美国的高中心理学课程标准

美国的高中心理学课程标准ERIC Digest最近的对于内容标准的形成--该问题起始于20世纪90年代--所做的贡献来自美国心理学协会（APA），它最近出版了《高中心理学教学国家标准》。

这份摘要讨论了如下问题：1发展高中心理学课程标准的课题的起源和目的 2标准的陈述和构成 3心理学主动学习的教学 4心理学教师的资料来源。

标准的起源和目的全国范围的内容标准运动加上高中心理学课程受欢迎度的不断增加（每年超过80万的高中生参加心理学课程），促使美国心理学协会在1995年成立发展高中心理学国家标准的专门工作小组。

该工作小组包括由APA教育和科学指导委员会挑选的有经验的心理学家和高中及大学的心理学教育工作者。

最后的工作成果，《高中心理学教学国家标准》，出版于1999年8月。

这些标准意图帮助教师提高心理学课程的教受与学习的质量。

这些标准是建议性的，并且只会被有兴趣的课程设计者和教师志愿地采用。

正确地使用它们，这些新的心理学标准会是一个有价值的工具，来帮助新的和有经验的高校心理学教师在他们的教学里变得更有效率。

那些对教受心理学做出决定的人们也会因拥有一个资源而受益，该资源提供了一个教受心理学的全面的结构和路径。

高中心理学标准强调学生对于生活在一个急剧变化世界里所必需的技巧的培养。

作者们建议学生学会"批判性的思考和综合大批量的新信息，对变化显示出敏感性和培养促进终身学习的态度和技巧"。

（APA，1997，7）。

标准的结构下列的关键词汇是在心理学标准的陈述和结构中使用的。

"领域"是指一串相关联的内容区域。

一个"标准区域"指一个代表心理学一个分支的主要课题或单元。

"内容标准"指在完成心理学课程的一个特殊单元后学生应该掌握的东西。

"行为标准"指根据"内容标准"学生应该有能力做的东西。

"行为标示"为学生可以证明他们业已达到标准提供了不同的路径。

使用这五个关键词汇我们可以检视这个专门工作小组是如何组织出于教学目的的心理学的内容的。

五个领域解释了通常的心理学的内容区域：方法领域，生物心理学领域，认知领域，发展领域和社会文化领域。

每一个领域里有具体的标准区域，5个领域共有15个区域。

每一个标准区域包含不同的内容标准，15个区域共有70个。

每一个内容标准被进一步划分为具体的行为标准。

最后，每一个行为标准提供了不同的，有可能的行为标示，这是学生们证明他们的知识和对每一个行为标准的理解的途径。

行为标示仅仅是建议而已。

如果愿意，教师们可以设计自己的行为标示。

例如，认知领域包括学习，记忆，思维和语言以及自觉意识状态的标准区域。

学习标准区域的内容标准和学习的特征，课堂调节的原则，运算调节的原则，认知学习的组成，生物学和文化在决定学习中的角色相关。

在学习特征的内容标准范畴下面是行为标准：从心理学角度探讨学习，并且把学习看作一个通过经验提高适应力的工具。

在该行为标准下列出了四个可能的行为标示：从心理学角度探讨学习。

他们是：*在学习中列举出重要的历史人物。

*把学习定义为由经验导致的相对永久性的行为的变化。

*区分学习和行为。

*在应用的实例里证明学习的理论的用处。

（APA 1999，53）这种标准的陈述和结构能够帮助心理学教师们获得一个教受心理学的总观点或结构，并且把教学任务分解成更小的，更具可操作性的单元和课程。

主动学习的教学为了鼓励学生成为终生的学习者，心理学标准强调主动学习的教学。

下列的设计原则促进了主动学习。

1．主动学习应该涉及全班。

例如，一些只有少数学生进行的示范活动也许是参与学生的主动学习，但对于整个班级来说则非如此。

2．当学生理解了练习对于他们手头的课题，课堂作业的内容，或者他们日常生活的实质作用时，主动学习是最有效的。

3．主动学习激发在更高认知水平上的学习。

这些方法不仅仅要求学生去知道和理解，它们也促使学生去应用，分析，综合和评价。

4．主动学习的方法在它们要求的课内和课外时间里变动不拘。

一个指导者可以设计花几分钟课堂时间的短小的活动，或者设计一个完整的，把主动学习当作唯一方法的课题。

5．主动学习的练习涉及对学生的反馈，但不必要一定采取记分的形式。

这样的反馈可以来自指导者，或者来自班里的其他学生。

每一种方法都应该设计到活动里，最理想的是在学习过程中或者紧随其后。

6．主动学习的方法必须容许学生自愿参加。

教师必须尊重学生的私权，并且不得强迫他们参加可能导致负面社会后果的活动/（APA 1999，7-8）教师的资源《高中心理学教学国家标准》包括建议性的，针对5单元，7单元和10单元的心理学课程的示例大纲。

一个以心理学标准提供的结构为基础的示例课程计划安排包括了一些示例课程。

而且，《国家标准》的参考资料目录对于心理学教师而言也是有价值的资源。

该书的第五部分因推荐按五个领域组织的流行书目的名单而极有特色。

关于技术的部分讨论了计算机软件的使用和互联网。

互联网的部分阐释了电子邮件的使用，电子邮件名单和万维网。

还包括了针对心理学教师的网站，以及电脑软件和获得这些软件的机构名称和地址。

下列网站推荐给教受高中的心理学教师：*美国心理学协会 *美国心理学社团/aps *心理学教学资料办公室/otrp *心理学教学社团/ *高中心理学教师组织/ed/topsshomepage.htmlStandards for the High School Psychology Course. ERIC Digest.by Morganett, L. LeeThe latest contribution to the content standards boom that began in the 1990s comes from the American Psychological Association (APA), which recently published "National Standards for the Teaching of High School Psychology." This Digest discusses (1) the origin and purposes of the project to develop standards for high school psychology courses, (2) the presentation and organization of the standards, (3) teaching for active learning of psychology, and (4) resources for psychology teachers.ORIGIN AND PURPOSES OF THE STANDARDS.The nationwide content standards movement plus the growing popularity of high school psychology courses (over 800,000 high school students annually enroll in psychology courses) prompted the American Psychological Association in 1995 to commission the Task Force for the Development of National High School Psychology Standards. The task force was composed of experienced psychologists and secondary and university psychology educators selected by the APA Education and Science directorates. The final product, "National Standards for the Teaching of High School Psychology," was published in August 1999.These standards are intended to help teachers improve the quality of teaching and learning in psychology courses. The standards are advisory only and will be used voluntarily by interested curriculum developers and teachers. Used appropriately, these new psychology standards can be a valuable tool to help both new and experienced high school psychology teachers become more effective in their teaching. People who make decisions about the teaching of psychology also will benefit from having a resource that provides an overall organization and approach for teaching psychology.The standards for high school psychology stress student development of skills necessary for living in a rapidly changing world. The authors recommend that students learn to "think critically and synthesize large quantities of new information, show sensitivity to diversity, and develop attitudes and skills that promote lifelong learning" (APA 1999, 7).ORGANIZATION OF THE STANDARDS.The following key terms are used in the presentation and organization of the psychology standards. "Domain" refers to a cluster of related content areas. A "Standard Area" pertains to a major topic or unit representing a subdivision of psychology. "Content Standard" refers to what students should comprehend after completing a specific unit in the psychology course. A "Performance Standard" refers to what students should be able to do in relation to the "Content Standard." A "Performance Indicator" provides different ways students may demonstrate that they have achieved the standard. Using these five key terms we can examine how the task force organized the content of psychology for teaching purposes.Five domains exemplify the usual content areas of psychology: the Methods Domain, Biopsychological Domain, Cognitive Domain, Developmental Domain, and the Sociocultural Domain. Within each Domain are specific Standard Areas, 15 across the five Domains. Each Standard Area comprises various Content Standards, 70 across the 15 Standard Areas. Each Content Standard is further divided into specific Performance Standards. Finally, each Performance Standard offers various possible performance indicators, ways students can demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of each Performance Standard.The Performance Indicators are only suggestions. Teachers may develop their own Performance Indicators if they wish. For example, the Cognitive Domain includes the Standard Areas of learning, memory, thinking and language, and states of consciousness. Content Standards for the Standard Area of Learning pertain to characteristics of learning, principles of classical conditioning, principles of operant conditioning, components of cognitive learning, and roles of biology and culture in determining learning. Under the Content Standard category of characteristics of learning are the Performance Standards: discuss learning from a psychological viewpoint, and recognize learning as a vehicle to promote adaptation through experience. Four possible performance indicators are listed under this Performance Standard: Discuss learning from a psychological viewpoint. They are:* Listing the important historical figures in learning.* Defining learning as relatively permanent changes in behavior resulting from experience.* Distinguishing learning from performance.* Demonstrating the use of theories of learning in applied examples (APA 1999, 53).This presentation and organization of the standards can help psychology teachers gain an overview or structure for teaching psychology and break down the teaching task into smaller, more manageable units and lessons.TEACHING FOR ACTIVE LEARNING.To encourage students to become lifelong learners, the psychology standards stress teaching for active learning. The following design principles promote active learning.1. Active learning should involve the entire class. For example, demonstrations that involve only a few students may constitute active learning for the students engaged in the activity, but not for the class as a whole.2. Active learning is most effective when students understand the relevance of the exercise to the subject at hand, the content of their course work, or the students' everyday lives.3. Active learning stimulates learning at higher cognitive levels. These methods not only require students to know and comprehend, they also prompt them to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.4. Active learning methods vary in the time they require in class and out of class. An instructor can design short activities for a few minutes of class time or design an entire course with active learning as the sole method.5. Active learning exercises involve feedback to students, but not necessarily in the form of grades. Such feedback may come from the instructor or from other students in the class; either way it should be planned into the activity, ideally during or soon after the learning experience.6. Active learning approaches must allow for student reluctance to participate. Teachers must respect students' right to privacy and not compel them to participate in activities that would have negative social consequences (APA 1999, 7-8).RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS."National Standards for the Teaching of High School Psychology" includes suggested sample outlines for five-unit, seven-unit, and ten-unit psychology courses. A sample lesson plan format based on the organization provided in the Psychology Standards includes example lessons. Also, the "National Standards" reference list is a valuable resource for psychology teachers.Section five of the book features a list of recommended popular books organized by the five domains. The section on technology discusses uses of computer software and the Internet. The section on the Internet addresses using electronic mail, electronic mailing lists or listservs, and the World Wide Web. Also included are Internet sites for psychology teachers as well as computer software and the names and addresses for obtaining the software.The following Internet sites are recommended for secondary-level psychology teachers:* American Psychological Association * American Psychological Society /aps* Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology/otrp* Society for the Teaching of Psychology /* Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools/ed/topsshomepage.htmlTo obtain a copy of the "National Standards for the Teaching of High School Psychology," contact the American Psychological Association, Sherrill Simons, Education Directorate, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002; (202) 336-6076; e-mail address: ssimons@. A copy of the standards can be obtained on the World Wide Web at:/ed/natlstandards.html. Hard copies of the psychology standards are available at no cost by writing to Sherrill Simons at the address above.REFERENCES AND ERIC RESOURCES.The following list of resources includes references used to prepare this Digest. The items followed by an ED number are available in microficheand/or paper copies from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). For information about prices, contact EDRS, 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, Virginia 22153-2852; telephone numbers are (703) 440-1400 and (800) 443-3742. Entries followed by an EJ number, annotated monthly in CURRENT INDEX TO JOURNALS IN EDUCATION (CIJE), are not available through EDRS. However, they can be located in the journal section of most larger libraries by using the bibliographic information provided, requested through Interlibrary Loan, or ordered from commercial reprint services.American Psychological Association. NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1999.Johnson, David E., and Simone L. Schroder. "Annotated Bibliography on the Teaching of Psychology." TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY 25 (November 1998): 307-314. EJ 584 744.Puente, Antonio E. TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY IN AMERICA: A HISTORY. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992. ED 362 087.Rileigh, Kathryn K. "Teaching Communication Skills in Psychology." TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY 25 (November 1998): 279-282. EJ 584 735.Stomfay-Stitz, Aline M. EDUCATION, PSYCHOLOGY, AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association (New York, NY, August 12, 1995). ED 407 307.Wittrock, M. C. "Generative Teaching of Comprehension." ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL 92 (November 1999): 169-184. EJ 438 170.。