英语写作手册英文版知识点

Part OneManuscript FormYou should do everything - writing the title, leaving margins, indenting, capitalizing.Ⅰ. Arrangement排版Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words(including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions(and, or, but, nor, for), prepositions, and the to in infinitives.Indent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters.Ⅱ. Word Division移行The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables. Pay attention to the following:One-syllable words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided.Do not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a. lone, trick. y.Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a line, like hat. ed, cab. in.Avoid separating proper names of people or places, like Chi. na, Aus. ten.Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed.Do not divide words in a way that may mislead the reader: pea. cock, re. ally.Do not divide the last word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the next page.Divide words with prefixes or suffixes between the prefix or suffix and the base part of the word: re. state. ment, un. relent. ing.Divide two-syllable words with double consonants between the two consonants: strug. gle, shat. ter.Dividing words is not always easy. When in doubt, consult a dictionaryⅢ. Capitalization大写Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first words of sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.Ⅳ. Punctuation标点V. Handwriting书法Write carefully so that your handwriting can be read easily.Part TwoDiction措词Ⅰ. Levels of Words词的类型The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal.Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, most of them are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special purposes.those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing., they are called common words.There are words which are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary works their main use is to record people's thoughts and dialogues. They are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin We may call them informal wordsSlang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funnyⅡ. The Mea ning of Words词义The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A word's denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.Ⅲ. General and Specific Words泛指词和特指词Specific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking, for they are more informative and expressive than general words.Ⅳ. Idioms习语An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it.Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make one's language sound natural and idiomatic.Ⅴ. Figures of Speech修辞Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader's or listener's mind are used figuratively.1. Simile明喻It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like.2. Metaphor暗喻It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality.3. Personification拟人It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities. In poetry personification is very common: In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.4. Metonymy转喻It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.5. Synecdoche提喻When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied6. Euphemism委婉语It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one.7. Irony反语It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect.8. Overstatement and understatement夸大和缩小In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole.Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description impressive or interesting.9. Transferred Epithet移位修饰An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something.A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.10. Oxymoron矛盾修辞法In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.11. Alliteration押头韵It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words.Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same effect - to join two or more related words.Part ThreeThe SentenceⅠ. Complete Sentences and Sentence FragmentsA grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb; if the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb, there must be a predicative or complement:A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period.Ⅱ. Types of Sentences1. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sentences According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement.An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences According to their structure sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more subjects or predicate-verbsA compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses(or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate)clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate clauses.A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause - a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.Short simple sentences are often used to make emphatic or important statements, such as the first sentence of the first passage and the last two sentences of the second passage.Long complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately.3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced SentencesFrom a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose, periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.When a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, it is one with parallel constructions.Such parallel sentences are emphatic and forceful. When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to hear because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in formal writing, like expository and argumentative prose, and speeches.4. Short and Long SentencesShort sentences are usually emphatic, whereas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.Various sentence structures have been discussed. The basic principle is that the structure should fit the idea being expressed. In other words, the idea determines the choice of the structure, not the other way round.Ⅲ. Effective Sentences1. UnityUnity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought.2. CoherenceCoherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts.3. ConcisenessA sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better.Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided.Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure.4. Emphasis(1) Emphatic SentencesSentences may be emphasized in the following ways:Short sentences.Sentence fragments. They are also called one-member sentences. Inverted sentences. They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the reader's attention.Parallel constructions and balanced sentences.Periodic sentences. Their climactic word order makes them emphatic. Imperative and exclamatory sentences. They are naturally emphatic: Rhetorical questions.They are questions in form but emphatic statements in meaning.Negative-positive statements.They first point out what is not the truth, and then what is. The contrast makes them emphaticSentences with repeated words or phrases.The repetition gives emphasis to such sentences.(2) Emphasis within the SentenceVarious ways can be used to achieve emphasis within the sentence. Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader's attention.Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. in a proper context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.The verb and the active voice. When describing actions, one had better use verbs instead of nouns denoting actions, for verbs are generally more vivid and emphatic than nouns.Subordination.This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position. Emphatic words and phrases.There are words and phrases that may be used to emphasize other words.Alliteration.It means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words, like "busy as a bee".5. VarietyBut variety is not to be sought for its own sake. The structure and length of sentences are primarily determined by the ideas to be expressed. Part FourThe ParagraphA paragraph is a unit of thought. A long paragraph expresses a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.Ⅰ. Effective ParagraphsA paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well development.1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence.It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied.2. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form,or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural.3. TransitionThe following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:A. Using parallel structures;B. Repeating words or word groups;C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.Ⅱ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an outline to arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description.4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.5. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand.There are two pattern of arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph: the general-to-specific or the specific-to-the general Details or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastStrictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two things of the same thing, while a contrast, the differences between them. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast.The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect.Block comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison is often used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but complex, and require much explanation.There is a special form of comparison - analogy. Analogy is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.Analogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.7. Development by Cause and EffectSound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. Essential to a good classification is parallelism.9. Development by DefinitionThere are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write aparagraph or even an essay. When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.First, we should avoid circular definitions.Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an abstract one.Third, we should avoid loaded definitions. Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval. 10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Part FiveThe Whole CompositionLike a paragraph, a composition must have unity. All the facts and all the ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation of its thesis or central thought. Proportion is as important to an essay. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part about seven-or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right. The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.A good composition should have something interesting and/or important, and if possible ,something new to say, and that this “something” is expressed clearly, accurately and appropriately.Ⅰ. Steps in Writing a Compo sition1. Planning a CompositionWhen a topic is assigned, first try to think of as many relevant facts .write them down on a piece of paper. At the same time, try to find a proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main point or its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from thefacts to be presented in the composition. After that, look at the list of facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.2. Types of OutlinesThere are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare the following two outlines for a paper on foreign trade.Rules for writing outlines:(1)Avoid single subdivisions.(2) Avoid mixing types.(3) Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank. Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal importance and are related to the heading and arranged in logical order.(4) Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative; do not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.3. Writing the First Draft4. Revising the First DraftⅠ. Content: Look at the essay / composition as a whole.Ⅱ. Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.Ⅲ. Sentences:Ⅳ. Diction:Mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics, because students are generally mindful of such mistakes.5. Making the Final CopyⅡ. OrganizationMost, if not all, essays are made up of a beginning, a middle, and an end.1.The BeginningThe beginning (the introduction) rouses the reader's interest in and secures his attention to the subject matter of the essay or provides necessary background information.(1) A quotation(2) Figures or statistics(3) A question or several questions(4) The time and place of the event to be described(5) Relevant background material(6) An analogy(7) A definition2. The middleThe middle (the body) gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideas the writer intends to put forth.3. The EndThe end (the conclusion) winds up the essay often with an emphatic and forceful statement to influence the reader's final impression of the essay and shows the implication or consequences of the argument. Concluding paragraphs should be short, forceful, substantial,and thought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of the points that have been discussed.Ⅲ. Types of Writing1. DescriptionDescription is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene.A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impressions of one's senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.(1) Description of a personthe writer should not merely give details of his appearance. try to reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings, And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people. Those features that he shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of a person, if any, should be included in the description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and give life to the person described.(2) Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describing a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.(3) Description of an objectTo describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we need to mention its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell.It is also necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person's life if it is in some way related to him. But emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.(4) Description of a sceneA scene is sometimes the main part of an essay, and sometimes only an episode in a long narrative. It usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions. Again, the writer should try to create a dominant impression when describing a scene.2. NarrationTo narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. In its broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, news items, and narrative poems.Narration often goes hand in hand with description. When one tells a story, one describes its setting and characters. On the other hand, accounts of actions may be necessary to the description of a person or a scene. When planning a narrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose. (1) ContextWhen, where,and to whom the action in a narrative happened is often made clear at the beginning of the narrative. This will provide the reader witha context, or circumstances, to help him understand the whole narrative.(2) Selection of detailsA narrative is made up of details. Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative, are useful and effective. When selecting details, therefore, the writer should bear in mind his purpose in writing the narrative.(3) OrganizationEvents in a narrative are usually related in chronological order.But it is also possible, and sometimes preferable, to start from the middle or even the end of the story with the event that is most important or mostlikely to arouse the reader's interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks. A narrative generally has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The setting may be given in the beginning. The middle (the body) tells the story itself.When the story is clearly told, the narrative comes to a natural end. But sometimes it add one or two paragraphs about the significance of the story or about things that happen afterwards.(4) Point of viewA first-person narrative may be more graphic and lifelike, because it gives the reader the impression that it is what the writer himself has seen or experienced. But the scope of the narrative may be limited, for it is difficult to recount events that happen in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from this limitation, and it may seem more objective, but it is not easy to put in good order things that happen to different people in different places.(5) PurposeThere must be a purpose in telling a story. The writer may want to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc, he has to choose details and design the plot of his story carefully.3. Expositionmost frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means expounding or explaining.We have seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings, and narration with events and experiences. While exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships.Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast,causes and effects, or definition.That is to say, methods which are good for paragraph development are also good for expository essays. The difference lies in scope and proportion. The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this the writer should:1) Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay2) Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation3) Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4) Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;5) Make exposition interesting or moving(1) IllustrationIllustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. It is the most common, and often the most efficient pattern of exposition. Good examples help to clarify a writer's thought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.A successful illustration paper depends on1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant2) An expert arrangement of these examples - similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.(2) Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate thatthing into parts. Classification,is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically. Division stresses the distinction between things,whereas classification emphasizes the similarities. Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts.The whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the parts are closely related.Guidelines of using division or classification:1) Choose an appropriate principle of division / classification suited to your purpose.Things are divided or classified according to the writer's purpose or interests.Be sure that your principle of division / classification is interesting and significant. A division of people according to their weight may be absurd unless you intend to discuss how different categories respond to certain medicine the dosage of which depends on a person's weight. 2) Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.Your categories should be divided according to one principle throughout. Remember one item can belong to only one category.(3) Comparison and ContrastA comparison explains how things are similar(similarities/comparisons), and a contrast, how they are different(differences/ contrasts).When you write a comparison / contrast paper, you explain or clarify for one of the three following purposes:1) To present information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something familiar;2) To show the superiority of one thing by comparing it with another; and。