Lecture5 Phonology
大学语言学LecturePonology精品PPT课件
• Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not.
2. Phonetics & phonology
• 3) Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced. Eg. how these two [t]s differ in the way they are pronounced in the word “tea” & “too” ;
• The minimal pairs test • The phoneme theory • Allophonic variations
• pit VS bit
2.2 Phonemic contrast音位对立
• If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, e.g./p/ & /b/ in “pit”& “bit”, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
• A simple methodology to demonstrate this is to take a word, replace one sound by another, and see whether a different meaning results.
大学语言学Lecture Phonetics 和Ponology
Brainstorming:
• Activity 1: • How do human beings communicate with
each other? What kinds of media/means/substances do they apply to communicate?
Speech and Writing
The articulator apparatus of a human being contains 3 important areas/cavities:
1) the pharynx (the throat)
2) the oral cavity (the mouth; most variable & active)
Position of the vocal folds: voiceless
• When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. Consonants [p, s, t ] are produced in this way
3) and the nasal cavity (the nose).
•The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.
Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
语言学Phonology
[l] in [pleis]
pronounced.
Allophones are any of the different variants of a phoneme, which share more phonetic features in common and which are phonetically conditioned each.
sounds are put together (sound patterns) and used to convey meaning Phoneme
2.1 Some important definitions:
2.1.1 Phone（音子）; 2.1.2 Phoneme（音位）& Allophones（音位变体）;
2.2 Ways to identify phonemes:
2.2.1 Minimal pair（最小对立对）; 2.2.2 Complementary distribution（互补分布）; 2.2.3 Phonetic similarity（语音相似性）; 2.2.4 Free variation（自由变体）.
最小音差对是指除在相同位置上的发音 2.2.1 Minimal Pair 不同以外，其余部分发音都相同的两个词。
Examples:
Definition:
[pit] vs. [bit] [bet] vs. [bæ t] [mo] vs. [mõ]
A minimal pair refers to two different words which are identical in every way in pronunciation except one sound that takes place at the same position.
语言学课件 phonology
24.900 Introduction to Linguistics4/6/05PhonologyNB: Quiz date has been changed to 4/20/05. It will cover only phonetics and phonology. Topics for today’s class:1.Review of vowels2.Syllabic Liquids and Nasals3.Suprasegmentals4.PhonemesI.Syllabic Liquid and Nasalsa.Liquids and nasals are more sonorous1 than other consonantsand in this respect are more like vowels than the otherconsonants.b.In fact, they are so sonorous that they can function as syllabicnuclei.c.Syllabic liquids and nasals are found in many of the world’slanguages, including English.d.Linguists are not always consistent in how they representthese syllabic consonants. Often, as you already noticed,they use a broad transcription and insert a schwa plus theliquid or nasal.e.When a syllabic liquid or nasal is used, they are often writtenwith the diacritic short line beneath the consonantExamples: funnel [f√nl] her [hr] [h®] button [b√tn]»»»»II. Prosodic suprasegmental features:a.Length: a:, k:, kkSpeech sounds that are identical in their place or manner features may differ in length (duration), pitch or loudness. Tense vowels are usually longerthan lax vowels. However, when a vowel is prolonged to around twice itsnormal length, it is considered in some languages a different vowel, and it canmake a difference between words.1 Sonorous: Characterized by a relatively open vocal tract with relatively little obstruction of airflow as a sound is made.Japanese: biru buildingbi:ru (biiru) beerA long vowel is also called a geminate vowel.Japanese, Finnish and Italian, for example, also have geminate consonants that make a difference in words. When a consonant is long, either the closure or obstruction is prolonged.Japanese short “k” saki aheadlong “k” sakki beforeEnglish does not use vowel or consonant length to change a word.No NOOOOOOO NOO all mean NOb.Pitch: depends on how fast the vocal cords vibrate; the faster theyvibrate, the higher the pitch. If the larynx is small, as in children and women, the shorter vocal cords vibrate faster and the pitch is higher, all else being equal.c.Stress: In many languages, certain syllables in a word are louder, slightlyhigher in pitch, and somewhat longer in duration (but not geminate) that other syllables in a word. They are stressed syllables.Di gest (noun) di gest (verb)English is a stress language. In general, at least one syllable is stressed in an English word. French is not a stressed language. The syllables have approximately the same loudness, length and pitch.d.Tone and Intonation: Speakers have the ability to control the level ofpitch in their speech. This is accomplished by controlling the tension of the vocal folds and the amount of air that passes through the glottis. The combination of tensed vocal folds and greater air pressure results in higher pitch on vowels and sonorant consonants, while less tense vocal folds andlower air pressure result in lower pressure. Two kinds of controlled pitch are tone and intonation.•Tone: A language is a tone language when differences in word meaning are signaled by differences in pitch. Pitch on forms in tone languagesfunction very differently from the movement of pitch in a non-tonelanguage.Compare: a car. A car?Chinese: ma (five tones) (all signal different meanings; we will see that in some languages tone is phonemic)•Intonation is pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related to differences in word meaning. However, intonation often does serve to convey information of a broadly meaningful nature. For example, thefalling pitch we hear at the end of statement in English such as Susanblasted the flames. Signals that the utterance is complete.•Terminal intonation contour•Nonterminal intonation contour: a rising or level intonation contour that signals incompleteness.Length, pitch and stress are prosodic or suprasegmental features.III.Differences between Phonetics and Phonology.o Distinction between the two is not always made in a consistent manner within linguistics.o In general, phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they areinterpreted.o Phonology investigates the organization of speech sounds in a particular language.•The shift involves one from more units to fewest units.•From huge variety to relative invariance•From absolutely concrete to relatively abstracto….In linguistic terms, it’s not just that I say tomahto, andyou say tomayto. It’s that I say tomahto, and tomahto, andtomahto, and the three utterances are subtly different butwe both think that I said the same thing three times(McMahon 2002: p. 3).•Focuses on language specific selection and organization ofsounds to signal difference (in spite of individual variationof at least two forms).•While we might find the same sounds in two or morelanguages, no two languages organize their soundinventories in the same way.PhonemesIV.-In every language, certain sounds are considered to be the same sound, even though they may be phonetically distinct.l ay (voiced) versus p l ay (voiceless)p in (aspirated) versus s p in (unaspirated)-Consider the [t] sound in each of the following words:t op s t op li tt le ki tt en hun ter-What differences exist among these [t]s?-To a native speaker, in spite of the differences, all of the words have a /t/ in them, at least at some psychological level.-A speaker of Hindi, however, could not ignore the differences in aspiration in the stops of English.[k h əl] wicked person[kəl] yesterday, tomorrow[kаp] cup[kap h] phlegm[p həl] fruit[pəl] moment-A native speaker of English can overlook the differences in aspiration of these stops because they do not signal meaning differences. We just heardifferent pronunciations of the same word.-However, differences in aspiration signal differences in meaning for Hindi.-Thus, aspirated and unaspirated stops have different values in the phonological systems of English and Hindi.Definitions:A class of speech sounds that are identified by a native speaker as the Phoneme:same sound.Allophone: The members of these classes (of phonemes) which are actual phonetic segments produced by a speaker. Thus, an allophone is a phone that has been classified as belonging to some class or phoneme. (aspirated [t] vs. unaspirated [t] in English. )V.Distribution of Speech Sounds:a.An important concept in phonology: whether the sounds arecontrastive or not.b.If two sounds are separate phonemes, then the two speechsounds are contrastive. Interchanging the two sounds canchange the meaning of a word.c.If the two phones are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey are nonconstrastive. The alternation of the two soundsdoes not result in a change of meaning.d.To determine which sounds are thought of by a native speakeras the same sound and which sounds are distinctive relative toone another, it is important to look at where these sounds occurin a language. In other words, linguists try to discover what thephonemes of a language are by examining the distribution ofthat language’s phones.e.The distribution of a phone is the set of phoneticenvironments in which it occurs. For example, nasalizedvowels appear in English in the environment of a nasalconsonant [n Q zl].f.In general, speakers will attend to phonetic differences betweentwo or more sounds only when the choice between the soundscan change the meaning of a word- that is, can cause adistinction in meaning.g.Such sounds are said to be distinctive with respect to oneanother.h.One way to determine whether two sounds in a language aredistinctive is to identify a minimal pair. A minimal pair isdefined as a pair of words with different meanings which arepronounced exactly the same way except that one sound thatdiffers. When you find a minimal pair, you know that thesound that varies from one word to another is contrastive.Leaf vs. reefLack vs. rackTeam vs. deemTeam vs. teenVI.Some Exercises:a. Consider the following data for Spanish:(The sound [γ] is a voiced, velar fricative, [ñ] is a palatal nasal, and [r] is a voiced, alveolar trill.Spanish Gloss[paγo] I pay[laγo]lake[kara]face each[ka∂a][gato]cat duck[pato]pipe[kaña]cane[kana][pero]dog but[pero]What are the minimal pairs in Spanish in the data above? What are the distinct phonemes, if any?VII.More terms for Distribution:•Overlapping Distribution: When two sounds occur in sets of phonetic environments that are partially or completely identical. For example, consider the environments in which [b] and [d] can occur in English:Bait [bet][det]dateload[lod]Lobe [lob][nadz]nods[nabz]Knobs*[dlit]----Bleat [blit]o The set of environments for [b] and [d] is partially similar:Both occur word initially before a vowel and between [a] and[z].Both also occur in environments that are not identical [bl…]vs. [[dl..].Nonethelss, we say that their sets of possible phoneticenvironments overlap and thus we say that they are inoverlapping distribution in English.-Complementary Distribution: This is just the opposite ofoverlapping distribution. The situation in which phones neveroccur in the same phonetic environment, e.g., [t] and [t h] in are incomplementary distribution. (cf. allophones). Together theenvironments in which these allophones occur make up a wholeclass; thus, we say that they are complementary.[t h çp] vs. [stçp]The appearance of one allophone or another is predictable whenthose allophones are in complementary distribution.Free Variation: Other phones that are in overlapping distribution are in free variation. As an example, consider the following words containing [p] and [p¬];[p¬] represents an unreleased voiceless bilabial stop:Leap [lip] leap[lip¬][sop¬]Soap [sop] soap[trup¬]Troop [trup] troopHappy [hæpi] ---- *[hæp¬ i]It should be clear that these sounds are also in overlapping distribution because they share some of the same environments: they can both appear at the ends ofwords. Unlike the [b] vs. [d] examples, however, there are no minimalpairs in these data. Although there are pairs of words containing the samesounds but one, these words do not contrast in meaning. To a nativespeaker, sounds like [p] and [p¬] that are in free variation are perceived asbeing the “same” sound, and so we conclude that they are allophones ofthe same phoneme.XIII. Pronunciation of Morphemes:English plurals: The DataA B C DchildbusCabcapoxbushCadcatbuzzmousebackBaggarage criterioncuffLovesheepmatchLathefaithbadgeCamCanBangCallBarSpaBoyWhat generalizations can you generate for the formation of the plurals in each of the above columns for English? That is, what are the environments for the plural allomorphs in English?-Start with simple lists then extract the generalization from the members.Allomorph Environment[k hæb],[z] After:VIII.Phonological Rules: (similar to rules of syntax and morphology) -A more concise way of stating the same information that we just noted above, is in terms of phonological rules.i.We will assume that the regular, productive pluralmorpheme has the phonological form /z/. This is theform of the plural that is pronounced if no phonologicalrules apply to it.ii.Given this basic form, the variation in pronunciation ofthe regular plural morpheme follows two rules:1. Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme when a regular nounends in a sibilant /s, ∫, z, Z , t∫, d Z / giving [əz]2. Change the plural morpheme to a voiceless [s] when avoiceless sound precedes it.IX.Lots more to say about Phonological Rules:An underlying assumption we are making:I. Derivations and underlying representations:a. A systematic modification of stored representations assembled into largerconstituents undergoes systematic modification via a class of mental operationsb.An underlying or phonological representation will contain all and only theunpredictable (distinctive feature) information for each lexical item.c.Predictable features of pronunciation are added to the underlying phonologicalrepresentation by grammatical rules and principles.d.These rules operate on the basis of the information in the lexical item’sphonological representation on an underlying form and the context in which it islocated.II. Phonological Rules are of two types:Allophonic rules: fill in qualities of pronunciation that are absent in the lexical forms of morphemes but are required by their circumstances in speech, like theaspiration of word-initial /k/ in coats and the rounding of the word-initial /r/ ofrules.-English stop aspiration:Rule 1: Voiceless stops are aspirated when in initial stressed syllablesRule 2: Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs have at least one stressedvowel.Morphemic rules: also known as morphonemic rules and morphophonological rules change or choose between meaningful qualities given as part of the lexical entries of morphemes, as where voicing of the /z/ of the plural suffix is replaced by voiclessness, giving /s/, in words like /kots/ coats and /saks/ socks.-English plural rule above .。
Lecture.5
• schemata: high level memory structure (e.g., restaurant), the unit of processing might be different • Another developmental perspective is that children’s thinking is qualitatively different than that of adults (Piaget, 1952);
Sensor-motor Development
• Object permanence: The awareness that objects that can no longer be seen still exist • Very young infants < 4 months: out of sight, out of mind • This develops in stages: at 8 months children will actively search for the hidden object if it is partially covered; somewhat older infants will search for completely concealed objects; finally children are able to understand invisible displacement tasks (object in closed fist transferred to covered location
the innate hypothesis.
Working Memory (WM)
• Memory span test: The subjects were presented with a list of numbers and asked to recall them either forwards or backwards. The • Question: As memory span increases with age, does WM/STM change? • WM functions for both storage & processing, and resources are limited. • As you become more efficient in processing numbers, more resources are available for storage • Thus memory span increases with age, but the total resources of WM (and the system itself) may not change.
phonology英语定义
phonology英语定义
Phonology 是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言的发音和音系结构。
更具
体地说，它研究的是音素（即语音的最小单位）如何在特定语言中组合、分布和替换，以及这些组合如何形成有意义的词和短语。
例如，在英语中，“cat” 和“hat” 虽然发音相同，但在音系结构上却有不同的音素组合。
在“cat” 中，音素是/k/, /æ/, 和 /t/；而在“hat” 中，音素是/h/, /æ/, 和 /t/。
虽然两个词的音素在某些位置上是相同的（例如
/æ/ 和 /t/），但它们在关键位置上的音素不同（即 /k/ 和 /h/），这使得
两个词在音系结构上有所不同。
Phonology 的研究还包括音位的对立关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是不
同的）、音位的互补关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是互相补充的，不会出现在同一个位置或组合中）以及音位的分布和替换规则等。
phonology-语音学
Phone, phoneme, and allophone
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do , as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [th ] and [t ] don't, as [stop] and [sthop] mean the same to a speaker of English.
Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit ], [roup]and [roub]. If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear [1] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [ 1-] always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.
语言学笔记 Lecture5
语言学笔记陈银2014/4/5Lecture 5Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (Lecture 2)2.3.1 From Phonetics to PhonologyPretest⏹Q1. Define phonology⏹Q2. Explain the relation between phonetics and phonology.A1: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.A2: Relation between Phonetics and Phonology:•Similarity: both studying speech sounds;⏹Dissimilarity:•Phonetics --- sounds‟ classification & description;•Phonology --- rules of sound system.Q3: why does “a” in “map” has a nasal quality?A: If a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map) , some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun.Coarticulation⏹When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the processcoarticulation.⏹If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.⏹lamb⏹s eat / s oup⏹If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverativecoarticulation. mapPhonetic transcription⏹Nasalization•l a mb [ æ ]⏹(with a diacritic ~ to indicate the vocal [æ] has been nasalized.)⏹Aspiration•p eak[ph]⏹(with a diacritic h to indicate the voiceless bilabial stop [p] isaspirated.)•[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.⏹Phonetic transcription⏹When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broadtranscription.⏹The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrowtranscription.⏹Diacritics: the set of symbols in IPA, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring outfiner distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.pit [phit]⏹ Broad transcription with letter-symbols only spit [spit]⏹Narrow transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. pit [p h it]e.g.clear [ l ] as in let, play ( before a vowel: clear)[ l ]dark [ ɫ ] as in tell, feel (after a vowel: dark)aspirated [ ph] as in pit, peak[ p]unaspirated [ p] as in spit, speed1. The space between the two vocal cords is called ______.2.The most flexible speech organ in articulation is the ______.3. When produced with somewhat obstruction of the airflow somewhere in the mouth, thesounds must be ______.4. Phoneticians apply two standards to classify consonants: one is _____________________,i.e. the part of the vocal tract at which the constriction, obstruction or block is formed; theother is____________________, i.e. the way that the airstream is blocked, constricted, or obstructed.5. The consonants that are produced by closing the two lips first and let them open with theburst of the airflow are called_________.6. The two interdentals in English are the voiceless ___ and the voiced ___ respectively.7. The English consonants are either ______ or ______ depending on whether thevelum is raised or lowered.2.3.2 Phonemes⏹Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speechproduction system.•Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such soundsand the rules that underlie such variations.⏹Crystal: …Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changesin the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not‟.•Minimal pairs test•PhonemesMinimal pairs(最小对立体):Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.e.g. [t] and [d]: tin/din, tie/die[i:] and [i]: beat/bit, bead/bidThese important units are called phonemes2.2.1 Minimal PairDefinition:• A minimal pair refers to two different words which are identical in every way in pronunciation except one sound that takes place at the same position.Examples:•[pit] vs. [bit]•[bet] vs. [bæt]Minimal pairs最小对立对⏹Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:•1) different in meaning;•2) only one phoneme different;•3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.⏹ e.g. p at vs. fat⏹Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.The phoneme theoryPhoneme: units of explicit sound contrast, built on the idea of contrastLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemicBy convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (//), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]).In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “broad” transcriptionPhone /phonemebead bean pit spit[bi:d] [b ĩ:n] [phit] [spit]⏹/b/ /i:/ /d/ /n/ /p//i/ /s/ /t/—phonemes⏹[b] [i:] [d] [ ĩ:] [n] [ph ] [p] [ i ] [t] [s]—phonesPhoneDefinition:A phone refers to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechExamples:•[p], [e], [n] in [pen]•[b], [u], [l], [i], [t] in ['bulit];Phoneme音位⏹Any speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound andmeaning are called phonemes.⏹ A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.⏹Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.⏹In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph]and unaspirated [p]is notphonemic. [fəuˈni:mik]⏹In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic.Phone vs. phonemePhone:phonetic unit A phone refers to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech.physical as heard or produced marked with [ ]Phoneme: phonological unit Any speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast wordsin sound and meaning are called phonemes. /A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language. Abstract marked with / /2.3.3 Phoneme & Allophones⏹Definitions:A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.Allophones are phonic variants of a phoneme, which share more phonetic features in common and which are phonetically conditioned each.Allophones are possible variants or realization of a phoneme in different phonetic environment. allophone 音位变体⏹allophone: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme⏹ A phoneme is realized as allophone1+allophone2+….• e.g. /p/=[ ph ] + [ p]⏹In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because theynever occur in the same context:⏹ALLOPHONES (音位变体): the variants of a phoneme⏹ALLOPHONY/ALLOPHONIC V ARIATION: the phenomenon of variation in thepronunciation of phonemes in different position⏹COMPLMENTARY DISTRIBUTION(互补分布): the allophones never occur in thesame context(1) /p/ [p=] / [s] __________[ph] elsewhere(2) /l/ [l] / _______ V[ł]/ V _______●Q: Are all the phones in complementary distribution allophones?⏹PHONETIC SIMILARITY (语音相近): allophones of a phoneme must bear somephonetic resemblanceE.g. [l, ł] lateral approximants only differing in places of articulation●NOTE: Allophy: complementary distribution + phonetic similarity⏹FREE V ARIANTS: the pronunciation difference may be caused by dialect, habit, region,or individual preference, instead of by any distribution ruleIndividual differenceE.g., cup: [khΛph], [khΛp┐]┐: no audible releaseDialectical differenceE.g., either: [i:ðə], [aiðə]2.4 Phonological processes and phonological rules2.4.1 AssimilationNasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.1.If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressiveassimilation.2.If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, it is known as progressiveassimilation.⏹These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which a TARGET orAFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS.⏹In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound.⏹Any phonological process must have three aspects to it:⏹A) a set of sounds to undergo the process⏹B) a set of sounds produced by the process⏹C) a set of situations in which the process applies⏹/v/ ◊ [f] /z/ ◊ [s] etc.⏹voiced fricative ◊ voiceless / ____ voiceless⏹This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE.⏹ A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when itappears before a voiceless sound.⏹Nasalization rule:[-nasal] ◊ [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]⏹Dentalization rule:[-dental] ◊ [dental] / ____ [dental]⏹Velarization rule:[-velar] ◊ [+velar] / ____ [+velar]⏹DEVOICING(清音化): a process by which voiced sounds become voiceless, in suchcontexts does not occur with other sounds (such as stop and vowels)E.g., [f, v; θ, ð; s, z; ʃ; ʒ; t ʃ; dʒ]●/v/ [f]V oiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments.●voiced fricative voiceless/ ________ voiceless“A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.”⏹PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES :a process in which a TARGET or AFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS⏹Three aspects of phonological processa set of sounds to undergo the process;a set of sounds produced by the process;a set of situations in which the process applies.⏹PHONOLOGICAL RULE“/” : to specify the environment in which the change takes placeFocus bar (焦点横线): to indicate the position of the target segmentE.g., Nasalization rule[- nasal] [+nasal]/_____[+ nasal]Dentalization, velarization rule2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering and Elsewhere ConditionEx.a. a hotel, a boy, a white houseb. an apple, an honour, an old lady●NOTE: It is the lack of a consonant that requires the nasal [n] to be added to the article“a”.⏹EPENTHESIS : the process of inserting a nasal soundØ [n] / [ə] ________ V●NOTE: The regular plural and past tense forms also exhibit similar rules.Ex.a. desk [dεsk] desks [dεsks]b. chair [tʃeə] chairs [tʃeəz]c. bus [bΛs] buses [bΛsəz]⏹-(e)s: [s], [z], [əz] (See pp. 45)⏹/s/ is found after /t, k/ (the preceding sound is a voiceless consonant other than / s, ʃ, tʃ/)⏹/z/ appears after: /l, ə, n, b, d, g, əu/ (the preceding sound is a vowel or a voiced consonant)other than /z, ʒ, dʒ /⏹/əz/ occurs after /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ /SIBILANTS(咝擦音): a speech sound (consonant) which is produced with friction and which has an s-like quality, e.g., /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ /For the plural forms:⏹The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.⏹The /z/ appears after voiced sounds.⏹The /əz/ appears after sibilants.UNDERLYING FORM / UNDERLYING REPRESENTATION (UR): the basic form (or the form which appears in most cases), e.g., /z/SURFACE FORM / SURFACE REPRESENTATION (SR):the derived form, e.g., /s, əz/⏹z s/[-voiced, C]________⏹Ø [ə]/sibilant _____ [z]a. //si:t + z//b. //bε d + z//c. //keIs + z//s N/A *s Devoicing N/A N/A N/A Epenthesissi:ts bεdz *keIss Outputa. //si:t + z//b. //bε d + z//c. //keIs + z//N/A N/A ə Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingsi:ts bεdz keIsəz OutputConclusion:Epenthesis is applied before devoicing.⏹Rule ordering⏹Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applies first.2.4.3 Distinctive features⏹The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) inthe 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.Distinctive Feature Theory⏹Distinctive feature theory was proposed by Roman Jakobson in the1950s.⏹The core of it is binary opposite.⏹The purpose of it to reduce the number of phonemic features to the minimum so thatsome main features can be used to explain all the oppositions of phonemes in all the languages in the world.⏹For example, aspiration is a distinctive feature in Chinese . While voicing is a distinctivefeature in English.⏹Distinctive features⏹phonetic features :contrast meanings of words / distinguish onephoneme from another.Distinctive featurese.g. [±voiced]Examples:•[b it]vs.[p it]•[d ip]vs.[t ip]•[g id]vs.[k id]Nondistinctive featurese.g [ ±aspirated ]; [ ±nasal ]Examples:•[spit] [phit];•[stik] [sthik];•[skip] [skhip];•[b i:n] [sbĩ:n]Distinctive features⏹Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced].•[consonantal] : consonants [+consonantal]vowels [–consonantal]•[sonorant] : obstruents [–sonorant]•others [+sonorant]⏹[sonorant] distinguishes between obstruents (stops, fricatives andaffricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels)⏹These are known as binary features denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘–’.ReviewDistinctive features Exercises⏹Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using features.⏹l.[l] [ɫ] 2.[ph] [p] 3.[ tʃ] [d3] 4.[k] [g] 5.[i] [u]2.5 Suprasegmentals⏹Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments.⏹The principal suprasegmentals are:2.5.1 The syllable structurec.f. Chinese and English syllable structure⏹Chinese: MONOSYLLABIC (with one syllable)⏹English: MONOSYLLABIC or POLYSYLLABIC (with more than one syllable)⏹NUCLEUS/PEAK (核心/峰): vowel or consonant, e.g., table [teibl]:[tei], [bl]⏹RHYME (or RIME) (韵基), ONSET (节首)⏹NUCLEUS (核心): the vowel within the rhyme⏹CODA (节尾): the consonant(s) after the nucleus⏹Open syllable: bar, tie⏹Closed syllable: bard, tied⏹Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)•When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.•This explains the question of why /l/ in telling is pronounced as the clear [l].2.5.2 Stress⏹Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, araised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.• A basic distinction i s made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relativenotion.⏹At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables.⏹At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to otherwords in the sentence.⏹The stress pattern in English is no easy matter. In principle, the stress may fall on antsyllable. They also change over history and exhibit regional or dialectal differences. Changing English Stress PatternBecoming norm⏹inTEGral⏹coMMUNal⏹forMIDable⏹conTROVersy⏹INtegral⏹COMMunal⏹FORmidable⏹CONtroversyRP vs. GARP⏹laBORatory⏹DEBris⏹GARage GA⏹LABoratory⏹deBRIS⏹gaRAGEV vs. NVerb⏹conVICT⏹inSULT⏹proDUCE⏹reBEL Noun⏹CONvict⏹INsult⏹PROduce⏹REbelCompound vs. PhraseCompound Phrase⏹BLACKboard ⏹BLACKbird ⏹black BOARD ⏹black BIRDPrimary vs. Secondary StressepiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrializationSentence Stress⏹Sentence stress is much more interesting. In general situations, notional words arenormally stressed while structural words are unstressed.⏹Sentence stress is often used to express emphasis, surprise, etc. so that in principle stressmay fall on any word or any syllable.e.g.John bought a red car.JOHN bought a red car.John BOUGHT a red car.John bought a RED car.John bought a red CAR.2.5.3 Intonation⏹Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which isused with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly.(Isn’t her name Mary?) No / ∨ Jenny⏹The old man didn‟t come / whereas the ∨young man / did come and actually enjoyedhimself⏹∨I didn‟t do it2.5.4 ToneChinese tone changes are used in a different way, affecting the meanings of individual words.Languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.Study Questions1. Define the following terms:coarticulation phonemeallophone assimilationstress intonation2. What is the difference between an allophone and a phoneme?3. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat, heel,sane, tale4. What is assimilation and what is a phonological rule?5. What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?6. Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals? Group WorkGroup 5 Chapter 3 3.1。
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Phonetics
Study substance (raw material) General Particular languages Study speech sounds from Study the functional units a physical point of view within the linguistic system Actual sounds Abstract system
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P. 33 In-class activities No. 2
(1) Characterize how the allophones of the phoneme /k/ are complementarily distributed.
[kh] in initial position
[k] after /s/
Lecture Five Phonology
Wang Xiang
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Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems.
It is concerned with the liguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern how sounds are organized in languages.
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P. 34 No.3 (1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different? [voiced]
(2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes? (a) /∫ / [voiceless] + [fricative] + [palatal] (b) /k/ (c) /n/ [voiceless] + [plosive] + [velar] [voiced] + [nasal] + [alveolar]
Phonology Study form, system, pattern
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Phones (音素), Phonemes (音位), and Allophones (音位
变体)
Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. In /helθ/, /h, e, l,θ/ are four phones. Not all different phones can distinguish meaning. [ł]and [l]
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Allophone 音位变体
— the actual realization of a phoneme, the variants in different contexts.
e.g. Dark [l] or clear [l]: allophones of the phoneme /l/.
Aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p]: allophones of /p/.
E.g. In Chinese the difference between ―ba‖(爸) and ―pa‖(怕) is caused by the feature of aspiration.
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Environment and Distribution(分布)
Environment of a sound: what precedes and follows it.
பைடு நூலகம்13
Complementary distribution
— two or more sounds can occur in different (never in the same environment), but predictable environments.
e.g. Allophones of the same phoneme. Clear [l] and dark [l] are in complementary distribution. Clear [l]: before vowels Dark [l]: before consonants or at the end of words. The sounds in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.
The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemes.
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Minimal pair (最小对立体)
a group of two words that have different meanings and are only distinguishable by one sound.
[p¬ finally (stop) ]:
[p]: elsewhere (speak)
In reality, the final sound [p] is either unreleased or unaspirated, without a resulting difference in meaning.
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Phonetics and Phonology
The differences between phonetics and phonology: approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature. It is concerned with all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
The only difference: /b/: voiced; /p/: voiceless.
/p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
pin and bin, rope and robe
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Three Types of Distribution
The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones of the same phoneme.
The differences in meanings between these set of words are only on the basis of their different initial sounds [p] and [b]. Are dark [l] and clear [l] different phonemes?
e.g. ―ship‖ and ―sheep‖ /i/ and /i:/ When all the contrasting pairs of a language have been discovered, the phonemes of that language have been found.
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Free variation: two sounds appear in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning. /p/
[ph]: initially (pear)
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Phonemic contrast (音位对立)
— phonetically similar sounds which are two distinctive phonemes. e.g. /p/ and /b/ The same place of articulation: lips.
The same manner of articulation: plosive.
[k¬ in final position. ]
―不完全爆破”: 在某些情况下, 发爆破音时, 气流不冲破阻碍, 而 只是发音器官在口腔中形成阻碍, 并稍做停顿, 也就是说, 做好要 发出这个爆破音的准备, 但不要发出音来。
(2) Is there any other way of charactering the complementary distribution of clear [l] and dark [ł]? [l] before vowels; [ł] elsewhere.
Contrastive distribution(对比分布)
— two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning: e.g. big, pig
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Phoneme (音位):
Minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.