格赖斯循环董成如14语码混用现象的语用分析段廷婷14从《伟大的盖茨比》看Ｇrice会话含意理论的语用意义甘阳14The Complementarity of Politeness Principle and Tenor 高燕红15语用意识的培养对中国英语学习者习得―请求‖语言表达式的影响国庆祝付海燕15特殊自我指示―NP＋我‖与―我＋NP‖研究郭圣林16溯因推理对话语含意的推导能力——国内语用溯因推理研究概述韩晓方温美昕16大学英语教学中的语用意识郝雁南16Constructing a Cultural Context- A Methodological Consideration of Cultural Pragmatics He Gang,Yang Liru 17―的话‖的语用学研究贺文丽18模因与言语交际模式何雪林18语言中的模因何自然19Methodologies In Cross-Cultural Pragmatics Research Hong Gang（洪岗）20 Contextualizing context in Pragmatics: The dynamics of meaning Leo Francis Hoye 20国际交流语用学论纲胡庚申21试论体裁的历时变化----基于《人民日报》元旦社论的实证研究黄莹22英汉委婉语语用功能比较黄育才22试论省力原则姜望琪23语际语用学的课堂研究——恭维语与恭维语回应的可教性探析江晓红24The Influence of Interlocutors‘ Social Distance on Topic Shifts: An Empirical Study on Chinese Two-party Conversations Ying Jiang (姜颖)24她真的不会说话吗？——论刘姥姥语用策略焦爱梅25元语否定与提及分析景晓平25Bilingual Pragmatics: An Intercultural Perspective Istvan Kecskes 26从―缺省预设‖看话语理解Ke Xianbing(柯贤兵)26认知语境观与外语交际能力的关系李冬梅27语用缓和现象初探李海辉27国内关于中国英语学习者外语语用能力研究评述李怀奎28从社会关系和交际场合看汉语反问句的语用特点李捷29论王蒙话语幽默的语用前提李军29广告语篇的指称性用法分析李军宋彦妮30关联理论与阅读理解教学李玲君30汉语口语话语中指示代词的话语-语用功能探讨李巧兰31功能语法的语境观与叙事语篇的语义层次分析黎清群32语际语用学近年来研究概述李秋梅32Telephone Conversation Openings in China 李圣平33布什演讲中的预设分析李祥坤杨柳33Lexical Narrowing and Broadening 李欣34语义压制的转喻理据李勇忠34否定的语用认知分析梁晓波35从顺应论角度看文化语境对翻译中词义选择的制约廖开洪李锦35法庭互动话语中的formulation现象研究廖美珍35再评―目的—意图原则‖—兼与褚修伟和霍永寿先生商榷林大津虞秋玲36从社交语用对比研究看翻译的异化与归化林晓琴37英汉―许诺‖言语行为适切条件的相对性林晓英37语境的四类要素有机合成——关于语境构成的重新理解刘伯奎38Philosophical, Semantical and Pragmatical Approaches to Definite Descriptions 刘存伟39 Pragmatic Analysis of the First and Second Person Pronouns in L2 Writing 刘东虹39The Pragmatician‘s Self-fashioning Liu Yameng（刘亚猛）40饭店英语中的礼貌语用原则――培养学生的服务意识刘茵40活―零‖活现，话―零‖的演绎——―零‖的语用推理卢俊燕41英译《红楼梦》幽默话语翻译的语用推理--《红楼梦》英译本幽默话语等值效果分析吕世生王英虹41To Contextually Understand an Utterance 吕细华42预设投射问题的认知解释马国玉42Politeness in Cyber-chat 马海芳43从模因论到规范论——论切斯特曼翻译规范论的理论来源马萧43汉英感叹词语用对比研究梅美莲43语篇语用学：句法结构的语篇视角苗兴伟44推理照应的认知语用研究莫爱屏44汉俄―水‖、―火‖成语之象征寓意牟萍45作格句的语用机理研究牛保义45―面子论‖与―主观性和主体‖论----对中国学生常见英语语用失误例案分析潘翠琼46语用研究中社会文化模式与认知模式的结合潘永樑46Cognitive Context and Text Comprehension 潘震47从礼貌用语看汉、英语言文化的价值差异裴飞娟48从关联理论看英语新闻标题的关联性秦小锋48A Study on Pragmatic Failure of Greetings Qu Jing（曲晶）Tang Ying 48礼貌与肯定回答方式----「好/行/可以」的区别--- 全香兰49话语理解中词义的语用收窄、语用扩充以及语用特指冉永平50The Pragmatics of Interpretation 任蕊51A Multicultural Approach to Discourse Shi Xu 51What Pragmatic Rules for Chinese Learners of English? Song Li(宋莉)51语用学与大学英语教学粟为农52跨文化交际语用中的身体隐喻词汇联想孙芳琴52英汉代词系统社交指示功能对比研究孙飞凤53Trends in Pragmatic Research Sun Jianrong 54论反语的本质属性涂靖55试论广告语篇的语用策略王长安56通过言语行为教学提高学生英语口语语用能力王传经王莹56从顺应理论的角度看间接言语行为的使用王红57论英语语用指示语的指示与非指示用法王宏军57从宏观和跨文化的角度探讨语言应用汪建峰58语用意义转换所涉及的因素王森林58Politeness in Inviting: considering the influence of culture Wang Shu‘e(王淑娥)58指示现象的认知研究王义娜59―物质过程‖的评价价值王振华59英语隐喻解读与语用翻译策略韦忠生60从―小姐‖的命运看称谓的语用问题文旭60优选论和英语语篇回指的确认翁依琴60Intercultural Studies of Communication Styles and Communication Functions Wu Cuiyu(吴翠玉)61语辞反讽理解的认知语用过程吴萍61关联理论与大学英语听力教学吴琼62面子与礼貌补救策略吴雁62WELL在英译汉中的语用功能缺失现象初探吴勇63语用学研究的几点思考向明友64从韩礼德的―元功能‖、―语域‖理论看翻译研究中语用取向思想的萌芽肖家燕张东平64 (不)礼貌1与（不）礼貌2：批评与思考谢朝群65顺应理论研究在中国——近15年来我国语用学顺应理论研究的回顾与评述谢少万66 从合作和礼貌原则看依阿高的会话成功幸君珺66缺损推理初探熊学亮66非常规间接前指照应的释义策略许宁云67语用推理的逻辑属性徐盛桓67语用前提的类别、性质及形式化探讨徐以中68Ad hoc Conception Construction and Metaphor Interpretation 徐章宏69语用学的形式化研究杨平69广告语码转换的语用分析杨涛70句型教学结合语用分析的构想杨翼70汉语―可以‖与日语―いい/よい‖的对比研究叶方侠71动态语境新论曾方本71词汇语用学：原则、方法、对象和发展现状曾衍桃72关联性：阅读理解的核心----关联理论对阅读理解及其教学的启示曾衍桃蔡蔚72也谈布朗和列文森礼貌原则的缺陷詹全旺73会话合作原则与谎言的辩证关系章礼霞73Convention and Lexical-Pragmatic Processes 张韧75The Functional Approach In Teaching Listening Comprehension Course Zhang Shujun(张树筠)75英语詈语的语用功能探究章小画76论庭审提问的顺应策略与顺应过程张新红胡海娟76礼貌：会话含义的解读张翼76网上聊天语言特点初探张云辉77交际中梯级推理研究概述赵德全龚卫东77Online Voice-based Chatroom: A New Approach to Interlanguage Pragmatics 赵福利77 Interpretation of Utterance Meaning and Speech Act Based on Analysis of Utterance Members 郑道俊78网络言语行为分析——从语用角度透视网络聊天郑燕芳78从连贯论到关联论的话语联系语研究周大军80Cultural Adaptation-----an Essential Condition to Overcome Pragmatic Failure in Cross-cultural Communication 周光亚80话题转换的语用学研究周海燕81The Analysis and Comparison of Four Perspectives on Learners‘ Pragmatic Development 朱斌谊81语境、语用、阅读与英语综合素质的培养朱风云82汉语表示不确定零头的―多‖的用法及其解释——兼论汉语―量‖的表达的灵活性宗世海张鲁昌82语用语境在大学英语课堂教学中的运用左尚君83摘要正文Distinctions Between pragmatic presuppositions and activated propositionsBai Huiling （白会凌）Foreign Languages Institute, Guizhou Normal University Abstract: Although it is widely recognized that differences in focal accent represent what are in some sense differences in what is given and what is new, there remains considerable confusion in the literature as to what the relevant notion of ‗given‘ is. This paper argues that when one distinguishes ‗given‘ in the sense of ‗presupposed‘ from ‗given‘ in the sense of ‗activated‘ (in the mind of the hearer), it becomes clear that it is the latter rather the former which characterizes the complement of focus. While there is literature that assumes this position, there is considerable body of literature that assumes that the relevant notion is in fact presupposition and little explicit argumentation that it is not presupposition. In addition, some of the literature that recognizes the relevance of activation mistakenly assumes that something that is activated is necessarily presupposed. The reason for this is that much of the literature ignores the distinction between propositions, which are mentally represented, and propositions that are believed.This paper has attempted to sort out some of the confusion surrounding the pragmatics associated with the non-focus in simple focus sentences. Despite frequent claims that non-focus involves presupposition, careful examination of the data shows that this is not so, at least in the strict sense of presupposition as involving propositions which are part of the common ground of propositions the speakers assumes that they and the hearer both believe.One of the central points of this paper is that the activation status and the belief status of propositions are independent parameters, something that seems to have been widely overlooked: there are not only activated beliefs and non-activated beliefs, but also activated propositions that are not believed. This raises questions about the relationship of propositions to other sorts of discourse entities likes individuals and events. It is not clear whether there is a distinction in the case of individuals that corresponds to the distinction between activated propositions that are shared beliefs and those that are not. One might suggest that activated propositions that are not shared beliefs are analogous to individuals like Santa Claus when such individuals are activated in discourses in which neither interlocutor believes in their existence. But there are important differences. Both activation and shared belief operate independently as relevant parameters in different syntactic constructions, and in some cases, as argued by Prince, constructions require that a particular proposition be both activated and a shared belief.In conclusion, it is activation and not presupposition that is relevant to the pragmatics of the simple focus sentences. Much work in pragmatics has taken truth-conditional semantics as its starting point, and the evolution of ideas about pragmatic presupposition reflects a set of phenomena, which proved difficult to handle within a purely semantic theory. The notion of activation represents one step further from truth-conditional semantics, in that it involves a cognitive relationship between individuals and propositions that is independent of whether those individuals believe that the propositions are true or not, and illustrates the extent to which phenomena that are traditionally thought of as pragmatic must go well beyond semantic notions and make direct reference to cognition.Key words: pragmatic presuppositions；activated propositions；focus巴塞尔姆小说语言的语篇特征曹路漫南阳师院外语学院摘要：语篇分析理论是一门新兴学科，上个世纪七十年代有了长足发展。

Pragmatic Presupposition 英文版

1 Definetion
1.1 The philosophical tradition
Gottlob Frege, the first philosopher who brought presupposition to the notice of the scholarly world, published an article On Sense and Reference in 1892. He went on to examine the sense and reference of sentences.
Hale Waihona Puke Presupposition of the utterance is used to indicate the common knowledge of the speaker and the hearer. When the speaker makes an utterance and the hearer understands it in a certain context, they must own some common knowledge. (Jackendoff,1972)
Frege thus sketches a theory of presupposition with the following presuppositions: (i)Referring phrases and temporal clauses carry presuppositions to the effeet that they do in fact refer;
1 Definetion 1.1 The philosophical tradition 1.2 The pragmatic definition 1.1.1 abroad studies 1.1.2 domestic studies 2 Properties of Pragmatic Presupposition 2.1Mutual Knowledge 2.2 Appropriateness 2.3 Defeasibility 2.4 Additivity 3 Presupposition triggers

从语用学角度分析美国情景剧《生活大爆炸》中的言语幽默

The study makes a pragmatic analysis of the verbal humor in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory by some major theories in Pragmatics. Cooperative Principle, Politeness Principle and Speech Act Theory are major theories in pragmatics. The study testifies the feasibility of analyzing the verbal humor in sitcoms from the perspective of pragmatics and explores the generation mechanism of verbal humor under the pragmatic theoretical framework. On the basis of the pragmatic analysis, it is found that humor is generated by deliberately or unintentionally violating CP, PP and illocutionary act. Furthermore, the study is helpful for the viewers to get a deep understanding of the verbal humor in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory. It also does good to the second language learners for having an easier learning enviroment and arousing their learning interest. Key Words：verbal humor；pragmatic analysis；The Big Bang Theory；Sitcom

(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。

pragmatics-2-Deixis-and-distance-Ss

这孩子要我给他买手风琴，一天三番五次地老跟你在这个问题上兜圈子。 ——《现代汉语小词典》，商务印书馆
situational insertion
This kind of “you” is referred to by Maitland and Wilson as a “situational insertion”,
Deixis
Deixis:
the earliest target or first study area of pragmatics, since it directly concerns the relationship between language structure and the context in which it is
I’m working on a new book now.
Classification of deixis
person deixis place deixis time deixis discourse deixis social deixis --- Fillmore, 1971
Deixis: warm-up
A: —你说你是小狗我就给你这块糖 B: —你是小狗 A: —我让你说你是小狗 ! B: —我说的就是你是小狗啊 A: —你说“我是小狗”! B: —啊 ? 你是小狗 ?
Deixis
Deictics / indexicals / deictic or indexical expressions: language forms whose referents are identifiable only in the context concerned. Pronouns, Demonstratives (proximal vs. distal), tense markers, adverbs of time and space, and motion verbs.

前提 Presupposition 课件

Chapter Ten PresuppositionⅠ.The development of presupposition：philosophy → semantics → pragmatics1.1 Philosophical origin:1. Frege thinks that“人们在通过一句句子做出声音时，必然存在显而易见的前提。

即在声言中的专有名词必有所指。

”EG: (1) Marilyn Monroe died in misery.(2) Marilyn Monroe existed. (presupposition)(3) Marilyn Monroe didn’t die in misery.2. In Frege’s opinion there are three points in presupposition：（1）指称短语和（例如）时间分句均有所指，因而具有前提。

（2）一个句子和它的否定形式具有同样的前提。

（3）句子或声音，无论真实或谬误，其前提必然成立。

1.2 Semantic presupposition:1. Linguists regard presupposition as a semantic relationship between two propositions. (两个语义命题之间的一种关系)【扩展】：Entailment（蕴含）is a kind of semantic relationship. When a is true, b is necessarily true; When a is false, b maybe true or false. 即如果在任何使A真实的情况下，B也都真实，那么A语义上蕴含B.EG：(1). That person is a bachelor. (2). That person is a man.2. The definition of presupposition is made by compared with entailment. According to the difference, linguists often use negation test（否定测试法）.That is when a is true, b is necessarily true; when a is false, b is still true.EG: (1): John is married.(2): John exists. (presupposition)(3): John is not married.3. A sentence may has three kinds of meanings：asserted meaning (声言意义), entailed meaning (蕴含意义), presupposed meaning (前提).(1) John has a sister.(2) John has a female sibling. (assertion)(3) John’s parents had more than one child. (entailment)(4) John exists. (presupposition)4. Yule made a conclusion about the entailment and presupposition.Similarities：They are the information that can be delivered by the speaker, but the information don’t expressed directly in the process of communication. They are giveninformation(已知信息).Differences: The presuppositions exists in speaker’s concept; the entailment exists in the sentence’s conceptThus, the speakers possess presupposition, the sentences possess entailment.1.3 Pragmatic presupposition:1. ♥ At the beginning of 1970s: three kinds of definition(1)语用前提指的是说话人对言语的语境所作的设想。

语用学(英语ppt)

• Generally speaking, there are two kinds of presupposition : semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition
• 1. Existential presupposition: 2. Factive presupposition: 3. Non-factive presupposition 4. Lexical presupposition 5. Structural presupposition 6. Counterfactual presupposition
c. John is not married. c b
2.a. John managed to stop the car. a b & c
b. John stopped the stop the car.
d. John did not manage to stop the car. d c
• A person called Mary exists.
• She has a brother.
• Mary has only one brother.
All are the speaker’s and
• He has a lot of money.
All can be wrong.
The sentence has entailment: • Mary’s brother bought something. • He bought three animals. • He bought two horses. • He bought one horse. • many other logical consequences.

借景抒情语用点的运用反思

借景抒情语用点的运用反思第一篇：借景抒情语用点的运用反思浅谈五年级上册“借景抒情”在写作中的运用巩义市米河镇中心小学王慧君人教版五年级上册第二单元在单元提示中提出了这样的学习要求：“阅读课文的时候，要用心体会作者表达的感情，并想想作者的感情是通过哪些景物或事情表达出来的。

”其实就是体会作者借景抒情，借物抒情，寓情于事的写法。

下面我谈一下我对借景抒情的一点看法。

借景抒情又称寓情于景，是指作者带着强烈的主观感情去描写客观景物，把自身所要抒发的感情、表达的思想寄寓在此景此物中，通过描写此景此物予以抒发，这种抒情方式叫借景或借物抒情。

通过景物来抒情，是一种写作手法。

它的特点是“景生情，情生景”，情景交融，浑然一体。

在文章中只写景，不直接抒情，以景物描写代替感情抒发，也就是王国维说的“一切景语皆情语”。

第二单元课文《泊船瓜洲》中的“春风又绿江南岸，明月何时照我还。

”诗人借春风吹绿江南岸，写出了春景的美好，一个绿字不仅仅写出了春天来了，还写出了春天的美好、春天的变化，而这么美好的春天里诗人却想起了自己的家乡，后半句明月的借用更能表现出浓浓的思乡之情。

《长相思》中的“风一更，雪一更，聒碎乡心梦不成，故园无此声。

”风声、雪声，在离家在外的游子心里是那样的凄凉。

在这样风雪交加的夜晚诗人怎能入睡？不禁想起了自己的家乡——故园。

借风雪是抒发诗人凄凉的思乡之心。

《小桥流水人家》中，“清澈见底的小溪”“婀娜多姿的柳枝”“一条小小的木桥”“老家的平房”…… 运用拟人的手法，描绘溪边飘动的柳枝、小鸟的叫声、溪水流动的声音，表达了作者对家乡的喜爱与赞美。

我们在习作中如果能恰到好处地运用“借景抒情”的写作手法，必能使我们的作文显得含蓄隽永，耐人寻味。

但是，我们要注意以下几点：1、要把景和情巧妙地结合起来,互相发挥,和谐一致。

要写出最能表现某种情的景物,做到情景一致。

即,景和情不能互不相干或矛盾。

如,抒发热爱绚丽多彩、充满丰收景象的秋天的情怀——就不能选取秃枝、枯叶、断茎来描写。

PragmaticsandSemantics

Ruprecht-Karls-Universität HeidelbergAnglistisches SeminarProseminar:Pragmatics-The many Facets of Language UseSemester: Sommersemester 2010Dozent: Iwo IwanovReferenten: Nicole Hoffstaetter, Sebastian GühringDatum: 09.07.2010Pragmatics and SemanticsThis chapter is about the pragmatics-semantics interface.As both,semantics and pragmatics,are concerned with the study of meaning, several questions arise. What is distinctively pragmatic and what semantic? Can semantics and pragmatics be distinguished? Do they overlap or are they autonomous? And to what extent and how do they interact with each other? In short, how does the relationship between semantics and pragmatics look like?I The two main theoretical positions•ReductionismAccording to reductionists,the distinction between semantics and pragmatics should be abolished. Levinson called this position pragmantics. It’s divided into two types:o Semantic reductionism: pragmatics should be entirely reduced to semanticso Pragmatic reductionism: semantics is wholly included in pragmaticsThe problem here is, that there are linguistic phenomena that are relatively distinctively semantic(e.g. entailments) or pragmatics (e.g. conversational implicature).•ComplementarismAccording to complementarists,the division between semantics and pragmatics should in principle be retained. There are also two types of complementarism:o Radical semantics: much of the study of meaning should be attributed to semanticso Radical pragmatics:much of the study of meaning should be assimilated topragmaticsThis point of view is more widely accepted, because it considers pragmatics and semantics as complementary though distinct sub-disciplines of linguistics, dealing with different aspects of meaning.II How to distinguish between semantics and pragmaticsThere are different approaches to find out how semantics and pragmatics can be distinguished. According to Bach these are the three most decisive ones:a.Truth-conditional vs. non-truth-conditional meaningThis approach, named Carnapian approach by Recanati, distinguishes semantics and pragmatics in the following way. Semantics is said to be concerned with truth-conditional meaning (/words-world relations (Recanati)), pragmatics with non-truth-conditional meaning. In short: pragmatics = meaning – truth conditions (Gazdar 1979: 2)But there are several problems about this approach:o Some linguistic forms don’t denote anything,so there’s no contribution to truth-conditional content. E.g. greetings, conventional implicature triggers (but) and syntacticconstructions (imperatives)o The truth-conditions aren’t always fully determined by the linguistically coded meaning of a sentenceo Often, pragmatic intrusion into the truth conditional content of a sentence is uttered. E.g.neo-Gricean conversational implicatures can intrude on to/contribute to the truthconditions of an uttered sentence.b. Conversational vs. non-conversational meaningAt this approach, semantics studies the conventional aspects of meaning and pragmatics those ofnon-conventional meaning.Therefore a semantic interpretation cannot be cancelled,but a pragmatic interpretation can (examples? audience?)But there are issues too.o Some linguistic expressions’ conventional meaning is closely associated with use. E.g. deictic expressions: To specify their semantic contribution one has to specify how they are to be used o The conventionality of a linguistic phenomenon isn’t always clear. E.g. the three types of implicature (conventional, generalized conversational, particularized conversational) form asemantics-pragmatics continuum whose borders are difficult to draw.o Depending on how the semantics-pragmatics distinction is defined, linguistic phenomena can be either semantic or pragmatic.c.Context independence vs. context dependenceAt this approach,semantics is concerned with linguistic phenomena that are insensitive to context and pragmatics with those that are.But according to Bach content also varies with context in semantics.(e.g.deictics,demonstratives).He distinguishes between two types of context:o Narrow context : contextual information relevant to the determination of the content of variables (e.g. those concerning who, whom, when, where)-> semantic in natureo Broad context : contextual information relevant to the working out of what the speaker overtly intends to mean-> pragmatic in natureThere is no systematic distinction between semantics and pragmatics, though they do have their own characteristics. According to Recanati there are three essential features of pragmatic interpretation, which are together called the hermeneutic character of a pragmatic interpretation.1.charity :if we presuppose that the interlocutors are rational,pragmatic interpretation ispossible2.non-monotonicity : a pragmatic interpretation is defeasible/cancellable3.holism : there’s no limit to the amount of contextual information that can in principle affect apragmatic interpretationIII Pragmatic intrusion into what is said and the semantics-pragmatics interfaceLinguists and philosophers of language, as well as pragmaticists and semanticists, debate about the division of labour between, and the interaction of, semantics and pragmatics. An important role plays the pragmatic intrusion into the classical Gricean conception of what is said.a.Grice’s concept of what is saidU said that p by uttering x if and only if:a. x conversationally means pb. U speaker meant pc. p is the conventional meaning of x minus any conventional implicatureb.before we can work out what is said, we need to:1.identify reference•Mr. Chen (1) thinks that Mr. Liu (2) is too arrogant, and (he(2)) looks always downupon himself(1)•Mr. Chen (1) thinks that Mr. Liu (2) is too self-abased, and (he(2)) looks always downupon himself(2)2.fix deixis•Mary: How do I look?John: You look really cool!3.resolve ambiguity and ambivalences•The view could be improved by the addition of a plant out there.(plant = living organism)•The view would be destroyed by the addition of a plant out there.(plant = factory)Levinson added two more:4.unpacking ellipsis•A: They won’t visit Mary’s parentsB: Old grudge.5.narrowing generality•I don’t drink.c.According to Bach,Grice's concept of what is said is needed to describe three kinds ofcases:1.The speaker means what he/she says and something else tooe.g. conversational implicatures and indirect speech acts2.The speaker means something else than what he/she sayse.g. metaphor, irony3.The speaker means nothing by saying somethinge.g. reading s.o. else’s poem out loud->What is conversationally implicated, is defined in contrast to what is saidd. Grice’s concept of what is conversationally implicatedBy saying p, U conversationally implicates q if:a.U is presumed to be following the maximsb.The supposition of q is required to maintain (a)c.U thinks that the recipient will realize (b)What is said should give us information about what is conversationally implicated, but in fact , we still need a pragmatic interference of some kinde.g.•The Gricean maxim of Relation in III 1.•Real-world knowledge in III 3.•Substantial amount of inference of the Gricean sort in III 4.•III 5. has to be pragmatically narrowed down to “drink alcohol”->We now found out,that in those examples there is pragmatic intrusion,namely thepragmatically inferred content, into the conventional, truth-conditional content involved inworking out what Grice called what is said. (Let us call this: pragmatic intrusion into what is said.Recanati also uses the phrasing “Truth Conditional Pragmatics” (TCP).)Sperber and W ilson - Relevance theorists‘ view :-there is intrusion of pragmatically inferred content into ‘what is said’ (in relevance theory explicit content or explicature)-Grice failed to recognize that pragmatics count to ‘what is said’-notion of explicature parallel to the notion of implicature (in relevance theory implicit content)(I) a proposition communicated by an utterance U is explicit (hence an ‘explicature’) if and only ifit is a development of a logical form encoded by U(II) a proposition communicated by U which is not explicit is implicit (hence an ‘implicature’) -This distinction applies only to the speaker’s communicative intentionpossibility of a difference between the proposition expressed by the speaker and her explicature(s); only when the proposition expressed is communicated is it about anexplicature of the utterance-explicatures typically serve to complete and enrich logical forms on several areas, e.g.disambiguation, saturation and free enrichment-Example for disambiguation:Bill passed the port in the evening.a.port=harbour;b. port=wineExplicature could be: Bill passed the harbour in the evening.Francois Recanati – the pragmatically enriched said-some effects of context on ‘what is said’ result from pragmatic processes that take place not because the linguistic material demands it, but because the utterance’s content is not faithfully or wholly encoded in the uttered sentence-‘what is said’ or the proposition associated with ‘what is said’ include unarticulated propositional constituents-three types of primary pragmatic processes to bridge the gap between sentence meaning and what is said1.)Saturation:- necessity of a contextual saturation of a slot, position or variable for the utterance toexpress a complete proposition- linguistic expressions in the utterance itself like comparison sets or possessiveconstructions give rise to it- e.g. I enjoyed reading John’s book can be pragmatically saturated into I enjoyed readingthe book [written by] John.2.)Free Enrichment:- linguistically decoded logical form of the sentence uttered needs to be conceptuallyenriched- optional and contextually driven “top-down” process- subtype of strengthening takes a complete proposition as inputand yields as output a richer proposition which entails the original input propositione.g. The Buddhist Temples are some distance away is strengthened into The BuddhistTemples are [a considerable] distance away- Subtype of expansion means that a contextually provided conceptual constituentneeds to be added; input proposition needs not to be included in the outputpropositione.g. I have nothing to wear is expanded into I have nothing [suitable] to wear [to John’swedding]3.)Semantic T ransfer- one points a to refer to b- e.g. the predicate “parked out back” in the sentence I am parked out back comes todenote a property of the driver whose car is parked out back due to semantic transferBach – Conversational Impliciture-Gricean distinction is essentially right and there’s no pragmatic intrusion into ‘what is said’-however, there’s a crucial intermediate level between ‘what is said’ and what is conversationally implicated which he called conversational impliciture-sentences that express an incomplete proposition (propositional radicals) can’t be recognized as either part of what is said or part of what is implicated-agreement with relevance theorists and Recanati about the role of pragmatics in arriving at the proposition(s) that the speaker intends to express-distinction of two sorts of pragmatic process-in order to become full propositions and to get a truth value propositional radicals need to be completed or filled in contextually by the pragmatic process of completion - e.g. the propositional radical in “John has finished” can be completed into the full proposition in “John has finished [writing his MBA thesis]”-in order to express what the speaker intends to mean the pragmatic process of expansion engenders a richer proposition of sentences which express only a minimal proposition - e.g. the minimal proposition in I have had a shower is expanded into I have had a shower [this morning]-an impliciture can be described as implicit strengthening, weakening, or specification of what is said-unlike implicatures they are built out of what is said-implicitures can be felicitously cancelled (I have had a shower, but not this morning) =>they can’t be constitutive of ‘what is said’Distinction of explicature/the pragmatically enriched said /impliciture from implicature -there are different attempts to differentiate between the different approaches but none of them is undisputed-Huang comes to the conclusion that the three approaches can’t be distinguished from conversational implicatures on a principled basisReferencesCarston, Robyn. 2002. Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication. Oxford: Blackwell.Huang, Yan. 2007. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Recanati, François. 2004. Pragmatics and Semantics. In Laurence Horn & Gregory Ward (eds.), The Handbook of Pragmatics, 442–462. Oxford: Blackwell.。

parliamentary debate简介

Member of Opposition constructive (8 min)
Argue against responnst the motion
Last opportunity for the Opposition to raise new arguments
2. Leader of the Opposition (LO)*
？
1. Rebut major arguments of the PM
A. No beneficial effects as described B. effects will not be beneficial
2. bring forth reasoning against the proposition itself
• • • • 1. Prime Minister constructive 2. Leader of Opposition constructive 3. Member of Government constructive 4. Member of Opposition constructive
• 5. Leader of Opposition Rebuttal • 6. Prime Minister Rebuttal
2. POI
接受方：2个为宜，过多妨碍阐述，过少有失互动。忌发展观点中途接受提出方：捍卫立场，让对方招架不及。选择适当时机，提高接受可能性
speaking order and timings
• • • • 1. Prime Minister constructive 2. Leader of Opposition constructive 3. Member of Government constructive 4. Member of Opposition constructive

语用预设

语用预设1.引言预设一直以来都是语言学尤其是语义学和语用学领域争议颇多的研究课题。

一方面，预设类似于蕴涵能脱离语境而存在，而另一方面，预设似乎对语境，例如句内语境又具有敏感性传统上，语义学理论将预设看作是基于语句间真值条件的一种语义关系。

语用学理论则倾向于把预设作为有效执行言语行为的适切条件或者说话人及其听话人共享的共有知识来对待。

2. 语用预设的概念预设也称“前设”、“先设”、“前提”，同时它也是一种推理，是从另外一个角度进行的推理即在语言结构的基础上，依靠逻辑概念、语义、语境等推断出话语意义的先决条件。

预设一般可分为语义预设（Semantic presupposition）和语用预设（Pragmatic presupposition）两种。

语义预设建立在真值条件基础上，绝大部分是由语言本身所引起的。

如John’s brother is ill.无论这话真实与否，前提“John has a brother”一直存在，此预设由属格“’s”而来。

可见语义预设是语句命题本身所拥有的一种意义，是静态的、抽象的。

但在具体的话语交际中，语句总是与具体使用相联系，处于一定的语境中，因此从单纯的语义角度来研究预设显然是不够的，有必要从语言使用的角度来研究预设，这就构成了预设的语用研究。

语用预设是指“那些对语境敏感的，与说话人（有时包括说话对象）的信念、态度、意图有关的前提关系”（何自然，1997：68）。

语用预设把预设和说话人联系在一起，与语境密切相关，是动态的、具体的。

语用预设一般可从以下五个方面来理解：（1）语用预设是说话人或当事人对语境所作的设想。

说话人对自然语言环境有他自己的理解，有一些设想，并基于这些设想展开话语交际，语用预设是话语产生的背景信息。

（2）语用预设涉及说话人或当事人的态度和意图。

说话人想通过自己的话语表明自己的观点态度，并希望听话者理解他的话中语，以达到说话人想要的效果。

（3）语用预设涉及说话人所作强调。

英语语言学概论语用预设[1]

增强预设
（2）故意编造虚假预设，使语气委婉礼貌，避免尴尬。
一位旅馆老板面试甲、乙、丙三位应聘者。老板：假如你无意中推开房门，看见女房客在洗澡，而她也看见了你，这时你怎么说？甲：说声“对不起”就关门退出。乙：说声“对不起，小姐，我是无意的”就关门退出。丙：说声：“对不起，先生”，然后关门出去。结果，丙被录取了。
甲：啊！我的天，谁把我放在壁炉上的蛋糕吃了？乙：我没吃。甲：还好，幸亏你没吃。乙：为什么说幸亏没吃呢？甲：家里最近耗子太多了，所以我在蛋糕了放了老鼠药。乙：啊，我中毒了！甲：呵呵，亲爱的，没事，是个玩笑，我只不过是想知道谁吃了蛋糕。
此段对话里，甲为了知道是谁吃了蛋糕，故意隐藏意图，强加预设说“ 蛋糕里有老鼠药”，迫使乙说出实情，因此实现自己的目的。
According the sources and origins:
sentence pragmatic presupposition ,text presupposition, the communication roles to the speaker pragmatic presupposition, the listener pragmatic presupposition
预设信息部分是隐含的,稍不留神就会把说话者预设的“断言”当作是真实的而加以接受。比如,“你是否停止打你老婆了?”这句话本身附着一个预设,即 “你曾经打过你老婆。”对于这一问题,不管回答“是的”还是“没有”,都难以摆脱以前打过老婆的恶名。这就是预设的隐蔽性,听话人不留心就很容易被蒙蔽,比如:
甲:你有没有打过人?
消除语句歧义
The tall man and the woman left.
从语义角度看，这是一个歧义句，tall是只修饰man还是修饰了两者？事实上，双方都明白当时在场的只有man是高的，正是因为说话人预设了这一相关背景知识，才如此“模糊”、“简略”地说并确信不会产生歧义。因此，语用预设可以避免语句歧义的产生。