lecture1
Lecture1 句子结构
作表语的成分
例句
名词
名词所有格 代词 数词 形容词 副词 不定式 动名词 过去分词 现在分词
7. 状语
状语是修饰动词、形容词、副词以及全句的句子成分。 状语有时在基本结构中是必须得，否则基本结构的意义 就不会完整。状语位置非常灵活。 The girl is improving remarkably. The ancient castle is remarkably beautiful. My love is like a red, red rose, that is newly sprung in June. The students are improving remarkably fast. Unfortunately, I didn’t get the scores report.
例句 作定语的 成分 Beethoven is a natural musician. 形容词
名词 代词 His mother gave a sports car to him. He is their friend.
序数词
基数词 不定式
不定式复合结
I will give you a second chance.
5. 补语
补语是一种补足主语和宾语的意义的句子 成分，即主语补语和宾语补语。
主语补语
通常位于主语之前或谓语之后： Tired and sleepy, I went to bed. He came home sick. Her brother died young. He was found dead. She gazed at him speechless for a moment.
lecture 1 翻译标准
g. 我认为他不够格。 I don’t think he is qualified. h. 人们来五台山，目的可不都是一样。 People do not come to Wutai Mountain with one and the same purpose.
3) 译文应体现英语遣词造句的特点，同时 又应因文体而有变化。 a. 名词使用频率高，特别是含有动作性质 的抽象名词等，可以既包含丰富的信息又 十分简洁。 b. 被动形式使用率高，表现能力强。 c. 语法要求严，一般来说句子较长。 d. 介词、非谓语动词、形容词和独立结构 非常活跃。
教心理学的老师觉察到这件事， 就假冒一个男生的名义，给她 写了封匿名的求爱信，这封信 的末尾是：一个希望得到您的 青睐的极其善良的男同胞。就 这么一封信，也就一举改造了 一个人。
Having detected what was happening, her psychology teacher got an idea. In the name of a boy, he wrote an anonymous letter of love which ended with “a kind gentleman awaiting your favor.” The letter brought about transformation.
A Course in Chinese – English Translation
李洋
II. 汉英翻译的原则
汉语译成地道英语的难度， 出现各种各样的缺失：“中 国式”英语（解决办法，阅 读大量原作，观察、揣摩、 总结并模仿英语的特点、规 律和表达方法）。
1．遵循三条原则：
1) 译文必须符合英语的语法：三种轴心 结构： a. 主－系－表结构 (S+V+P) 例： a) 人类在地球上已存在多久了？ How long has man been on earth? b) 牛奶变酸了。 Milk turns sour.
lecture 1
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Linell Davis: five metaphors
❖ Culture is the story we tell ourselves about ourselves People tell stories to tell who they are and stories also change to adapt to changing circumstances.
❖ 学习别人的语言而不学习人家的文化完全 就是把自己变成是一个能说会道的傻瓜。
5
Definitions of culture
Sir Edward Tylor’s definition in 1871
“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”
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Mainstream culture and subculture
❖ When we talk about culture, we mainly refer to mainstream culture.
❖ Subculture
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县官与知府的对话 ❖ “贵县风土怎么样？” ❖ “没有大风，更少尘土” ❖ “百姓怎么样？” ❖ “白杏只有两棵，红杏不少” ❖ “我问的是黎庶！” ❖ “梨树很多，结的果实很小” ❖ “我不是问什么梨树，我是问你的小民！” ❖ “卑职的小名叫狗儿”
Lecture1
01 Warming upWarming upChoose one activity you like to do most and give your reasons.parkour rock climbing campingorienteering whitewater rafting paragliding02 Listening and Speaking01Warming upListen to the dialogue between Mike and Lynn about their weekendactivities. The following words, expressions and sentences may help you.cycling clubmake itgo camping barbecuepostHow was your weekend?I’ve posted some pictures online.They are all camping lovers.Script01Warming upcycling club自行车俱乐部e.g. He had trained hard in his cycling club .他在自行车俱乐部刻苦训练。
BACK01Warming upmake itsucceed in doing sth.成功做到某事e.g. Although she really wanted to come to visit us, she couldn’t make it because of the bad weather.尽管她非常想要来拜访我们，但由于天气糟糕而无法成行。
BACK01Warming up go camping去野营e.g. When we go camping , I hike in the woods.当我们去野营的时候，我在树林里步行。
Lecture 1-绪论
loose or minor sentences (松散句), contracted sentences (紧缩句), elliptical sentences, run-on sentences (流水句), and composite sentences (并列句). English sentence building is featured by an “architecture style” (楼房建筑 法) with extensive use of longer or subordinate structures, while Chinese is marked by a “chronicle style” (流水记事法) with frequent use of shorter or composite structures.
2. Compact vs. Diffusive
English is rigid in S-V concord, requiring a complete formal cohesion. Chinese has flexible sentence structures through semantic coherence.
他的讲话并无前后矛盾之处。 There is no inconsistency in what he said. There is nothing inconsistent in what he said 她闪亮的眼睛说明她非常激动。 Her sparkling eyes betrayed her great excitement. The sparkle of her eyes betrayed her great excitement.
Lecture-1
凭经验检查法——适用 机器不稳定
有些故障工作一会才出现，当关机后一会在开机故障 就会重复出现。这种故障原因一般是由于元器件热稳 定性不好，受热后参数改变而引起的，这种故障采用 办法，对可疑元器件进行“降温”或“升温”处理来 寻找故障所在（但有一定基础）
微机系统故障诊断方法
冷却法
电吹风，冷风档，对着可疑元件吹冷风 棉球沾上酒精，擦拭可疑元器件的表面
电磁干扰
电磁干扰主要来源与音箱设备、电机、 大功率电器、电源等。 应远离电磁干扰源，较强的磁环境容 易造成硬盘上数据丢失，显示器产生 花斑、抖动等。
温度的影响
微机系统应用环境温度 10-30摄氏度 微机机箱内工作温度比外面要高，而计算机的芯 片和集成电路内温度比机箱内高。 在正常的散热通风条件下，微机产生的热量不足 以引起电路故障。 当外界温度超过正常标准或通风散热条件差，导 致内部温度急剧上升加速器件的老化损坏。 防止高温引起故障，要注意保持通风散热。
微机系统故障诊断方法
直接观察法——适用 明显故障。
检查是否有火花，异常音响，过热，烧焦现象， 观察有关插件是否松动，接触不良，虚焊，断 线，短路，生锈，损坏以及明显故障
拔插替换法适用 ——适用 几种怀疑，尚 不能确定时
用相同功能的系统部件替换故障的机器部件， 用好的元器件替换怀疑有故障的元器件，以便 迅速找到确切的故障位置。
在具体确定是系统软件还是应用软件故障
常用维护工具
旋具：各种十字旋具和一字旋具，最好选 择带磁性旋具 钳子：尖嘴钳，剥线钳，扁口钳 镊子：在清洗和焊接时，用作辅助工具 割线刀：用于割断或切削之用 吸锡器：去锡 电烙铁：电缆线，线路板，接插件等的焊 接工作
常用维护工具
清洁清洗工具：清洗盘，清扫灰尘的毛刷， 吹气橡皮球，清洗液 万用表：指针式（测量精度高于数字式， 测量速度快）和数字式（测量结果直观， 蜂鸣器指示断通 功能较多）两种
【托福听力备考】TPO17 听力文本——Lecture 1
【托福听力备考】TPO17 听力文本——Lecture 1众所周知，托福TPO材料是备考托福听力最好的材料。
相信众多备考托福的同学也一直在练习这套材料，那么在以下内容中我们就为大家带来托福TPO听力练习的文本，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。
TPO 17 Lecture 1 Art History(Prehistoric Art Dating)Narrator ：Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.Professor ：Good morning, ready to continue our review of prehistoric art?Today, we will be covering the Upper Paleolithic Period, which I am roughlydefining as the period from 35,000 to 8,000 BC. A lot of those cave drawings youhave all seen come from this period. But we are also be talking about portableworks of art, things that could be carried around from place to place. Here isone example. This sculpture is called the Lady with the Hood1 , and it wascarved from ivory, probably a mammoth’s tusk. Its age is a bit of a mystery.According to one source, it dates from 22,000 BC. But other sources claimed ithas been dated closer to 30,000 BC. Amy?Amy ：Why don’t we know the exact date when this head was made?Professor ：That’s a fair question. We are talking about prehistory here. Soobviously the artists didn’t put a signature or a date on anything they did. Sohow do we know when this figure was carved?Tom ：Last semester I took an archaeology class and we spent a lot time on,studying ways to date things. One technique I remember was using the location ofan object to date it, like how deep it was buried.Professor ：That would be Stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is used for dating portable art. When archaeologists are digging at a site, they make very careful notes about which stratum(strata), which layer of earth they find things in. And, you know, the general rule is that the oldest layers are at the lowest level. But this only works if the site hasn’t been touched, and the layers are intact. A problem with this dating method is that an object could have been carried around, used for several generations before it was discarded. So it might be much older than the layer or even the site where it was found. The stratification technique gives us the minimum age of an object, which isn’t necessarilly its true age. Tom, in your archaeology class, did you talk about radiocarbon dating?Tom ：Yeah, we did. That had to do with chemical analysis, something to do with measuring the amount of radiocarbon that’s left in organic stuff. Because we know how fast radiocarbon decays, we can figure out the age of the organic material.Professor ：The key word there is organic. Is art made of organicmaterial?Tom ：Well, you said the lady with the hood was carved out of ivory. That ’s organic.Professor ：Absolutely. Any other examples?Amy ：Well, when they did those cave drawings. Didn’t they use, like chacoalor maybe colors, dyes made from plants?Professor ：Fortunately, they did, at least some of the time. So it turns outthat radiocarbon dating works for a lot of prehistoric art. But again there’s aproblem. This technique destroys what it analyzes, so you have to chip off bits of the object for testing. Obviously we are reluctant to do that in some cases.And apart from that, there’s another problems. The date tells you the age of thematerial, say, a bone or a tree, the object is made from, but not the date when the artist actually created it. So, with radiocarbon dating, we get the maximum possible age for the object, but it could be younger.Ok, let’ s say our scientific analysis has produced an age range. Can we narrow it down?Amy ：Could we look for similar styles or motives? You know, try to find things common to one time period.Professor ：We do that all the time. And when we see similarities in pieces of art, we assume some connection in time or place. But is it possible that we could be imposing our own values on that analysis?Tom ：I am sorry. I don’t get your point.Professor ：Well, we have all kinds of pre-conceived ideas about how artistic styles develop. For example, a lot of people think the presence of details demonstrates that the work was done by a more sophisticated artist. While a lack of detail suggests a primitive style. But trends in art in the last century orso certainly challenge that idea. Don’t get me wrong though, analyzing the styles of prehistoric art can help dating them. But we need to be careful with the idea that artistic development occurs in a straight line, from simple to complex representations.Amy ：What you are saying is, I mean, I get the feeling that this is like a legal process, like building a legal case, the more pieces of evidence we have, the closer we get to the truth.Professor ：Great analogy. And now you can see why we don’t have an exact date for our sculpture, the lady with the hood.。
托福听力TPO1原文 Lecture 1
托福听力TPO1原文Lecture 1下面就让小编来为大家介绍一下托福听力TPO1原文中Lecture 1的文本内容吧，大家要好好把握，这些都是非常有价值的材料，希望能够给准备托福听力的同学带来帮助。
TPO 1 Lecture 1Contemporary artListen to part of a lecture in a contemporary art class.ProfessorOk, I’m going to begin this lecture by giving you your next assignment. Remember I said that at some point during this semester I wanted you to attend an exhibit at the Fairy Street Gallery and then write about it? Well, the exhibit that I want you to attend is coming up. It’s already started in fact, but it’ll be at the gallery for the next month, which should give you plenty of time to complete this assignment.The name of the artist exhibiting there is Rose Frantzen. Frantzen’s work may be unfamiliar to you since she’s a relatively young artist. But she’s got a very unusual style, compared to some of the artists we’ve looked at this term. But anyway, Frantzen’s style is what she herself calls Realistic Impressionism. So you’ve probably studied both of these movements separately, separate movements, Realism and Impressionism, in some of your art history courses. So who can just sum these up?StudentWell, Impressionism started in the late 19th century. Um…the basic impressionist style was very different from earlier styles. It didn’t depict scenes or models exactly as they looked. Um… Impressionist painters tended to apply paint really thickly, and in big brushstrokes, so the texture of the canvas was rough.ProfessorGood. What else? What were the subjects?StudentWell, a lot of impressionist artists painted everyday scenes, like people on the streets and in cafes, uh, lots of nature scenes, especially landscapes.ProfessorGood. So when you go to the exhibit, I really want you to take a close look at a certain painting. It’s a farm scene. And you will see it right as you enter the gallery. The reason I think this painting is so important is that it stresses the impressionist aspect of Frantzen’s style. It’s an outdoor scene, an everyday scene. It’s kind of bleak, but you can really see those broad brushstrokes and the blurry lines. The colors aren’t quite realistic. The sky is kind of, well an unnatural pinkish yellow. And the fence in the foregroundis blue, but somehow the overall scene gives an impression of a cold, bleak winter day on a farm. So that’s the impressionist side of her work.Oh, and speaking about farms, that reminds me. One interesting thing I read about Franzten is that when she first moved back to Iowa after living abroad, she often visited this place in her town called the Sales Barn. And the Sales Barn, it was basically this place where the local farmers bought and sold their cattle, their farm animals. And the reason Frantzen went there, and she later on would visit other places like dance halls, was to observe people and the ways that they moved. She really found that this helped her work---that it gave her an understanding of body movements and actions, how humans move, and stand still, what their postures were like, too.So, what about Realism? What are the elements of Realism we should be looking for in Frantzen’s work?StudentUm… real honest depictions of subject matter, pretty unidealized stuff, and pretty everyday subject matter, too.ProfessorGood. One other painting I really want you to look at is of a young woman surrounded by pumpkins. You will notice that the woman’s face is so realistic looking that it’s almost like a photograph. The woman’s nose is a little less than perfect and her hair is kind of messed up. This is realism. But then, the background of the painting, this woman with the pumpkins is wrapped in a blanket of broad thick brushstrokes, and, it’s all kinds of zigzagging brushstrokes and lines, kind of chaotic almost when you look at it close. And there are vibrant colors. There’s lots of orange, with little hints of an electric blue peeking out.I find Frantzen to be a very accessible artist. I mean, some artists, to appreciate them, you have to know their life story. But here’s a little bit about Rose Frantzen’s life anyway. She attended art school, but was told by one of her instructors that she was not good at illustration, that she should go into advertising instead. So she took advertising classes and fine arts classes too, until she was convinced by the head of an advertising agency that her work was really good, that she could be an artist. But of course, it’s not as easy as that, and so Frantzen had to paint other people’s portraits at places like art fairs just to make money to buy paint for her more serious art work. No matter what, she never stopped painting. And now, Frantzen is doing extremely well. And her work is being shown all over the country. So I think most of us would be discouraged if we had to face challenges and difficulties like that. But what’s important is that you keep at it that you don’t give up. That’s what is really important to remember.《当代艺术》独白：听一段节选自当代艺术课堂的讲座。
Lecture 1(introduction)
(2) Factors concerned with cultural background: The way of life of Celts, Anglo-Saxons and Normans; The blend of different cultures of the tribes.
(3) Factors related to religious background: the spread and establishment of Christianity
8. The Victorian Period ⅰ Critic Realism Dickens, Thackeray ii Women Novelists: The Bronte Sisters
9. The Twentieth-Century English Literature ⅰ Modernism (1900-1950)
Assessment
General performance (class participation,class attendance…) 30% Term paper (1000-1500 words)70%
Teaching schedule
(18 weeks, 2 classes/1 week): Introduction (2) Part I and Part II (2) Part III (2) Part Ⅳ (4) Part V (4) Part Ⅵ (6) Part Ⅶ (8) Part Ⅷ (4) Part Ⅸ (2)
Q5: What benefits do we get from this course?
A good command of the target language; General knowledge of the culture , literature and history of the country; A profound mind and an insight for English literature
托福听力TPO5学习笔记之lecture1-智课教育旗下智课教育
智 课 网 托 福 备 考 资 料托福听力TPO5学习笔记之lecture1-智课教育旗下智课教育以下是小编的托福听力TPO5学习笔记中关于lecture1的内容，针对难词注解、长难句分析以及考题对应考点这三大方面展开，仅供参考。
下面就让小编来为大家介绍一下这篇托福听力TPO5学习笔记的相关内容吧，这是小编的一些见解，以便帮助大家更加充分的理解TPO真题，希望能够给正在准备托福听力的考友们带来帮助。
一、难词注解Alligator n. 短吻鳄(产于美国及中国);短吻鳄皮革;鳄口式工具adj.鳄鱼般的;鳄鱼皮革的;鳄鱼皮纹的vi. 皱裂;裂开sewer n. 下水道;阴沟;裁缝师vt.为…铺设污水管道;用下水道排除…的污水vi. 清洗污水管twinkle n. 闪烁vt. 使闪耀;闪耀vi. 闪烁;发亮Meme 模因transmission n. 传动装置，[机] 变速器;传递;传送;播送Replicators n. [遗] 复制基因;重复符Fecundity n. [生物] 繁殖力;多产;肥沃mutation n. [遗] 突变;变化;转变二、长难句分析the whole point of defining this familiar process as transmission of memes is so that we can explore its analogy with the transmission of genes.将这种人们熟悉的过程定义为模因的传递的重点在于我们能够可以将它与基因的传递相类比。
难句类型：介词短语做定语，so that 句式难句拆分：the whole point of+介词短语，so that+句子三、考题对应考点6.A meme is defined as a piece of information copied from person to person. By this definition, most of what you know,ideas, skills, stories, songs are memes. All the words you know, all the scientific theories you’ve learned, the rules your parents taught you to observe, all are memes that have been passed on from person to person. 开头原则中的背景引入式，讲座开头举出两个例子，都是为了今天讲课的主题—meme，而memes that have been passed on from person to person，对应B选项7. "Well we’ve all heard this song. Where am I going with this? Well, both the song and the story are examples of memes"举例原则，当教授介绍完这两个例子之后，说了前面这句话，both the song and the story are examples of memes，所以答案选择C8.在教授介绍完meme的含义之后，说“By this definition, most of what you know, ideas, skills, stories, songs are memes. All the words you know, all the scientific theories you’ve learned, the rules your parents taught you to observe, all are memes”，By this definition看出是强调原则，所以答案是AD9. 教授之前举了一个alligator的例子，之后又提到"If you takethe alligator story, it can exist for a long time in individual memory, let’s say, my memory".说明她记住这个 alligatorstory很多年，所以选择B10. Fecundity is the ability to reproduce in large numbers. For example, the common housefly reproduces by laying several thousand eggs, so each fly gene gets copied thousands of times. Memes, well, they can be reproduced in large numbers as well. How many times have you sung the‘twinkle, twinkle song’ to someone? Each time you replicated that song, and maybe passed it along to someone who did not know it yet, a small child maybe.举例原则，For example，前后两个例子互相对比，所以选择D11.Other memes are replicated with higher fidelity though, like the twinkle, twinkle song. It had the exact same words 20 years ago as it does now. Well, that’s because we see songs as something that has to be performed accurately each time. If you change a word, the others will usually bring you in line. They’llsay, ‘that’s not how you sing it’, right?，结尾原则，当别人说错的是后你会改正，课件人们在传播时不会改变太多。
Lecture 1 英语语法导论
• （根据构词法分类）
2) Classification in terms of grammatical function （根据语法功能分类）
2009-9
9
1）简单词、派生词、复合词 In terms of word-formation, words
e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly. Be a man. Do not act so slowly. She spoke very clearly indeed.
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• 5) The prepositional phrase （介词词组）
The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier+) preposition + complementation
• 词： Paul, one, schoolboys, I, of, nicest, know, is, the
• 词素：Paul, one, school, boy, -s, I, is, know, the, nice,
-est
3
Sentence
Clause
NP
VP
Prep P
Det
N
Aux Adv MV Prep Det N
• （分为两大类） • free morphemes and • bound morphemes.
5
lecture 1
Ps: 这种共性也会随着人类历史演变，民族文化五彩斑斓而变 化纷呈。不同文化环境的人对自然和社会认识的角度不一，深 浅也不同，这种语言特性使得汉语中的某些词语在英语中只能
找到部分相应的词语，甚至出现词语空缺，即在英语中无对
应的成分。
i.e.红茶－black tea 红眼病－pink eye/to be greeneyed 媒人－go-between 白酒－liquor/spirits
·蕴含意义:connotative meaning 词语内含的情感、联想和
文化意义，体现各个民族的思维方式和社会文化，即使是同 一指称，在不同语言里其蕴含意义也有天壤之别。
i.e.醋罐子 －vinegar (jealousy) 凤凰－phoenix 龙－dragon
Ps:汉语指称较为笼统，英语却有明确的区分 i.e.税：duty (关税) tax(税、税额) tariff(进出口税额)
词语翻译的几种基本方法
·直译（literal translation）
在不违背英语文化传统的前提下，在英译文本中完全保留汉语 词语的指称意义，使其内容和形式都与原文本相符的方法。
1. 组织、机构、公司名称
海关总署：General Customs administration 世界卫生组织：World Health Organization 中国商品检验局：Commodity Inspection Bureau of the
4.政治、财经专用词汇
中国共产党：The Communist Party of China (CPC) 中国工商银行: Industrial and Commercial Bank of China
（ICBC） 中国建设银行：China Construction Bank （CCB） 中国农业银行：Agricultural Bank of China 中国人民银行：The People’s Bank of China 中国银行：The Bank of China 国有商业银行：Commercial State Bank 所得税：income tax 假冒伪劣产品：fake and poor quality commodities
Lecture1 入门实例59页PPT
软
• foreign – 读写由S, Minitab, SAS, SPSS, Stata等软件的
件
数据 • normix – 混合正态分布分析
包
• nortest – 正态分布的Anderson-Darling检验
• MCMCpack – 基于Gibbs抽样的MCMC抽样方法
• fracdiff – 分数差分模型的极大似然估计
• S-PLUS有微机版本和工作站版本，它是一个商 业软件。
• Auckland大学的Robert Gentleman 和 Ross Ihaka 及其他志愿人员开发了一个R系统，其语 法形式与S语言基本相同，但实现不同，两种语 言的程序有一定的兼容性。
• R是一个GPL自由软件，现在的版本是2.4.1版， 它比S-PLUS 还少些功能，但已经具有了很强的 实用性。
么
的一种方言(dialect) 之一，另一则为S-plus.
要
• 一种软件，是集统计分析与图形直观显示于 一体.
学 – R作为一个计划(project)，最早(1995年)是由
习 Ｒ
Auckland大学统计系的Robert Gentleman和Ross Ihaka开始编制，目前由Ｒ核心开发小组(R Development Core Team – 以后用R DCT表示)维
– 我们可以编制自己的函数来扩展现有的Ｒ语言 (这就是为什么它在不断升级完善!!)
– …....
– R主页:
– CRAN (Comprehensive R Archive Network),
Ｒ
的 – CRAN的镜像站点
网 站
/mirrors.html
– UCLA提供的关于R与S-Pl.htm
LECTURE 1 单词记忆法教材
图示
Part 2 偏旁部P首a法rt（1音形义法）
1、 morose 郁闷 记忆方法：mo（没有）+rose（玫瑰）=没有玫瑰，
情人节没有玫瑰，当然很郁闷！ 2、prose 散文、单调的 记忆方法： p（扑）+rose（玫瑰）=扑在玫瑰上写情书， 这种感觉下写的文字一般都比较悠扬，即散文的味道。
3、plight 困境 记忆方法： p（扑）+light（光）=把光都给扑灭了，困境来了！
（法国人把他丢进壕沟里，而我把他扭伤了。） 3、s—蛇。Sway蛇一样的走路方式——摇摆
Part 9 字母读Pa音rt联1想法
4、ee—眼睛；L—大高个子；g—哥哥；m—妹妹。 loom高高个子大大眼睛的妹妹（难找啊）——若隐若现的； bloom不若隐若现了——————遍地开花的 gloom哥哥想找高高个子大大眼睛的妹妹找不到————郁闷 groom屋里等候的哥哥—————— 新郎
前面加b，含义不变， 前面加鬼，真恐怖， 前面加t才，修剪整齐。
Part 10 读音拼Pa音rt口1诀法
oil 油 toil/moil 辛苦（两个词含义一样） foil 锡纸、挫败 boil 沸腾，blood boil 热血沸腾 记忆方法：toil音似“淘油”，当然很辛苦了！ foil即：f（非常）+oil，非常油，就要用锡纸擦，擦来擦去真麻烦， 干点活都能弄的满桌子是油，伤心了，挫败了。 所以记住一个口诀: toil and moil，（辛辛苦苦）
e.g. peer at sb. peeping Tom 偷窥狂 多像两个眼睛眯成一条缝
4、gaze（凝视）——gape（吃惊的看）
Part 9 字母读Pa音rt联1想法
1、i—爱—isolate——爱得如此晚（那么大了还没谈恋爱）——孤立。 2、T—他、w—我。French—法国、trench—壕沟 、wrench—扭伤。
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平衡态统计物理李定平2010年3月2日邮箱：lidp@办公室：物理南楼446助教及答疑时间: 待定考试时间: 学校安排学分和周学时: 3学分每周星期2的3,4节; 双周星期4的7,8节。
教室： 理教205课程设想: 本课程是物理专业本科生的主干基础课, 普通物理热学的后续课程,侧重讲述平衡态统计物理的基本概念、方法和典型的应用.课程进度:第一至第四周: 简要复习热力学的基本定律、相变热力学、多元系的热力学. 渐进引入平衡态统计的基本概念,方法.第五至第八周: 讲授平衡态物理的基本概念和基本方法.介绍统计的系综理论(微正则系综、正则系综、巨正则系综). 讲授理想量子气体的概念(理想波色气体, 波色-爱因斯坦凝聚,光子气体,声子气体,理想费米气体).第九至第十五周:系综理论的一些应用, 经典理想气体,非理想气体的统计理论第十六周: 经典自旋模型的相变理论(临界现象概述,Ising模型的平均场理论, 临界点附近的涨落与关联)第十七周至第十八周:复习考试教材: 汪志诚, 热力学统计物理, 第三版林宗涵, 热力学统计物理学, 2007, 北京大学出版社 参考书:1. 王竹溪, 统计物理学导论2. Greiner, Neise, Stocker, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics4. Landau, Lifshitz, Statistical Physics, Part 15. Reichl, A Modern Course in Statistical Physics, University of Texas Press成绩评定: 作业10%, 期中， 40%， 期末50%平衡态统计物理简介热力学和统计物理是研究热运动的规律及热运动对物质宏观性质的影响.热力学是热运动的宏观理论, 不能给出具体物质的具体物性,和不能解释涨落现象宏观物质系统是由大量微观粒子组成. 物质的宏观性质是大量微观粒子运动的集体表现.统计物理是描述热运动的微观理论. 宏观物理量是微观量的统计平均第一章热力学基本规律和原理一热力学基本概念热力名词的定义热力学系统--- 宏观系统,由大量微观粒子组成外界----与系统发生相互作用的其它物体孤立系统---与其它系统没有任何相互作用的系统闭系----与外界有能量交换, 没有物质交换的系统开系-----与外界有能量交换, 也有物质交换的系统热力学平衡态---无外界影响, 系统的个个部分的宏观性质在长时间内不发生变化, 称该系统处在平衡态例如:孤立系统, 不管初态如何,经过足够长时间后, 将达到平衡态驰豫时间: 系统有初始状态到平衡态经历的时间, 不同系统驰豫时间不一样热动平衡: 热力学的平衡态是动态平衡. 组成系统的微观粒子仍然不断运动, 只是微观粒子运动的统计平均效果不变. 热力学体系的态变量每个热力学平衡态可以用一些宏观变量来描述:几何参量: 长度,面积,体积.力学参量: 力,压强电磁参量: 电场强度, 电极化强度,磁场强度, 磁极化强度 化学参量: 各个组元的浓度,各个相的物质摩尔数,化学势热力学系统的状态空间:描写热力学系统的所有态变量组成的参数空间热平衡定律和温度热平衡定律(第零定律):如果两个物态各自与第三个物态达到热平衡,它们彼此也处在热平衡温度:热平衡定律可以推断,相互处在热平衡的体形具有一个共同的物理量----温度每个系统的温度是该系统其它状态参量的函数12(,,,....)0n F T x x x =这个方程称为物态方程或者状态方程举例:1) n 摩尔理想气体的物态方程11,8.3145PV nRT R Jmol K −−==2) 范德瓦尔斯气体物态方程()22an P V nb nRT V ⎛⎞+−=⎜⎟⎝⎠ a,b 是常数3)铁磁体的Curie-Weiss 定律顺磁固体在外磁场中被磁化:,,C H T H μμ=磁化强度磁场强度热力学状态描述态函数:由热力学系统的状态变量构成的函数称为态函数.态函数只依赖系统所处的状态, 不依赖系统达到此状态的过程.温度是一个状态函数, 它是该系统其它状态变量的函数 在状态变化过程描述中, 常用的是理想的准静态过程.准静态过程:一个过程中,在它进行中的每一步系统处于平衡态,这样的过程称为准静态过程.准静态过程可以用热力学系统状态空间的一条曲线来描述. 曲线上每一个点代表系统处在一个平衡态.在准静态过程中系统始终处于平衡态.如理想气体的等温准静态过程:=.PV const最重要的特别系统: 理想气体理想气体热力学系统是热力学里最重要的系统.它严格遵守玻意耳定律,焦耳定律,阿伏伽德罗定律三个定律的气体.1.玻意耳定律:固定质量的气体,在温度不变:=PV const.2.阿伏伽德罗定律:在相同温度和压强下,相等体积所含各种气体的摩尔数相等.3焦耳定律:系统的内能只是温度的函数(下面我们会回来讨论这个定律)实际气体在压强趋于零的极限时候是理想气体.均匀系统热力学量分类:1广延量:于系统质量或摩尔数成正比,如体积,质量,摩尔数,总磁矩.2强度量: 于系统质量或摩尔数无关, 如压强,温度,磁场强度广延量除于质量.摩尔数或者体积便成为强度量环境对系统的影响.其中一个基本概念是:功的概念功是于热力学系统状态变化相关的量.系统的状态发生变化,从一个状态转变到另外一个状态.由此系统经历一个过程.在过程中,系统于外界可能由能量交换. 做功是一种交换能量的方式在实际过程进行中,系统的状态不断发生变化.状态变化的每一步在新的平衡态到达之前,状态又继续了下一步变化. 系统经历了一系列的非平衡过程.通常热力学我们研究的过程是准静态过程准静态过程描述:1) 准静态过程判据: 如果驰豫时间足够快.例如,气体膨胀V Δ的时间是T , 驰豫时间τ, T τ>.2) 准静态过程中的重要性质: 如果没有摩擦阻力,外界在准静态过程中对系统的作用力,可以用描写平衡状态的参量表达出来. 如气体无摩擦的准静态膨胀或者压缩,外界压强必须等于气体压强.因而在一个微小的准静态过程中,外界对系统所做的微功 đW 可以用系统的状态变量及它们的微分表达.符号đ是微小量, 和微小的准静态过程有关.d 表示于过程无关的微小量, 如 dV,dT微功表达式:1đri i i W Y dy ==∑ 其中i y 称为系统的外参量（热力学广义坐标），i Y 为相应的广义力．在准静态过程中，外界所作的功等于外参量的变化和相应广义力的乘积之和.例子:1) 系统体积变化21đ,V V W PdV W PdV =−=−∫2) 液体表面薄膜đW dA σ=其中σ是单位长度的张力 3) 电介质20đ2E W Vd V E d P ε⎛⎞=+⋅⎜⎟⎝⎠u v u vP u v 是极化强度4) 磁介质200đ2H W Vd V H d Mμμ⎛⎞=+⋅⎜⎟⎝⎠uu v uu vM uu v 是磁极化强度二热力学基本定律热力学第一定律如果系统是绝热的，热力学系统经历了一个无限小过程,其内能的变化等于在过程中外界对系统作的功：dU=đW内能是状态函数, 与系统从初态到末态所经历的过程无关(是有前人大量实验总结出来的结果!).内能描述系统粒子的总能量. 是能量守恒定律在热力学系统的表现.非绝热的过程：热力学系统经历了一个无限小过程,其内能的变化等于在过程中外界对系统作的功与系统从外界吸收的热量之和.W+dU=đđQ这个公式可以用来定义热量. đQ=dU-đW功和热量是二种不同的传递能量的方式外界在过程中对系统所作的功和系统从外界吸收的热量,都转化为系统的内能đQ=dU-đW此式也对非准静态过程(非平衡态过程)也适用(能量守恒总是成立的).第一定律给出二个物理量:内能和热量内能的微观定义是系统粒子运动能量总和的统计平均值内能是广延量.热力学第一定律是能量守恒与转化定律为了引入热力学第二定律, 我们考虑卡诺循环. 卡诺循环在建立热力学第二定律有至关重要的作用!卡诺循环卡诺循环: 工作于二个系统之间. 从高温系统吸取热量, 对外做功, 释放一部分热量到低温系统. 卡诺循环过程是又一个热机工作于两个恒温热源之间的两个等温过程和两个绝热过程组成.热机通过工作物质的循环过程,不断地把其吸收的热量转化为机械功. 每个循环把一定的热量转化为机械功其中特别重要的是:理想气体的卡诺循环-由理想气体为工作物质(来讨论热机的效率).理想气体的卡诺循环包括2个等温过程和2个绝热过程. 先引入一些物理量的基本定义:,,.V V V VP P P P Q U U C T T T Q U P V H C T T T H U PV ΔΔ∂⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞===⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ΔΔ∂⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠ΔΔ+Δ∂⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞===⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ΔΔ∂⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠=+,p V C C 定压热容定容热容焦耳定律(1845):对稀薄气体，气体自由膨胀后温度不变.在焦耳的实验, 自由膨胀外界对系统不做功而且外界不传热给系统. 由此可以证明系统的内能只是温度的函数. 系统内能U 是温度和体积的函数.1TU V T U V U V T V T U U T U VV T ∂∂∂⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞••=−→⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟∂∂∂⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞=−•⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟∂∂∂⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠(推导见附录)由于0U T V ∂⎛⎞=⎜⎟∂⎝⎠, 得到0T U V ∂⎛⎞=⎜⎟∂⎝⎠, 故()U T . 0V V V U dU C U C dT U T dT∂⎛⎞==→=+⎜⎟∂⎝⎠∫故焓HU PV U nRT =+=+也是温度的函数 设对理想气体，γ和温度无关.卡诺循环我们考虑2个等温和绝热的准静态过程 等温过程.PV const =绝热过程V đQ =dU -đ0W C dT PdV =+=由状态方程()()1V PV nRT d PV VdP PdV nRdT C dTγ=→=+==−二式消去dT ，p v dH C C nRdT==+p v C C γ=,11V p nR nR C C γγγ==−−()00ln 0.dP dV VdP PdV P Vd PV PV const γγγγ+=→+=→==1..PV const TV const γγ−=→=由此得到1112231111243214,TV T V TV T V V V V V γγγγ−−−−==→=在等温过程中: 0.U Δ=内能不变.2211212121,lnln V V V V V V V Q W nRT V V dVW pdV nT nT V V →=−==−=−=−∫∫膨胀,吸收热量,对外做功. 压缩放出热力,外对系统做功绝热过程:0.Q Δ=第一定律 .W U =Δ对理想气体,V U C T =,()21V W C T T =−膨胀,对外做功,内能减少,温度下降. 压缩,外对系统做功, 内能增加,温度上升.一个循环后,气体回到原来状态,内能变化为零.根据第一定律, 循环后气体对外做功等于循环过程中吸收到的热量.()321212142121ln lnlnV V W Q Q RT RT V V V R T T V =−=−=−注意推导中用到:3214V V V V =整个循环中, 从高温热源吸收1Q , 对外做功W 热功效率定义为1W Q η=.卡诺循环过程的效率:()2121221111ln1ln V nR T T V T WV Q T nRT V η−===−逆卡诺循环过程,外界对系统做功, 热量从低温转到高温.卡诺循环过程的效率, 从低温吸收的热量除外界所做的功'2212Q T W T T η==−。