新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 8 Language and society

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新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

实用标准文案Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics: 语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学 The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language精彩文档．实用标准文案11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar isprescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔 ---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]: the basic principle of theIPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.精彩文档．实用标准文案Aspirated and unaspiratedphonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language 1).form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素 is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communicationare all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don't, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位 is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones 音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a soundin a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)精彩文档．实用标准文案the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That's not the book he wants.Chapter 3: MorphologyMorphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of 1).words and the rules by which words are formedMorpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2).Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.3).Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another 4).one.Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme5).Chapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word's categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.The naming theory(命名论)）1Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.精彩文档．实用标准文案3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contextsare recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word's co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义): When two words are identical inboth sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.精彩文档．实用标准文案e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）more a sense to the relation between Hyponymy: Hyponymy refersgeneral, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily（反义关系）Antonymy the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning----there are often intermediate ）Gradable antonyms（等级反义词1)hot-cold, old-young, pair, e.g. forms between the two members of atall-short …----the denial of one member Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）2)alive-dead, other, e.g. the pair implies assertion of the of themale-female …----exhibits the reversal of the （关系反义词）3) Relational oppositesfather-son, husband-wife, the two items, e.g. relationship between give-receive, employer-employee, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning 2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersritish G. Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (BLeech).Chapter 6: Pragmaticsusea language speakers the 学study of how of 用1).Pragmatics:语sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning精彩文档．实用标准文案of area is confined to the not If it is considered, the study being is is considered, the study traditional semantics; if itcarried out in the area of pragmatics.new model of speech actss⑴Austin'and utterance is concrete, meaning Utterance meaning: the of anis sentence meaning; it context-dependent. Utterance is based on realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.converse to Grice.His idea is that Cooperative Principle(CD):Paulto willing first of all be other, with each the participants must cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) 3）（数量准则）The maximof quantityMake your contribution as informative as required (for the current （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程purpose of the exchange).度。

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件

Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a
set of (finite or infinite) sentenБайду номын сангаасes, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
• • • • •
Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

新编简明英语语言学教程pragmatics

CHAPTER EIGHT PRAGMATICS
What is pragmatics?
﹍﹍the study of language in use or language in communication, particularly the relationship between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.
the study of semantics.
ˉˉˉ ■
Utterance meaning
concrete and context-dependent meaning;
■
■
intended meaning of a speaker;
the study of pragmatics.
■
e.g. The bag is a bit heavy. sentence meaning: one-place predication BAG(BE HEAVY)
On other occasion it means; John is as cold as fish.
Distinction between sentence and utterance meaning
ˉˉˉ
■ ■ ■
Sentence meaning
abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence;
■ Differences:
Semantics–– the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集 (1-6章)2021-5-16更新Chapter I Introduction2021I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: 1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the courseof its history. 4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not onlystudies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.1浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.25. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.26. Features that contrast words in meaning are called design features are said to be in complementary distribution. 27. Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear somenatural relationship to their meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.2. Chomsky d efines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language whichrefers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.2浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12 12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice thatcanbest complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study. A.synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to languageteaching and learning is called _____. A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness 5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as____________. A. primary B. correct C. secondary D. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing,because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing3浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongue D. All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians foradopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logicalconnection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD.ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This feature is called_________, A.displacement B. duality C. flexibility D. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ earlylast century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth 13.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object isgood proof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalIV. Answer the following question:1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?4浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese andEnglish.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantareas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.9. Voicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.11. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.12. English consonants can be classified in terms of place ofarticulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.13. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types intowhich theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.5感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。

戴炜栋语言学教程讲义

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter1IntroductionChapter2PhonologyChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxChapter5SemanticsChapter6PragmaticsChapter7Language ChangeChapter8Language and SocietyChapter9Language and CultureChapter10Language AcquisitionChapter11Second Language Acquisition Chapter12Language And The BrainChapter1Introduction考情分析本章分为两个部分，第一部分介绍了什么是语言学，主要是对语言学的定义、语言学的研究范围以及语言学中6对重要的概念进行了区分。

第二部分介绍了什么是语言，主要对语言的属性，语言的区别性特征以及语言的功能进行了详细的介绍。

本章常出的题型有填空题、翻译术语、术语解释、简答题以及论述题，大家在复习的时候尤其要注意以下重点内容:◆语言学中6对重要的概念区分Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)◆语言的识别性特征Design features of language(5)◆语言的功能Functions of languageContents1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1Definition1.1.2The scope of linguistics1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)Prescriptive规定性vs.Descriptive描写性Synchronic共时性vs.Diachronic历时性Speech口语and Writing书面语Langue语言and Parole言语---Saussure索绪尔Competence语言能力and Performance语言运用---Chomsky乔姆斯基Traditional grammar传统语法and modern linguistics现代语言学1.2What is language?1.2.1Definitions1.2.2Design features of language(5)Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity创造性Duality/Double Articulation二重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递性1.2.3Functions of languageVersion1Social function社会功能Expressive function表达功能Descriptive function描述功能Version2Code语码---Metalinguistic元语言功能Jakobson Addressee受话者---Conative意动功能Context语境---Referential所指功能Message信息----Poetic诗学功能Contact接触---Phatic communication寒暄功能Addresser说话者---Emotive情感功能Version3ideational概念功能Halliday interpersonal人际功能textual functions语篇功能Chapter1Introduction1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.◆It studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.◆It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisticdata,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Q1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?1.1.2The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学Phonetics(语音学)——The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Phonology(音系学)——It studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology（形态学）——The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study.Syntax(句法学）—It studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantics(语义学）——It studies the meaning conveyed.Pragmatics(语用学）——It studies the meaning in the context of language use.跨学科分支Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学）：The study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics(应用语言学）【2017术语解释104points】：The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguitics.In a narrow sense,it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,especially the teaching of foreign andsecond languages.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(1)Prescriptive vs descriptive【2013简答题2710points】①Prescriptive（规定性）The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.（为语言的“正确和规范”规定一系列的语法规则，例如告诉人们应该说什么和不应该说什么）【2015翻译术语18prescriptive grammar规约性语法】②Descriptive(描写性）The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.（对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析）For example,traditional grammar is prescriptive because it aims to set models for people to follow.While modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use.Q2.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?（2）synchronic vs diachronic①Synchronic(共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述)②Diachronic(历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time.It is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.【2011填空1】【2016术语解释216points】(它是对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述，是一种历史性的研究，研究的是语言在某一段时间内的历史发展)Q4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?why?a.In modern linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更重要。

新编简明英语语言学教程（重点笔记-赶考秘籍）

新编简明英语语言学教程（重点笔记-赶考秘籍）新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modernlinguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modernlinguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N.Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge.lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to betaught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for easeof articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed 3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional… -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functionsin a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating thearrangement of elements that make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to theleft of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g.open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstractcategory encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train ____ arrive?NP VPDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structure wh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and alsoabstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are relatedthrough the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, whichare related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:”The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning)polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. female relational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never ma rried….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE)Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication (meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austinin late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果)John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five generaltypes of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believesto be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Willyou close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other.The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequateevidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be briefand orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.) Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic change morphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch), Acronyms (首字构词 e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over severalgenerationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday =holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years ago recent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.)causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changesand needs, the way children acquire language, grammarsimplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No singlecauseChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betweenlanguage andsociety, between the uses of language and the social structures in whichthe users of language live. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. Asocial group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background,the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affiliation of its members. speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect(characteristic of a particular social class---different social conditions),language and gender (female speech is less assertive and thus sounds morepolite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like using oldwords more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect ofa language cutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varietiespossessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation):field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono.& gramm. features),tenor of discourse (语旨 who the participants are and therelationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式 the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing)Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu.institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech ofpolitical or commercial centers, for official purposes or any formal occasions) Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang. of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together. Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is andaffects a culture’s way of thinking. Language is to culture what part isto whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talkingSapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are boundwith cultural encodings or associations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers,words and cultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbsand metaphorsCulture contact--- acculturation(文化移入 political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收 immigration), amalgamation (合并 ethnical mix / synthesisrather than the elimination or absorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguisticnationalismChap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively andaccording to their own understanding of the sounds or patterns, which is basedon what the children have already known instead of what is “available” inthe environment. This theory fails to explain how they acquire more complexgrammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. It is said to contain principles that are universal to allhuman languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical system Children ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter and simpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways: First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, their language development also helps in the formation andenhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulate d at the right time—a specific and limited time period for languageacquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisition Stages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stagebefore proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extension Vocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of theenvironment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it.likely to occur laterGrammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering (口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquiresa secondlanguage subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreign language (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreignlanguage in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate targetlanguage learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Anal ysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and comparethe two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels—phonological, lexical…),intralingual errors (语内错误result from faulty or partial learning of theTL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situations Cross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciation EA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化 a processoccurring from time to time in which incorrectlinguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.fossilized pronunciation leads to accent)Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning:acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious efforts Learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personality motivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish to identify with the target culture),resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsic motivation(for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitivestrategies (元认知策略the techniques in planning, monitoring andevaluating one’s learning), affect/social st rategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native ornon-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by eitherside of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干 shared by all animals to keep the body aliveby maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstem neuron神经元 Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层 the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissureThe cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse”of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the main connection between which is a bundle of nerve fibers called corpus callosum Each hemisphere has its own substructures called lobes:the frontal ~, parietal ~, temporal ~, occipital ~Investigative techniques for the study of the brain:Autopsy studies(尸体解剖): to find the relationship between the area of brain damage and the type of disorder the patient displayed while alive.investigation of the brain itself: SAT, CT scanning, PET, MRI, fMRI“Sodium(钠) Amytal” Test (SAT)--riskyComputerized Axial Tomography (CT scanning): X-ray to create brainimages—static(静态) images。

新编简明英语语言学教程PPT课件284页PPT

Language is symbolic in nature
Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”---Shakespeare
language for special purpose, colloquial language) the abstract system underlying the totality of the
speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language) the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language) a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. (rule-governed)
A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.
To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on
linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic

新编简明英语语言学教程后参考答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used toconvey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless thevarious states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logicalconnection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., wewere all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem inthe last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the de ntal sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by acertain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact theyare nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows i t. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as:Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “produc ing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does notalways suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that canappear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles.Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads. 6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to thefinal syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier(often) Qual +head(read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier(the) Det +head(argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier(already) Deg +head(above) P +complement(thewindow)NP d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion。

新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society

新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程引言英语是世界上最广泛使用的第二语言，拥有超过20亿的非母语使用者。

因此，研究英语语言学对于理解这一全球语言的结构和运作方式至关重要。

本文将介绍一部新编的简明英语语言学教程，旨在帮助学习者系统地学习和理解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。

第一章：语言和语言学本章将介绍语言学的定义和目标，解释语言的基本概念，如语音、语法、语义和语用。

通过对语言学的基础知识的介绍，学习者将能够理解英语语言学的主要研究领域和方法。

第二章：音系学音系学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

本章将介绍英语语音的分类和描述，包括元音、辅音和重音等内容。

同时，还将讨论声调、音位和音变等语音学的重要概念。

第三章：形态学形态学研究词的内部结构和变化规律。

本章将介绍英语的词形变化和构词法，帮助学习者理解单词的构成和词义的变化。

通过学习形态学，学习者将能够更有效地记忆和运用英语中的词汇。

第四章：句法学句法学研究句子的结构和组成规则。

本章将介绍英语句子的基本结构和常见句法规则，如主谓结构、宾语和定语从句等。

学习者将通过理解句法学的知识，提高英语句子的构建和理解能力。

第五章：语义学语义学研究词和句子的意义。

本章将介绍英语词汇的意义分类和语义关系，如同义词、反义词和上下位关系等。

同时，还将讨论句子的真值条件和语义角色等语义学的重要概念。

第六章：语用学语用学研究语言在社交交际中的使用和理解。

本章将介绍英语中的言外之意、语体、礼貌原则和会话分析等语用学的重要概念。

通过学习语用学，学习者将能够更好地理解英语中的语用规则和言语行为。

第七章：历史语言学历史语言学研究语言在时间上的变化和发展。

本章将介绍英语的历史演变和变异，帮助学习者了解英语的词汇、语法和语音的变化过程。

通过学习历史语言学，学习者将能够更深入地理解英语的发展历程。

结论新编简明英语语言学教程是一部全面介绍英语语言学基本概念和原理的教材。

通过系统地学习该教程，学习者能够掌握英语语言学的核心内容，提高对英语语言的理解和运用能力。

《八级备考语言学》word版

Chapter 1 IntroductionLinguistics，Core of linguistics, Important distinctions, Language, Design features of language, Functionsof languageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languagesin general. Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of social science.It includes general (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics.General linguistics－the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Applied Linguistics:In a narrow sense, it refers to the aapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense, it refers to the fact that findings in linguistic studies are applied to the practical problems. For example, lexicology, translation, speech pathology, recovery of speech ability; sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc…Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics 语音学, Phonology 音位学, Morphology 形态学, Syntax 句法学, Semantics 语义学, Pragmatics 语用学Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 规定性和描写性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay d ow n rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共时和历时The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.Speech and writing: 口语和书面语•The two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write; 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have:1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other;2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past;3. Oral messages are readily subject to distortion while writing messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century. Langue and parole:语言和言语F. de Saussure (Swiss linguist) refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue: the set of conventions and rules language users have to abide by, abstract, relatively stable. Parole: the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, concrete, variable. Saussure: a linguist should abstract langue from parole (to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language).Competence and performance:语言能力和语言应用According to N. Chomsky (American linguist), competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the act realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. competence: stable; performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the competence instead of performance.Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view competence=a property of the mind of each individualTraditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal frameworkLanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” –Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.Design Features (识别特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell.Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 双层性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底层结构The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上层结构Productivity/creativity:能产性、创造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality; and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受时空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of communication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Cultural transmission: 文化传递性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned. Interchangeability：互换性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s fe elings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Speech Elements and FunctionRussian-born structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresser---emotive 感情功能addressee---conative 意动功能context---referential 指称功能message ---poetic 诗意性功能contact ---phatic communion 应酬功能code --metalinguistic 元语功能addresser---emotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.e.g. I hate what they are planning for me.addressee---conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.e.g. Why not go and see another doctor?context---referential 指称功能 The addresser conveys a message or information.e.g. As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.message---poetic 诗意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. e.g. poetrycontact ---phatic communion 应酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Good morning. // 吃饭了吗？God bless you. Nice day. code ---metalinguistic 元语功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics. Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech:The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords(vibration of which→voicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced. Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997.IPA’s basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式/严式标音Diacritics(附加符号): another set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only; Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever. If the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel; otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation:stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [ð] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [ŋ] glides: [w] [j]In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]palatal: [∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] velar: [k] [g] [ŋ] glottal: [h]Vowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth; the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the length of the vowels.כ] [a:][ ]:[i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a] [∂:] [∂] [^] [u:] [u] [כDiphthongs: [ei] [ai] [i∂] [e∂] [u∂] [au] [∂u]Phonology and phoneticsSsimilarity: the study of sounds Ddifference: different approaches and focusesPhonetics: all the speech sounds used in all human languages; 语音研究的方法 [s], [i], [t] Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication; 语音使用的模式(发现语言中语音的组成规则并解释发生的变化). [s] [i] [t]怎样组合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some don’t.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. e.g. Phone [t]---Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位变体.Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs(最小对立体): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: [tin] [din], [bi:t] [bit]All these sound combinations together constitute a minima set. 最小对立集This also applies to the vowels.Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and ccomplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位对立 /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/ccomplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. (音位变体的)互补分布 spit-pit, little,Free variants (音位的)自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either [i:ð∂], [aið∂]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are combined.Sequential rules (序列规则): the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.e.g. spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化规则): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略规则): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. sign-signatureSuprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemes---the sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Word-formation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形态学,词法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(语素/词素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. box+es, desire+ableIn view of word-formation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. e.g. studies, studying, studied (study+, -es, -ing, -ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (语素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. e.g. The morpheme of plurality {s}: cats, bags, matches // The past tense of the morpheme {be} : was, wereAllomorph(语素变体): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph allomorph/wud/ /w∂d/ /∂d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由语素): a morpheme that constitu tes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, …They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots. Bound morpheme(粘着语素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes.Derivational morphemes(派生语素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. e.g. ccomputerize, multimediaIn English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折语素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,…word (part of speech unchanged) e.g. He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, ... A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Stem is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added. It can be a root or a form bigger than a root. E.g. friends, friendshipsBase is alternative to root or stem.Affix are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.All of them are bound morphemes. They can be divided into inflectional and derivational affixes according to the functions.In view of their distribution, they can be classified as prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes in English are all derivational whereas suffixes are both derivational and inflectional.Word-formation Processes: compounding, affixation or derivation, shortening:/blends混成词(smoke +fog—smog), acronyms(缩略语)( laser, dinky), abbreviations(缩略语)(UN, P.R.A., RMB), clippings(缩写词)(fridge, gym, math), backformation (逆构词法)(editor--- to edit)Types of Words:variable words(可变化词): follow, mat, ... invariable words(不变词): since, when, seldom,... grammatical word(语法词)/function word: conj., prep., art., pron. lexical word(词汇词)/content word 实义词: n., v., adj., ...Open class(开放词类)/content words: n., adj., v., adv. closed class(封闭词类)/functional words: conj., prep., art., pron.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyntax, Category, Phrase, Phrase structure rule, Deep structure and surface structureSyntax(句法): a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Categories(范畴）: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Word level categories: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. Three criteria(meaning, inflection and distribution) are employed to determine a word’s category.Phrase categoriesA phrase is a syntactic unit that is built around a certain word category, a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Phrase types:NP: the hardworking people VP: buy a book AP: very excited PP: behind the tablePhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短语结构规则): a special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. NP → (Det) N (PP) ... VP → (Qual) V (NP) ... AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ... PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...Phrase ElementsHead (中心成分）：the word around which a phrase is formed;Specifier（标志成分）: the words on the left side of the heads; They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（补充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修饰语): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read).A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head complementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(complement)Coordination rule（并列规则）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Subcategorization(次范畴化) The information about a word's complement is included in the head. A certain lexical itemrequires a certain type of complement. e.g. to appear, to cut a tree, to give him a bookA sentence-like construction=a complementMiss Hebert believes that she will win.complementizer, complement clause, complement phrase, matrix clauseThe expanded XP rule: XP→ (spec)((Mod) X (complement﹡)(Mod)SentenceStructuralist view: (Bloomfield) It is a maximum free form; it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its complement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule. Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yes-no question, wh-question and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion; Do insertion, Wh movement → Move aInversion (Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. → Move Infl to C.) The train will arrive. → Will the train arrive?Trace(语迹): records of the movement of a word.Do Insertion: Used to form a yes-no question without an overt Infl. E.g. Birds fly. Step 1: Birds do fly. (Insertion of Do)Step 2: Do birds fly? (Inversion of Do)D-structure and S-structureDeep structure: The syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn't fly.Organization of the Syntactic Componentthe xp rule↓deep structure←subcategorization restrictschoice of complement↓transformations↓surface structureWh MovementDeep structure of Wh questions. E.g. You can speak what language.Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. E.g. What language you can speak. Inversion occurs to can. E.g. What language can you speak?Move the wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Move a 移动a规则: A general rule for all the movement rules.a: any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints on movement: a. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. b. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics, Some views concerning the study of meaning, Major sense relations, Sense relations betweensentences, Analysis of meaning, Two-place, one-place, and no-place predicationSemantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Different Views: the naming theory, the conceptualist view, conceptualism, behaviorismThe naming theory (命名论): Proposed by PlatoThe linguistic forms or symbols (i.e. words) used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. They are just names or labels for things.Limitations: applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.; Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the worldThe conceptualist view（概念论）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards’ semantic triangle or triangle of significance thought/referencesymbol/form……………………..referentContextualism（语境论）: (1930-1960)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---elements closely linked with language behavior.J.R. Firth (British linguist): We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Wittgenstein (German philosopher): the meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism（行为主义论）The meaning of a language form is: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield 1933)Jill JackS…………..r………..s…………….RLexical Meaning: Sense (意义) and reference (语义）Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized; the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. e.g. Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.Major Sense RelationsSynonymy 同义关系 It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects e.g. autumn---fall, flat---apartment Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style e.g. start, begin, commence Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning e.g. famous---notorious Collocational synonyms e.g. to accuse …of…/to charge …with…Semantically different synonyms e.g. gaze --- glarePolysemy 一词多义While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than meaning. This is what we call polysemy.Homonymy 同音异义It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. E.g. sun, sonWhen two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. E.g. wind n., wind v.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. e. g. break n., v. Hyponymy 下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.animal (dog, duck, tiger,…)superordinate hyponyms co-hyponymsAntonymy 反义关系It refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Gradable antonyms 等级反义关系 old-youngComplementary antonyms 互补反义关系 alive-dead, male-femaleRelational opposites 反向反义关系 husband-wife, father-sonSense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y. E.g. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.hX entails Y. E.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.X presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous. E.g. The table has bad intentions.Meaning AnalysisComponential analysis 成分分析: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. (语义特征)–Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE–Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, -MALE–Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALEPredication analysis (Sentence meaning)Some basic points: The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning (grammaticality) and semantic meaning (selectional restrictions)The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制), which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Predication analysis (述谓结构分析） Proposed by British linguist G.LeechPredication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s) and predicate. Argument:the logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element or elements in a sentence.Predicate: something said about an argument or it states the logical relations linking the arguments in a sentence.Examples: TOM (SMOKE) Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke? KID, APPLE (LIKE): Kids like apples.Two-place, one-place, and no-place predication ( It is hot. (BE HOT))Chapter 6 PragmaticsPragmatics vs. semantics; Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning; utterance meaning; Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后习题答案

Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society答： There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's your family”, “Nice day today, isn't it”.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic.答： The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter How do they jointly determine idiolect答： The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. Thesefactors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language答： First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen to learn to use the correct language and to avoid ‘incorrect’ language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday Illustrate it with an example of your own.答：According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified asField: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English Why (not)答： (1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend [men], desk [des], and told [tl].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show itsillogicality is the deletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without the copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, .(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of the earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have答： Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified” variety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common 答： Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of h is language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society? 答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “ Good morning! ” , “ Hi! ” , “ How's your family? ” , “ Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “ snow ” , there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos tomake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. T o a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents withoutpostvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determine idiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized bya number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercialcenter. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agenc y writes grammar books and dictionaries to ,fix? this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ,incorrect? language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. 答：According to Halliday, “Languagevaries as its function varies; it differs in different situations. Th”e type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified as Field: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher —students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; th us “ passed ” is pronouncede[np]a,:dse],smk e[dneds[]m, and told[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the deletion of the link verb“be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine ”, “You crazy ”, “Her hands cold ”, and “That house big verb deletion is not a. In fac unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions,e.g.(8 —2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 —3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of theearlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “ simplified var”iety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。

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Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核目标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应用：Halliday’s register theory一、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

2.regional dialect地域方言：is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。

3.sociolect社会方言：has to do with separation brough about by different social comditions.社会方言是与由不同社会条件所造成的分离相关的。

4.idiolect个人方言：is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人方言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了又关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。

5.received pronunciation（RP）标准发音: in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century. 在十九世纪成为全国上层阶级的特点。

二、知识点8.1 the scope of sociolinguistics社会与语言学的范畴8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society语言和社会的相关性There are many indications of the inter-relationshio between language and society.语言和社会之间的相互关系有许多种表现形式：1）One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning ,it’s also used to establish and maintain social relationships.语言主要用来传达意义的同时，也用来确立和保持社会关系。

(e.g.“Good morning！Hi! Hows your family? Nice day today,isn’t it?这些话语的运用之中”)2）User of the same language in a sense all speak differently. Language，escipally the streucture of its lexicon, reflect both the physical and the social environments of a society.同一语言的使用者说话的方式都不尽相同。

语言，尤其是他的词汇结构，反映了社会的物质和社会环境。

（e.g.英语中只有一个词表示s“now”，但爱斯基摩人生活在多学的环境中需要对不同类型的雪作出区分的反映。

）3）As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the socienty in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic from ia entirely social.作为一种社会现象，预言师与其所在的社会结构紧密相关的，对于语言形式的评价也完全是社会性的。

（所有的语言形式和口音，重要能完成期望中的发音那就是好的，e.g.英格兰英语发音与纽约英语发音不同。

）8.1.2speech community and speech variety言语社区和言语变体1.speech community言语社区：a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms. 言语社区可以定义为一群实际上有机会彼此交往。

不仅共有一门语言及其相关变体，而且还对语言标准有共同看法的一群人。

(一个群体可以从教育背景，职业，性别，年龄或其成员的种族关系来与其社区的其他群体区分开来。

)2.speech variety（language variety）言语变体:refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.言语变体，又称之为语言变体，是由一位言者或一群言者所使用的任何具有区别性的言语形式。

（这些不同的特征主要反映在发音、句法规则或词汇上。

言语变体作为一种中性词语可以指标准语(standard language)、方言(dialect)、洋径浜语(pidgin)、克里奥尔语(creole)等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体等。

）社会语言学家尤其是对regional dialects地域变体（又称地域方言）、sociolects社会变体（又称社会方言）和registers功能变体（又称语域）感兴趣。

言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之别,因为它们都是体系的。

8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies社会语言学研究的两种方法1.macro-sociolinguistics(sociology of language)宏观社会语言学（语言社会学）: we can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations,i.e. a bird’s eye view of the language used in society.我们可以将社会看作一个整体，考察语言是如何在其中运用的，以及它是如何反映社会差异的，即对社会中所使用的语言的一个总观。

2.micro-sociolinguistics(sociolinguistics proper)微观社会语言学（严格意义的社会语言学）:look at society from the point of view of an individual menber within it, or a worm’s eye view of language in use.8.2 varieties of language语言变体一门语言的语言变体是该语言的一般概念的实际体现。

Dialects方言：varieties related to to the user.与使用者相关的变体。

Registers 语域：varieties related to to use.与用途相关的变体。

8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体8.2.1.1 Regional dialect地域方言地理障碍如高山，海洋，空间的距离等是造成语言地域变异的主要原因，除此之外，对自己地方语的“忠诚”以及对语言变化的抵触情绪也是形成地域方言的原因。

虽然语言的地域变异反映在发音、词汇和句法上，但是语言地域性变异的最显著的特征是地域口音(accent)。

e.g. regional varieties of Chinese：Shanghai dialect，Sicuan dialectregional varieties of English：British English, New Zeland English,Australia English, South Afrian English由于地域变体的存在给跨地区的交际造成障碍，语言规划(language planning)应运而生。

语言规划是政府行为。

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