语言学考试复习重难点
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习重点一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科,重点研究语音的产生、结构、运动和感知等方面。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.国际音标的掌握,包括元音、辅音和音节等。
2.发音器官的构造和功能,比如舌头、喉头、声带等的作用。
3.音位与音素的区别,音位是语言中的最小语音单位,音素是语音的实际表现。
4.音变规律,比如浊音化、清音化、辅音的鼻化等。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和规则的学科,包括句法学、词法学等分支。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语法的基本概念,包括句子、短语、词类等。
2.句法分析的方法,包括基于短语结构的上下位关系分析和基于依存关系的句法分析。
3.句子成分的分类与功能,包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语等。
4.语法关系的表示,包括句法树和依存关系图等。
三、语义学语义学是研究词义和意义的学科,包括词义学、语用学等分支。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语义的基本概念,包括词义、句义、语篇意义等。
2.词义的分类,包括编码词义和概念词义等。
3.语义关系的表示,包括隐性关系和显性关系等。
4.语义义原的掌握,比如用来描述词义的最小单位,可以用来解释多义、歧义、同义等现象。
四、语用学语用学是研究语言在特定情境中的使用和理解的学科,包括语用规则、言语行为等方面。
1.言语行为的分类,包括表示、指示、陈述、询问等。
2.言语行为的成分,包括言辞、语境、意图等。
3.语用规则的掌握,比如礼貌原则、言外之意等。
4.言语行为的实现方式,包括直接言语行为和间接言语行为等。
以上仅为语言学概论期末复习的一些重点内容,学生可以结合教材和课堂笔记进行更深入的学习和理解。
此外,复习时可以参考相关的案例和实例,加深对语言学原理的理解和应用。
语言学概论重难点解析
语言学概论重难点解析一、语言与言语得区别与联系。
(一)语言与言语得区别1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。
就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。
2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。
言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。
可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。
语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。
语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。
3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。
语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。
如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。
汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。
而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。
言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。
从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。
(如:学生。
就是学生。
就是中文系得学生。
她就是中文系得学生。
……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。
……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。
(例如:①我们热爱祖国。
②她们喜欢唱歌。
③小张爱好音乐。
……理论上讲可以就是无限得)数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。
数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。
数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。
语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。
(二)语言与言语得联系语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论考试重点难点1. 综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律,这是具体语言学的任务。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)2. 世界上有几千种语言,有些语言的研究已经比较深入,大部分语言的研究还很不够,甚至还没有人去研究。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错3. 语言学既是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学;既与社会科学有密切的关系,又与自然科学有密切的关系。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错4. 我国的语言研究基本上是在洋务运动后走上独立发展的道路的。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)5. 布龙非尔德是美国结构主义语言学代表人物之一,其代表著作为《普通语言学教程》。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)6. 从理论上来说,句子的长度是可以无限的。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错7. 语言是在文字基础之上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)8. 文字始终是从属于语言的。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错9. 在一定的条件下,身势等伴随动作也可以脱离语言而独立完成一些交际任 [判断题] *对(正确答案)错10. 现代社会通的方式很多,语言的重要性正日渐削弱。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)11. 我们常听人们说“工人有工人的语言,农民有农民的语言”,这说明语言是有阶级性的。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)12. 语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错13. 现代汉语无论是在词汇的数量上还是表达方式上,都要比古代汉语丰富的多,这说明语言是和生产力发展水平有关的。
[判断题] *对错(正确答案)14. 会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错15. 语言和思维是两种独立的现象,但它们又形影相随,不可分离。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错16. 语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
[判断题] *对(正确答案)错17. 文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学概论考试重点
一、名词解释:⒈组合关系符号和符号组合起来的关系成为符号的组合关系。
聚合关系语言链条上的某一环节能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用,它们自然地聚集成群的关系叫聚合关系。
⒉语流音变音位和音位组合的时候,由于受邻音的影响,或者说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同,可能发生不同的变化,叫做语流音变。
分析例子常见的语流音变有同化、异化、弱化、脱落四种。
1、同化:两个不同的音位,其中一个受另一个的影响,变成跟它相同或相近的音位。
如books的s发成/s/,可是dogs的s却变成了/z/,因为/g/是浊音,/s/受/g/的影响也变成了浊音/z/。
2、异化:指两个本来相同或相近的音位,其中一个由于某种原因变得跟另一个不同。
如普通话两个上声相连,第一个上声要变成阳平.“你好、语法、粉笔、雨伞、土改”3、弱化:在语流中,有些音的发音可能变弱,不那么清晰,这种现象叫做弱化。
如英语冠词a、an、the的语音弱化.4、脱落:弱化音往往会进一步脱落。
如北京话“你们”常发成/nim/,“我们"常发成/wom/,“豆腐”/toufu/说成/touf/。
⒊音位变体一个音位常常是一组音,其各个音之间没有区别意义的作用,属于同一个音位的多个音素,都是这个音位的变体.⒋非音质音位语音中,音高、音强、音长也是区别语言单位的语音形式,也能起区别意义的作用,也能构成音位。
有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音强、音长等叫做非音质音位。
⒌音素是构成音节的最小单位或最小的语音片段,是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位。
⒍义素是义位的组成部分,是由分解义位而得到的比义位低一层的语义单位。
如“哥哥"这个义位可分解为四个义素:亲属、同胞、年长、男性。
⒎义项是传统词汇学—-词典学中常用的术语。
现代语义学中的“义位”基本上对应于传统词汇学中的“义项”.⒏词法语素组合成词的规则叫构词法,它和词的变化规则合在一起叫做词法。
句法词组合成词组或句子的规则叫做句法.⒐内部屈折即“屈折”,指词内部的语音形式的变化。
自考汉语言文学语言学概论复习重点考点
自考汉语言文学语言学概论复习重点考点
一、语言学的基本概念
1.语言学的定义:语言学是研究语言的科学。
2.语言学的分类:一般语言学、历史语言学、实用语言学等。
3.语言学研究的内容:语音学、语法学、词汇学、语义学、语用学等。
二、语音学
1.国际音标:常用国际音标及其音值。
2.语音的分类:元音、辅音等。
3.语音的产生:空气流动、声带振动等。
三、语法学
1.句子成分:主语、谓语、宾语等。
2.句子结构:简单句、复合句等。
3.短语的分类:名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。
四、词汇学
1.词的定义:具有独立意义的语言单位。
2.词的分类:实词、虚词等。
3.词的构词法:前缀、后缀等。
五、语义学
1.意义的概念:语言单位所表示的概念。
2.意义的分类:词义、句义、上下文义等。
3.意义的变化:词义的扩大和缩小等。
六、语用学
1.语用学的概念:研究语言实际使用情况的学科。
2.语用学的要素:语言行为、语用规则等。
3.语用失误:歧义、言外之意等。
七、其他
1.汉语言文字的演变:甲骨文、小篆、楷书等。
2.语言与社会文化的关系:语言的社会属性、语言的地位等。
3.语言变异现象:方言、行话、新词等。
以上是自考汉语言文学语言学概论的复习重点和考点,希望能对您的复习有所帮助。
语言学纲要期末考试重点
一、填空1、语言学的最初的发源地有三个:古代中国的小学传统语文学——文字学、训诂学、音韵学,古印度的语言学——梵语,古希腊-罗马的语言学.2、信息传递的五个阶段:编码、发送、传递、接收、解码.3、语言研究的角度:生理学、物理学、心理学4、从自然属性出发、针对所有人类语言的语音研究,属于语言学的研究;从社会属性出发、针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中起什么作用的研究,属于音系学的研究.5、严式标音音素标音宽式标音音位标音6、语音四要素:音高、音强、音长、音质7、一般将语法分成词法和句法.词法包括词的构造、变化和分类等.句法包括词组的构成、句子的构成、句子成分和句子类型等.8、语言的形态分类:1孤立语词根语2黏着语3屈折语4多式综合语9、汉藏语系:汉、侗台、苗瑶和藏缅四个语族10、渐变性和不平衡性是语言演变的两大特点.11、词汇包括基本词汇和一般词汇,全民常用,稳固,有构词能力可以说是基本词汇的词的主要特点.12、派生意义产生的途径就是一般所说的引申.引申大体上可以分成隐喻和换喻两种方式.13、反义词分为极性反义词和互补反义词.二、简答1、语言的社会功能语言的社会功能体现在语言是人类最重要的交通工具.1、语言的信息传递功能.语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有紧密的联系.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素.语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能.这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达.语言所能传递的信息可以没有穷尽,信息内容可以跨越时空.语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段.在信息传递过程中,人们还可以借助语言之外的其他形式,如文字、旗语、信号灯等,但他们大多是语言或文字的再编码系统,自身有较大的局限性.2、语言的人际互动功能.语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联,这可称为语言的人际互动功能.互动包括两个方面:一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图;另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响,得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈,从而达到某种实际效果.2、语言和言语的区别和联系一、区别.1、定义:言语是个人说话的行为和结果.语言是从言语中概括出来被社会所公认的一套语音、词汇和语法的规则的总和.2、语言系统是社会共有的交际工具,因而是稳定的,具有相对静止的状态;言语是人们运用这个工具进行交际的过程和结果,是自由结合的,具有运动状态.3语言是社会的,言语是个人的.语言是个系统,是社会共有的交际工具,社会因素是语言的本质因素.言语是人们运用这个工具说和写的过程和结果,因此,除了具有社会因素外,还具有个人因素.二、联系.1言语是第一性的,语言是第二性的,语言存在于言语当中,言语是语言的存在形式.2语言是抽象的规则,言语是语言具体的运用.3语言来源于言语,又反过来作用于言语.3、符号和征候区别1 征候——事物本身的特征,和本体具有因果关系的自然联系.“础润而雨,月晕而风”,桂花飘香——桂花开放,鼻塞、发烧——感冒.2符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记.包括形式和意义两个方面的要素,是一定的形式和一定的内容的统一体,二者缺一不可.符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的、自然属性上的必然联系.4、语言符号的特征(1)、任意性.也叫约定俗成性,是指作为符号系统的成员,单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系,只有社会约定的关系.语言符号最突出的特点就是它的音义结合的任意性.2、线条性.是指语言符号在使用中是以符号序列的形式出现,符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现,在时间的线条上绵延,不能在空间的面上铺开.3、强制性.符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定的现实现象以后,它对使用的人来说就有强制性.如果不经过重新约定而擅自变更,就必然会受到社会的拒绝.4、渐变性:是指语言结构系统只能按照量变到质变的规律逐渐地变化采取渐变的而不是突变的方式.5、参差性,是指语言结构系统的各要素发展的速度是不整齐的.非基本词汇及其语义发展得最快,语音变化较慢,最慢是语法.5、语言符号的层级体系:语言的符号不是互不相干的一盘散沙,而是有组织、有条理的系统.语言是一种分层装置,这种装置靠组合和替换来运转.这个装置的最重要的特点就是分层.语言中的各种单位相互间紧密联系,彼此依存,组成一个系统.语言系统是由音位、语素、词、词组、句子等结构单位组成的一种层级体系.分二层:底层和上层.语言的底层是一套音位,一种语言的音位数目虽然只有几十个,却能构成数目众多的组合.这些组合为语言符号准备了形式的部分.语言的上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分若干级.第一级是语素,第二级是由语素构成的词,第三级是由词构成的句子.词和句子都是符号的序列.6、语素的分类根据不同的标准,语素可以分为不同的类型.1根据能否单独出现,可以将语素分为自由语素和粘着语素.能单独出现的,也就是在言语活动中能够独立运用的,是自由语素.自由语素又叫成词语素.凡是不能够单独出现的语素叫做粘着语素. 2根据语素在词中的不同作用把它分成词根、词缀、词尾三类.词缀又分为前缀,中缀和后缀.3词根和词缀具有构词功能,是构词语素,二者合称词干.4词尾只能改变一个词的形式,不改变原来的词类、不构成新词的语素,它的作用是表示一种语法关系,因此又叫变词语素、屈折语素.7、判定文字系统产生的条件.第一,具有数量足够多的与某种语言里的语素或词相对应的小图形,这些小图形可以按这种语言的音读出来;第二,这些小图形可以重复使用而所表达的音义不变;第三,这些小图形的排列规则足以反映这种语言说话时语素或词的排列次序,小图形排列的顺序不同,所反映的语言单位的排列次序也就不同,表达的意思也因此不同.三、名词解释1、语音:即语言的声音,它是由人的发音器官发出,负载着一定语言意义的语言的物质外壳,语言依靠语音实现它的社会交际性.世界上任何一种语言都是有声语言.2、音素:是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位.3、音位:是具体语言或方言中区别意义的最小的语音单位.4、国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet,原义是“国际语音字母”简称IPA,由国际语音协会制定.1888年,由英国的斯维斯特倡议,由法国的帕西和英国的琼斯等人完成,发表在语音教师上.5、属于同一个音位的不同相语音形式,就是这个音位的音位变体.6、自由变体:是指出现在相同语音环境中而不能区别意义的两个或几个音素,也就是处于“互混”关系的音素.例如,在武汉方言中,声母l n不分,“脑”发成nau或lau都可以,当地人清楚而不会引起歧义.由于它们之间的互换是自由的,没有条件,因此成为“自由变体”.7、条件变体:指的是属于同一音位具有互补关系且语音相似的一组音素.一个音位的条件变体分别出现在不同的语音环境中,而且在语音上相似.这些变体虽然同属于一个音位,但由于受语音条件限制,一般不能换用.例如/a/音位中的变体A a,a往往自成一个音节或单独跟声母组合,a出现在u后面或舌根鼻韵母前面.这些音素不出现在相同的语音环境中,而是有条件的出现在不同的环境中,因此称为“条件变体”.8、以音素为材料,从音质的角度出发所划分出来的、以音质为语音形式的音位,是音质音位.9、以音高、音重、音长等非音质单位为语音形式而形成的音位称为非音质音位.包括调位、重位和时位三种.10、区别特征:具体语言中具有区别音位作用的发音特征,叫做该音位的区别特征.11、聚合群:具有同一区别特征的各个音位构成一个聚合群.聚合群之间具有平行、对称的结构特点.12、语流音变:在连续的语流中,某些语音成分受到语音环境的影响而发生的临时性变化,叫做语流音变.常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化、弱化、脱落、增音和换位等.13、语素:是语言中音义结合的最小的单位.14、形态:是指词与词组合时词的形式上发生的变化,是表达语法意义的重要手段.又称“形态变化”、“词形变化”.包括附加词尾、内部屈折和异根等方面.15、语法范畴:在词的范围内,相同语法意义的归类叫语法范畴.常见的语法范畴主要有性、数、格、体、时、人称、态、级等.16、语法意义:语法意义与词汇意义相对而言,指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予的词义之外的意义.也就是从词的变化、组合中体现出来的各种关系意义叫语法意义.17、语法形式:是语法意义的表达形式.18、语法手段:对语法形式加以概括所形成的类型叫语法手段.19、句法同义:几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义,叫做句法同义.20、句法多义:是指同一个句法组合具有两种或两种以上的结构意义.21、表音文字,又叫做“拼音文字”或“字母文字”,它们的最小文字单位―字符只表示语言符号的音,而不表示语言符号的意义.22、音位文字:有的字符表元音,有的字符表辅音,字符可以记录语言中所有的音位.如拉丁字母.英文就是使用拉丁字母作为字符的音位文字.23、音节文字:字符表示语言中的音节.如日本的假名.24、意音文字则是有的字符提示语言符号的音,有的字符只提示语言符号的意义.提示音的字符叫做声符,与音无关只与意义有关的字符叫做义符.汉文是典型的意音文字.25、社会方言:是社会内部不同性别、年龄、职业、阶级、阶层的人们在语言使用上表现出来的一些变异,是言语社团的一种标志.26、地域方言:与社会语言不同,是同一个民族语言的地域分支.27、亲属语言:从同一种语言分化出来的几种独立的语言,彼此有同源关系.28、谱系分类:根据语言是否来自同一语言的分化及分化的辈分等级而对语言做出的分类.29、借词:即外来词,指语音形式和意义都借自外民族语言的词.30、语言替换:语言换用也称“语言替代”或“语言融合”,是不同民族在长期接触或融合过程中产生的一种语言现象.指的是一个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言而转用另一民族语言的现象.31、底层:在语言替换的过程中,换用的强势语言会留下被替换语言的痕迹,这类痕迹通常被称为语言的底层.表现有两点,一个是被替代语言社团的一些特殊发音习惯,另一个是地名.32、语言的混合:指的是来源于不同语言的成分混合在一起,从而产生一种同这些语言都不相同的新的交际工具的现象.它是语言接触的一种非常特殊的语言现象.语言混合现象主要有两种:洋泾浜和克里奥耳语.33、洋泾浜:又称皮钦语,是两种或几种语言在一定社会条件下因互相接触而产生的混杂语言.最早是17世纪以后殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸常见的一种语言现象,是当地人在同外来殖民者打交道过程中学来的一种变形外语,是彼此在语言上妥协而产生的一种能使双方勉强沟通的临时性交际工具.34、克里奥耳Creole又称混合语,是作为某个社会群体的母语来使用的、由两种或多种语言混合而成的语言.克里奥耳语也是一种洋泾浜语.不同的是:洋泾浜语是一定场合下使用的一种特殊语言,没有人把它当作母语来学习和使用;克里奥耳语是某一社会的主要交际工具,可作为母语或第一语言来学习和使用.35、词义的概括性:词义对现实现象的反映是概括的反映.概括是词义的一个重要特点. 三种重要表现:一般性、模糊性和全民性.36、词的这种有历史可查的最初的意义叫做本义.37、由本义衍生出来的意义叫做派生意义.38、离开上下文,一般人首先想到的的意义叫做中心意义.39、语境:语境的含义有三个方面.首先是指话语的物理语境,又叫做“言谈现场”.物理语境指话语的说话者/受话者、说话当时的时空及其这一时空中的所有存在.话语需要与言谈现场的说话者、受话者以及说话时空及其存在正确地关联,才能准确地传递和被理解.40、言语行为:言语行为可以分为三个环节,分别是言内行为、言外行为和言后行为.所谓言内行为,指说话人运用语言结构规则说出有意义的话语的行为;言外行为是指说话人的话语要达到的目的和意图;言后行为是说话人说出话语后达到的结果.。
语言学重点难点
一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征:Design of features of language任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能(不是很重要)信息功能 informative人际功能 interpersonal施为功能 performative感情功能 emotive function寒暄功能 phatic communication娱乐功能 recreational function元语言功能 metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程,考查人类语言中的声音音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学 syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式:规定式:prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式:descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时:diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语:语言:langue指语言系统的整体言语:parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力:competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用:performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA(国际音标)是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位 phoneme3 音位变体 allophones4 互补分布 complementary distribution5 自由变体 free variation6 区别特征 distinctive features7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例:editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例:work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体,而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分-短语,再把这些短语依次切分,得到下一集直接成分,这样层层切分,直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心:指一个结构中有中心词,例an old man ,中心为man离心:指结构中没有明显的中心词。
语言学概论重难点解析
语言学概论重难点解析(总8页)--本页仅作为文档封面,使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学概论重难点解析一、语言和言语的区别与联系。
(一)语言和言语的区别1.语言是表达思想的工具、是交际的工具,言语则是使用语言工具的行为和结果。
就这一点而言,它们是工具与对工具运用的关系。
2.言语是个人的,语言是社会的。
言语是个人的言语行为,以个人的意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。
可以说,每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都有个人的特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能是不同的。
语言是属于社会的,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。
语言是从言语中归纳出的一套标准、准则的系统,是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成的一个完整的体系,因而它具有社会因素。
3.语言是有限的、封闭的,言语是无限的、开放的。
语言的材料、规则是有限的,相对稳定的,因而也是相对封闭的。
如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。
汉语如此,其他语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都是有限的。
而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。
言语的开放性,则表现为利用有限的材料和规则造出所需要的无限的句子。
从组合关系上讲,其长度可以是无限长的(从理论上讲)。
(如:学生。
是学生。
是中文系的学生。
他是中文系的学生。
……他是闽江学院中文系二年级一班的学生。
……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上的各个环节,因而即使在句子的长度相同的情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样的句子来。
(例如:①我们热爱祖国。
②他们喜欢唱歌。
③小张爱好音乐。
……理论上讲可以是无限的)数量有限的语音形式和语义内容结合成语素。
数量有限的语素构成数量有限的词语。
数量有限的语法规则支配数量有限的词语,造出无穷无尽的句子,这就是言语的无限性。
语言的有限性,免除了人们不必要的过重的记忆负担;言语的无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样的句子,充分满足交际的需要。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
8.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。
9.错:语言学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。
10.错:语言有自身结构的独立性,与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
语言学考试复习重难点
语言学考试复习重难点Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学纲要考试重点以及答案
语言学概要复习重点1、语言的主观性语言具有人际互动的功能,说话人用话语表达自己的情感、态度、意愿,这就是语言的主观性。
说话人受到影响,做出相应的语言或行动上的反应。
2、论述语言的两大社会功能语言具有两大社会功能:信息传递功能和人际互动功能。
1)社会传递功能:语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的,是最基本的手段。
其中最主要的方式是语言。
原因有四:人类社会生活和实践不能没有语言;语言的使用范围很广泛;语言使用最方便;传递信息是思维的结果,而思维以语言为工具。
所以在社会生活之中语言的主要功能是不容忽视的。
还有一些辅助性的方式,这些方式生活中可以不用,使用范围有限,使用方式比较不方便,而且辅助性方式本身就以语言为基础。
辅助性方式有:体态语(动作、肢体语言)、交通信号、公用标识、符号公式等,还包括文字。
2)人际互动功能①说话人用话语表达自己的情感、态度、意愿,即语言具有主观性,说话人受到影响,做出相应的语言或者行动上的反映。
②互动传递客观信息或者主观信息③语言在表达说话人的主观情感态度时,是以接受者存在为前提的——互动的条件(面对面),但是接受者存在其他方式:书籍、报刊、书信等——以读者为信息接受者(以读者为存在)自言自语——以自己或某物为信息接收者(想象中)3、语言能力:人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合即为语言能力4、举例说明:语言的民族性不同语言有不同的语音、词汇和语法系统,语言的差异与民族思维方式特点相关。
1)不同语言的词汇系统差异反应了不同的民族思维中的概念分类差异很大。
例如,人类对光谱的感知普遍相同,但是不同民族抽象为词汇之后的概念差异很大,除了科学术语之外,语言之间无完全相同的词。
再如,汉语之中的“高”在英语之中对应的有tall、high、long。
2)不同语言的语法系统差异反映了不同民族思维判断的差异。
汉语中描述“书”的时候,“我去买书了”“书买完了”,两处的书虽然指代不一样但是表示一样的。
语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)
语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学;phonology 音位学;morphology 形态学;syntax 句法学;pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学;psycholinguistics 心理语言学;applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to descri be and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings andattitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics(语音学)is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds:broad transcription(宽式标音)and narrow transcription (严式标音)A broad transcription(宽式标音)is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription(严式标音)is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology(音位学)is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:(语音的正字表征)①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone(音素), phoneme(音位), allophone(音位变体)A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.(音位对立,互补分布,最小对立体)7.Some rules of phonology(音位学规则)Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features (超音段特征):stress重音,tone音调,intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words(1)Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.(2)Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.(3)Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素):the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)/doc/2c13051977.html,pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes./doc/2c13051977.html,pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax (句法)?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Twotypes of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations(1)Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms(2)Antonym 反义词①Gra dable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词(3)Polysemy 一词多义(4)Homonymy 同形异义词(5)Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词/doc/2c13051977.html,ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。
英语语言学重难点提示
英语语言学重难点提示1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are a ssociated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is mea nt to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain se nse. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can s ay “arbitrariness” isa matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that wehave dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativi ty” (by N.Chomsky).6. What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7. What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cult ural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communicationpossible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) “speaking” and which listening.9. Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human languag e has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for set ting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ru in your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” m eans that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”13. What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell somethi ng, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”, one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”,may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speak er’s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with t he other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means people spe ak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradicti on between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.。
语言学概论(考试重点归纳)
语言学概论(考试重点归纳)语言学概论目录第一章语言和语言学 (3)第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6)第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10)第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13)第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19)第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22)第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25)第八章语言的发展和演变 (27)第九章语言的获得和学习 (30)第十章语言与文学写作 (32)第十一章语言与民族文化 (34)第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型P491.只有人类才有语言P49(1)内容更多(2)用处更大:①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能(3)能够创造2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51(简答)“语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的,至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志,同时也是国家的标志,但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间,“民族”和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系,才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客观事实的结论。
3.语言的特点和类型P52(单选)(1)从历时的角度看:语言的谱系分,也叫“语言亲属关系分类。
根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类,就是语言的谱系分类。
语言的谱系分类是个层级系统,从大到小:“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。
”(2)从共时角度看:语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。
二、语言的表现形式P541.语言和言语P54言语:说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。
语言:说话所使用的工具,是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。
言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象,是全社会约定俗成的产物。
言语是语言的表现形式,语言是抽象的,言语是具象的。
(单选)2.本体和外围P55本体知识:语言系统内部的各要素;语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。
外围知识:语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。
语言学概论复习要注意的几个问题
• 举例说明语义场有哪些类型? • 答:①同义义场:指由语义特征基本相同的词义 构成的语义场。 • ②反义义场:含有一个对立或相反义素的词义的 聚合称为反义义场,也称反义词聚。 • ③多义义场:指具有派生关系的一个词的各个义 项聚合在一起形成的语义场。 • ④联想义场:把以一个共同义素为核心形成的词 义聚合叫联想义场。这个共同的义素代表了这个 联想场的上位语义范畴,其下位概念的语义都可 以构成一个联想场。
恳求:〔+求人做事+态度最为诚恳〕
• □ 对下列各组词进行义素分析: • 伯父、伯母、叔父、婶母、姑父、姑妈、舅父、舅妈、姨夫、姨妈 • • 答:伯父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系-姻亲+比父大〕 • • 伯母:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 • • 叔父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系-姻亲-比父大〕 • • 婶母:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 • • 姑父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕
•
•
姑妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
舅父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男-父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
•
• •
舅妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男-父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕
姨夫:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男-父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 姨妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男-父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
• □ 给“看大剪刀把儿”、“老大爷看画儿”注上严式音 标,并分别分析句中的原因是几个音位?为什么? • • 答:看大剪刀把儿:[kʰan51 tA51 tɕiæn214 tɑu55 pɐɹ51]其中的元音是三个音位,[a] [A] [æ] [ɑ] [ɐ]由 于不区别意义,互补分布,发音相似,所以可以归为一个 音位/a/。[u][i]不能归入/a/音位,因为他们在相同的环 境中区别意义,如[tu] [ti] [ta],所以是三个音位。 • • 注:[a]只出现在[i][n]之前;[A]只出现在辅音后面或单 独使用;[æ]只出现在[i][n]或[y][n]之间;[ɑ]只出现在 [u][ŋ]之前;[ɐ]只出现在儿化音之前。 • • 老大爷看画儿:[lɑu214 tA51 jɛ35 kʰan51 xuɐɹ 51]。
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点语言学概论第一章语言的本质语言与言语的关系1.言语是指说话这一行为以及说出来的话;语言是指说话时使用的材料和规则。
2.语言是一个封闭的系统,而言语是开放的;语言具有有限性,言语具有无限性。
语言材料和规则都是有限的。
但使用这些词和语法规则能造出多少汉语的句子确实无法计数的。
3.语言属于社会全体成员,言语属于讲话者个人。
不同的人在不同的语境、根据不同的意图讲出的每句话都已经具有了即时即地的色彩。
因此,语言属于个人。
但不同人所使用的语言材料和规则却属于讲这种语言的社会全体成员。
4.语言存在于言语之中,言语是对语言的具体运用;语言规则和材料是一种抽象的体系,人所听到的是具体的言语。
语言符号有哪些符号属性每种属性用一句话说明要点。
1.任意性(根本属性)。
人们选择哪一个具体语音形式和哪一个具体语义内容所结合成一个语言符号是完全任意的,是无可论证的。
2.线条性。
语言符号在使用中必须按时间先后顺次排列出现,人们不可能同事使用或说出多个符号。
3.相对稳定性。
语言不是一成不变的,它还是会发生变化的,只不过这种变化的过程是非常缓慢的,因此具有相对稳定的特点总结(语言的组成要素)两种说法的出发点不同,认识问题的角度不同。
语音、词汇、语法三要素的说法是从组织语言的角度出发的;语音、语义、语法三要素的说法是从分析语言的角度出发的。
两种说法在理论上都有纠结的方面。
1.前一种说法的问题主要在语音与词汇两个因素之间有交叉,因为词的构成的一个方面就是语音;2.后一种说法的问题主要在语法同语义之间有交叉,因为语法内容中包括语法范畴,而语法范畴是由一定语法形式表达的语法意义,比如books中的-s表示复数的语法意义,而语法意义也是语义中的一种。
语言的几层体系的特点(从底层到上层的变化特点)1.语言是由语音、语义、语法三要素组成的系统。
这个系统可以再分为两个层级:帝层和上层。
底层是由一套音位组成的,构成语言的形式系统,不涉及语义。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论考试重点难点The document was finally revised on 2021语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
语言学重难点
下面是各个同步练习的参考答案1.什么是语法?语法是语言的三个构成要素之一,就是组词成句的规则,是词的构成、词的变化、词的组合规则的总和。
2.有语音和词汇,没有语法行不行?为什么?语言没有语法绝对不行,语法虽然是抽象的,不像语音和词汇那样能让人直接感知,但是语法规则无处不在,无时不在。
语法是词的结构、词的变化、词的组合的规则的总和,没有语法规则,语言的建筑材料就如一盘散沙,无法组成人人明白、个个理解的句子。
实际上,如果没有语法,也不可能有词汇系统,因为词汇系统中的词语,都是语素按照一定的语法规则组合起来的。
所以语言是离不开语法的。
同步练习二参考答案1.什么是组合规则?举例说明。
组合规则就是语法单位一个一个组合起来时所遵循的规则。
组合规则是保证语言的句子结构的有序性的重要条件,语言系统如果没有共同的组合规则,就会乱套。
例如“了”、“摔坏”、“杯子”,可以组合成“杯子摔坏了”、“摔坏了杯子”,不能组合成“了摔坏杯子”、“杯子了摔坏”,这里可以组合与不可以组合,就是由语法的组合规则决定的,是说同一种语言的人必须共同遵守的规则。
2.什么是聚合规则?举例说明。
聚合规则就是在语法结构的同一位置使用具有相同功能的单位替换所遵循的原则,也就是语法单位的归类原则,替换原则。
同一位置可以替换的单位具有相同功能,往往可以归为一类。
例如“我们看电视”,其中的“电视”可以用“报纸、杂志、电影、戏剧、杂技”等等替换,说明这些词语具有共同的语法特征,属于同一个聚合群。
3.组合规则重要还是聚合规则重要?为什么?组合规则和聚合规则都很重要,组合规则规定了词语组合必须遵循的原则,没有组合,词语组合就会乱套。
聚合规则是替换规则、归类规则,没有聚合,句子结构的同一位置没有可以替换的同类,那么语法系统的组合规则将多得不计其数,人类就无法学会语言。
所以组合规则和聚合规则是共同作用的。
4.为什么说组合规则是现实的?语法的组合规则是随着语言的产生与发展逐步形成并完善的,哪些词语可以同哪些词语组合,怎样组合,组合起来具有什么样的语法关系意义,这些都是语言中客观存在的,大家都要遵循,不是我们说一句话时现去创造一个规则。
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Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者:⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomskyin1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
三、问答题1.What are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的,其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.传统语法是规定性的,研究‘高级’书面语。
3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的,重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究,否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
Chapter Two Phonology一、定义1.宽式音标Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音V oicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音V oicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音V owelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9.音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12.互补分布complementary distribution P35Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。