语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论笔记
语言学概论笔记第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系?答:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是遗传的,而是一种社会现象。
语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
2. 简答语言符号的特点。
答:(1)符号和语言,“能指”和“所指”。
能指是能够指称某种意义的成分,所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。
(2)语言符号的“任意性”。
符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系,语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系,完全是任意的,约定俗成的。
(3)语言符号的强制性和可变性。
在同一社会、同一时代,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,而语言又是发展变化着的。
(4)语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。
话只能一个字一个字,一句话一句话地说,因此语言符号是离散的,而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。
3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。
答:组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,是横向关系。
聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换,有共同的特点,故能聚合归类。
组合是横向的结构关系,聚合是归类规则,有了组合、聚合关系,便展现出了整个语言平面,聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的,或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的,而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。
所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一,不可分割。
4. 解释“符号”答:符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。
5. 解释“语言”答:语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分,语言是均质的,是言语活动中的社会部分。
语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。
6. 口语和书面语的关系。
答:语言的客观存在形式首先是口语,第二种客观存在形式,是书面语。
语言学的读书笔记
语言学的读书笔记语言学的读书笔记篇1题目:《语言学纲要》读书笔记背景介绍:《语言学纲要》是普通语言学领域的经典著作之一,由美国语言学家J.甘柏兹编写,自1952年首次出版以来,一直是该领域的权威教材。
本书以简洁、清晰和易于理解的方式介绍了语言学的基础知识,包括语音、音节、单词、语法、句法、语义和语用等方面。
深入分析:在《语言学纲要》中,作者J.甘柏兹对语言的结构进行了深入的分析。
他指出,语言是由音节组成的序列,其中音节是由发音器官的特定运动构成的。
这种分析揭示了语言的物理特性和生理基础,使我们更好地理解语言的本质。
个人观点:我认为,《语言学纲要》是一本非常优秀的教材,它以清晰、简洁的方式介绍了语言学的基础知识。
在阅读这本书的过程中,我逐渐了解了语言的结构、功能和语法等方面。
同时,这本书还让我深入思考了语言和社会文化的关系,以及语言如何影响我们的思维和交流方式。
对比与参照:相比于其他语言学教材,《语言学纲要》更注重基本概念和原理的介绍,使读者能够更好地理解语言学的基本框架。
此外,该书还提供了丰富的实例和练习,帮助读者巩固所学知识。
结论与评分:总的来说,《语言学纲要》是一本优秀的语言学教材,它简洁明了地介绍了语言学的基础知识,并深入分析了语言的结构和功能。
我建议语言学专业的学生和教师阅读这本书,并给予它五星的高分。
语言学的读书笔记篇2题目:《语言学概论》读书笔记在阅读《语言学概论》这本书的过程中,我深深地感受到了语言学的博大精深。
语言学是一门研究人类语言现象的学科,它涵盖了语言的结构、功能、历史演变等方面,同时也涉及到语言与社会、文化、心理等方面的关系。
通过阅读这本书,我对语言学的基本概念和方法有了更加清晰的认识。
本书的作者从语言的结构入手,介绍了语音、词汇、语法等基本要素。
作者认为,语言的结构是语言的基础,也是语言学研究的重要内容。
同时,作者还介绍了语言的交际功能,强调了语言在人类社会中的重要作用。
语言学概论笔记(第六章)(3)
9.简化了的实物的图形,传统⽂字学称之为象形字。
10.会意字:有些属于⾏为动作的词语只得⽤某些已有的字的复合图形来表⽰,传统⽂字学称这些字为会意字。
11.“六书”的含义: 东汉许慎的《说⽂解字》中关于六书的理论:“指事,象形,会意,形声,转注,假借”。
12.独体字:汉字⽂字学传统上把单纯字符称为“独体字”。
13.合体字:指把复合字符称为合体字。
14.偏旁:把合体字中的独体字称为“偏旁”; 15.形旁:表意的偏旁称为“形旁”; 备注:汉字的形旁跟表意字符的区别:由意符构成的独体字是跟语⾔中确定的词语相联系的。
但合体字中的形旁只表⽰某个语义类别,不跟语⾔中的具体词语相联系。
16.声旁:表⾳的偏旁称为“声旁”。
备注:由于汉字字形的变化和简化,声旁和形旁的作⽤已不那么明显了:由于语⾳和字形的演变以及社会的发展,到了后代,很多形旁和声旁除了⽂字学家还能辨认为,普通⼈都已很难辨认。
17.汉字字体的演变:甲⾻⽂和⾦⽂→⼩篆→⾪书→楷书(表意⽂字到表⾳⽂字到意⾳⽂字的过程) 第四节⽂字的创制和改⾰ 1.⽂字的创制的含义: ⽂字的创制指的是现代社会⾥为没有⽂字的语⾔创制⽂字,特别是政府或语⾔学家为还没有⽂字的民族创制⽂字,不涉及历各种民族语⾔的⽂字创制过程。
2.⾮洲⼀些新兴国家创制⽂字的情况: 改⽤拉丁字母拼写的斯⽡西⾥语外,其他国家只得沿⽤殖民时代宗主国的语⾔。
3.新中国为少数民族语⾔创制⽂字的情况: 从20世纪50年代起为:侗,苗,瑶,哈尼,纳西等⼗⼏个没有⽂字的少数民族创制了使⽤拉丁字母的拼⾳⽂字,但是除了佤族和傈僳族外多半民族到后来改⽤了汉语。
4.⽂字改⾰的类型: ①正字法的改⾰②字符类型的改⾰③⽂字类型的改⾰ 备注: ㈠正字法,是整个⽂字类型和字符类型不变,只是对正字法的个别规则和个别字符进⾏调整,例⼦是英⽂、法⽂的改⾰,还有汉字简化 ㈡字符类型的改⾰,是⽂字类型不变,表⾳⽂字还是表⾳⽂字,但是字符类型变了,从阿拉伯字母变为拉丁字母,最有名的例⼦是1928年⼟⽿其进⾏的⽂字改⾰。
语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论读书笔记第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。
2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。
口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。
书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。
3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。
就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。
第二节语言的性质句子是最小的交际单位。
2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。
4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。
5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。
它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。
6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。
7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。
即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。
8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。
人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。
王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)笔记和习题(含考研真题)详解
详解
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 读书笔记
目录
02 内容摘要 04 作者介绍 06 精彩摘录
思维导图
本书关键字分析思维导图
习题
语言
概论
概论
发展
真题
性质
笔记
语言学
教材 复习
语法
修订版
习题
语义
笔记
真题
语音
内容摘要
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为王红旗《语言学概论》的考生。也可供各大院校学 习语言学概论的师生参考。王红旗著《语言学概论》是我国高校采用较多的语言学理论权威教材。为了帮助参加 研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)的考生复习专业课,我们根据教材和名校 考研真题的命题规律精心编写了配套复习辅导用书。本书具有以下几方面特点:1.整理名校笔记,浓缩内容精华。 每章的复习笔记以王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)教材为主,结合国内其他著名的语言学理论著作,整理各章 的重难点,浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。2.解析课后习题,提供详尽答案。本书参考大量语言学理论相关辅导资 料,对王红旗《语言学概论》(修订版)的课(章)后习题都进行了详细的分析和解答。3.精选相关考试真题, 补充难点习题。为了强化对重要知识点的理解,本书精选了近年实验心理学考研真题及相关习题并提供答案和详 解。所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点,特别注重联系实际、突现当前热点。
目录分析
1.1复习笔记
1.2习题(含考 研真题)详解
2.1复习笔记
2.2习题(含考 研真题)详解
3.1复习笔记
3.2习题(含考 研真题)详解
语言学概论详细笔记
语言学概论详细笔记(总27页)--本页仅作为文档封面,使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学概论目录目录 ................................................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
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二、语言学的分类和分支学科................................................................ 错误!未定义书签。
三、语言学的功用 ................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
第一章语言的社会功能................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
第一节语言的社会功能 ........................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
一、语言和说话的关系 .................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。
语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论读书笔记篇一:语言学概论感悟英语语言学概论感悟Why do we study linguistics? When we study a particular language, we just study it and actually we are limited by this language. While linguistics can help us study languages in general. In other words, linguistics is a systematic subject for students who want to learn any kind of language better.Just as my teacher said, linguistics is not only useful but also helpful. After I learned the second language- French, I found between English and French, there had something in common. However, language learning is still more difficult than we get our mother tongue. It must because speech is earlier than writing, for example little children hear sound or human voice first, then they learn written language because words are just symbols. There are things, and then there are the names of things. Just as Shakespeare said a rose by any other name would sell as sweet. If we want to have a good command of other language, we should not only focus on one or two point such as grammar or vocabulary. We should keep in mind learn a language is to learn the whole thoughts. That’s why we should study linguistics.Students always have rare interests in language learning for they don’t find a effective way to study it. When we recite words and try to understand the complicated grammar, we may be bored and tired, that’s because we do not know language’s similarities and generalizations. If we study linguistics, we can have a systematic recognition. During a period of time of learning, I find that linguistics has a widely use in language learning. Just like we read a sentence, we should consider the logical meaning of it because we shall know a word by the company it keeps, or we will make mistakes. If we learn linguistic, we can benefit a lot in language learning and find the beauty of the language.篇二:现代汉语读书笔记现代汉语读书笔记第一章引论第一节汉语和现代汉语一、现代汉语的性质(一)什么是现代汉语1.语言的属性语言是人类社会特有的产物,劳动创造了语言。
语言学概论详细笔记
语言学概论详细笔记-CAL-FENGHAI-(2020YEAR-YICAI)_JINGBIAN语言学概论目录目录 ................................................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
导言.................................................................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。
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二、语言学的分类和分支学科................................................................ 错误!未定义书签。
三、语言学的功用 ................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
第一章语言的社会功能................................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
第一节语言的社会功能 ........................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。
一、语言和说话的关系 .................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。
语言学概论笔记
语言学概论笔记语言学概论一、语言发展的历史1、古代语言学古中国、古印度、古希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
中国——“小学”:以文言为研究对象,围绕阅读先秦典籍的需要,人们抓住汉字,分析它的形体,讲求它的古代读音和意义,形成文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学,统称“小学”。
印度——记载宗教典籍的梵语为研究对象,《吠陀经》希腊——以拉丁文为研究对象2、现代意义下的语言学(1)近代语言学历史比较语言学:又称“比较语法”,通过语言亲属关系的比较,拟测它们的共同母语。
历史比较语言学是在十九世纪逐步发展和完善的,主要是印欧语系的历史比较。
它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑、格林施莱赫尔是历史比较语言学的代表人物。
这一阶段最具代表性的语言学。
(2)现代语言学结构主义语言学:奠定现代语言学基础的是:(德国)洪堡特兴起于20世纪三十年代现代语言学真正从(瑞士)索绪尔开始,代表作《普通语言学教程》(1916年出版)。
他被称作“现代语言学之父”。
他所创建的语言学被称为“结构主义语言学”。
在他的影响下,语言学得到迅速发展,出现了许多流派,代表性的有:布拉格学派(音位学—语音)欧美结构主义学派哥本哈根学派(符号学)美国描写学派(3)当代语言学转换生成语言学:代表人物:乔姆斯基他的转换生成语言学是当代语言学中最具影响的理论。
1957年《句法结构》的发表标志着它的诞生。
强调从认知学角度对人类语言共性进行解释,区分先天的语言能力和后天的语言知识,认为语言有生成能力。
二、语言学在科学体系中的地位(论述题——书p4)语言学既是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学;语言学既与社会科学有密切的关系,也与自然科学有密切的关系。
在整个科学体系中的占有重要的地位。
运用语言进行交际的过程,用信息论术语来说,大体上可分为:“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”(填空)五个阶段。
三、语言学的分科理论语言普通语言学(一般语言学):它是语言学的重要理论部分,是人们在对各种具体语言的研究成果的基础上建立起来的,同时对专语语言学的研究具有指导作用,可以说是人类研究语言成果的综合反映和运用。
语言学概论笔记(第一章)
语言学概论笔记第一章:语言和语言学一、识记内容。
1、口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。
2、书面语:文字出现以后,语言的第二种客观存在形式。
3、符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
4、能指:语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。
5、所指:也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。
6、聚合关系:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类。
7、组合关系:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。
8、语言学:是研究语言的科学。
9、普通语言学:语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。
10、理论语言学:把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
11、应用语言学:把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。
12、传统语言学:一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学,特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。
13、结构主义语言学:索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”,至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”,往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学,那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派,并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。
二、领会内容(不用识记,大体知道即可)1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。
答:人要说话所需要的因素:生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。
人要接受语言所需要的因素:组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题;发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力;复杂的生理和物理问题。
总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码。
语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论学习心得。
急求替你找了两篇1)关于《语言学概论》的一点学习心得《语言学概论》这本书主要介绍语言学的基础理论,了解语言的性质、功能以及它的结构。
掌握语言的现状、变化以及一般的发展规律。
它是一门多边缘、多层次的立体性学科。
它和社会科学、自然科学、思维科学都有着紧密的联系。
在交叉科学日益发展的今天,语言学显得越发重要。
通过读书,以及自己原有的一些观念,我对语言现在是这样认识的:语言是一种社会现象,它是我们人类特有的。
语言与我们的思维有着密切的关系。
语言是最重要的交际工具。
以前,一直以为语言是与生俱来的,是平常生活中看似最简单不过的现象。
通过这本书的学习发现,其实不然,原来越是简单的事越是有大奥妙。
说话、写文章都要遵循语法规律。
从婴儿时期的呀呀学语,到长大成人规范地使用语言,在不同的场合说不同的语言,人们互相学习各种不同的语言,学习一定的语言学知识,可以更好地帮助我们理性地认识它,并且更好地掌握它,更好地为以后的学习、工作、生活服务。
2)《英语语言学概论》学习心得当我第一次翻开《英语语言学概论》的教材书时,心里“咯噔”一下,真的是挺吓人的一本书,满眼都是生疏的单词,还有各种不知所云的图表。
当时真的很怀疑自己这么多年的英语是不是白学了。
但当我静下心,并结合历年真题试卷细细分析了一下,其实英语语言学概论中的单词只是更偏重于学术性而已,并且有很多的单词我们完全可以通过已经识记的一些词根词缀猜出大概的意思,记忆起来并不是很难。
我觉得,首先,我们应该克服对于偏于学术的英语的胆怯心理,这样才能在以后的学习中更有动力在英语语言学概论这门科目的学习中,我特别推荐给我们上课的支老师和王老师主编的苏州大学出版社出版的《英语语言学概论自学指导》。
这本书是对于英文教材中的重点知识用中文进行了归纳,方便我们对于课本进行更为透彻的理解。
当然,这本书始终只是辅导教材,大家万万不可将其作为重点,而抛弃了英文原教材。
《语言学概论》[英]LR帕默尔著读后感
《语言学概论》[英]LR帕默尔著读后感第一篇范文:《语言学概论》[英]LR帕默尔著读后感语言是人类社会的基本特征,它既是人们沟通交流的工具,也是思维表达的载体。
然而,对于语言的本质和功能,人们长期以来只有直观的感受,而缺乏深入的了解。
直到19世纪末20世纪初,语言学作为一门独立的学科才逐渐兴起。
在这个过程中,LR帕默尔的《语言学概论》应运而生,成为了语言学领域的一部经典之作。
《语言学概论》是英国语言学家LR帕默尔于1921年出版的一部著作,它系统地介绍了语言学的基本概念、研究方法和成果。
全书共分为十二章,包括语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等方面的内容。
通过阅读这本书,我对语言学的内涵和外延有了更为清晰的认识。
首先,书中对语言学的定义为我打开了新的视角。
帕默尔认为,语言学是研究语言的科学,它的任务是揭示语言的内在规律,探索语言的本质特征。
这一定义使我意识到,语言学并非简单的对语言进行描述和分类,而是要揭示语言背后的规律和原理。
其次,书中对语音、词汇、语法等语言要素的剖析,使我明白了语言的构造和运作机制。
例如,在语音学章节中,帕默尔详细介绍了语音的生理基础和语音符号的分类,使我认识到语音是语言的基础,而语音学则是研究语音现象和语音规律的学科。
在形态学章节中,帕默尔探讨了词汇的构成和变化规律,使我了解到词汇是语言的基石,而形态学则是研究词汇的形态变化和词根词缀的学科。
在句法学章节中,帕默尔阐述了句子的结构类型和句子成分的搭配关系,使我认识到语法是语言的骨架,而句法学则是研究句子结构和句子成分的学科。
此外,书中对语言的起源、发展和变迁的论述,使我了解了语言的演变过程和语言之间的相互影响。
帕默尔指出,语言是不断发展变化的,它在历史的长河中经历了从简单到复杂、从单一到多样的演变。
在这个过程中,语言受到了社会、文化和思维方式等因素的影响,不断吸收新的内容,摒弃过时的成分。
同时,语言之间也存在着相互借鉴和融合的现象,这使得语言变得更加丰富和多样。
语言学纲要笔记 第一章:语言学概论语言学纲要笔记 第一章:语言学概论
hunters歧义。
转换的意思是:一个长句子可以转换成各种短句子 例如:无形的上帝创造了有形的世界。这句话是 有三个核心句子构成:
上帝创造了世界 上帝是无形的 世界是有形的
转换语法可以分解the shooting of the hunters的 义。因为它可以转换为: 1 they shoot the hunters。 2 the hunters shoot a tiger。
• 数理语言学:用代数、计算机科学、统计学等领 域中的概念和方法研究语言的数学属性等问题。
• 计算语言学:用计算机科学的技术和概念研究语 言,特别是研究语言的理解和处理、机器翻译、 情报检索等问题
• 实验语音学:用各种实验仪器分析语音,研究语 音的识别和合成等问题。
第一章 语言的社会功能 第一节 语言是人类最重要的交际工具
一部解释词义的书,是中国古代的词典。
• 扬雄《方言》 、刘熙《释名》 • ——小学:文字、音韵、训诂
印度的语言研究
古代印度人研究语言主要是为了保存口头相传的婆罗 门教义《吠陀经》的原文和梵语文学,使之不致因时间的 流逝而面目全非。例:波尼尼(潘尼尼、巴尼尼 Pānini) 《八书》。
古印度语言学最突出的成就表现在语音学上。例如:
雅科布逊(1896年— 1982年) (区别特征学 说)《语音分析初探》(1951)
马德修斯(1882年—1945年)
该学派于1926年创建。其研究重点是:把语言 作为一种功能体系来进行研究和分析。特别重视音
• 哥本哈根学派 • 成立时间:1931 • 代表人物:叶尔姆斯列夫 • 代表作:《结构语言学》(布龙达尔1931)《语言理论
导论》(叶尔姆斯列夫 1953)、 《语符学纲要》(乌尔达尔 1957)、
语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论读书笔记第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。
2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。
口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。
书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。
3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。
就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。
第二节语言的性质句子是最小的交际单位。
2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。
4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。
5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。
它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。
6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。
7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。
即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。
8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。
人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。
语言学概论笔记+精华版
语言学概论笔记语言是以语音为物质外壳、以词汇为建筑材料、以语法为结构规律而构成的体系。
动物“语言”与人类语言的区别动物的这些传递信息的手段都不是语言。
能传递信息的手段并不就是语言。
动物传递信息的手段与人类语言有本质的不同。
二者的区别在于:动物是为了消极地适应环境,为了生存,信息简单,信息与生存本能联系在一起;人类是为了改造环境,信息复杂。
动物传递信息的手段极其简单,都是一些本能的动作、叫声、分泌物等;人类传递信息的手段——语言,十分复杂。
语言的复杂性表现在它的结构性、层级性上。
动物传递信息的手段不具备生成性;人类语言具有无限的生成性,即人可根据语言中的词及结构规则造出无限多的句子,表达无限的信息内容,也就是说,语言负载的信息内容是无限的。
动物没有伴随意识的语言(动物是无意识的),人类的语言和人类的意识紧密相联,是体现表达人类意识的物质手段(人类是有意识的)。
语言是以意识为其存在的前提,意识也以语言为存在前提。
也就是说,人类有了意识才有语言,也只有有了语言才有意识。
意识和语言是交织在一起的。
正如马克思所指出的:“语言和意识具有同样长久的历史,语言是一种实践的……现实的意识。
”人类语言的特点主要可从功能、构造、习得三个方面来看:功能开放:动物“语言”是一个封闭的系统,故只能传递极其有限的信息。
人类语言是一个开放系统,具有无限的生成性,可以根据不同时代、不同状况创造出从未有人说过的话,传递无限丰富的信息,大至宇宙苍穹,小至分子粒子,既可以反映先古的状况,今人的现实,也可叙述天堂地狱、仙境鬼域。
真是万事万物,无所不可谈的。
构造灵巧:人类语言能传递无限的信息,是依赖于语言自身的合理、灵巧的构造。
人类语言的构造包括两层:一是语音层,一是符号层。
语音层包括人类选用的几十个音,音通过排列组合构成一批音节,即一批“包装”意义的“容器”(教材语)。
意义是人认识事物的成果,这成果装进“容器”,固定成一个个离散的单位。
语言学概论的读书笔记
语言学概论的读书笔记语言学概论的读书笔记篇1标题:语言学概论语言学是一门研究人类语言的科学,它涵盖了从语言的起源、发展、结构、功能到使用等各个方面。
这门课程由三位教授分别授课,他们从各自的研究领域出发,深入浅出地介绍了语言学的基础知识。
首先,王教授从语言的起源讲起,带领我们探讨了语言的本质和功能。
他认为,语言是一种社会现象,是人们交流思想和信息的工具。
通过深入浅出的解释和生动的例子,他让我们理解了语言的基本概念和语言习得的过程。
他还详细阐述了语言的功能,包括表达意义、社交互动、文化传承等。
接下来,李教授介绍了语言的分类和多样性。
他从全球视野出发,阐述了不同语言之间的差异和相似之处。
他强调了语言与文化的关系,认为每种语言都承载着一种独特的文化传统和价值观。
他还介绍了全球的语言政策和文化多样性保护等问题。
最后,张教授探讨了语言的结构和语法。
他从语音、词汇、语法等方面详细阐述了语言的构成要素。
他通过对比不同语言的语法结构,阐述了语言结构的发展和变化规律。
他还强调了语言习得和语言智能等方面的话题。
在这门课程中,我学习到了许多关于语言的知识和理论。
我对语言学这门学科有了更深入的了解,也对语言的功能和多样性有了更全面的认识。
同时,这门课程也让我认识到语言的重要性,以及保护和传承语言文化的意义。
总的来说,这门课程让我对语言学有了更深入的了解,也为我未来的学习和职业发展提供了有益的启示。
我相信,这门课程的知识和理论将会对我未来的学习和职业发展产生积极的影响。
语言学概论的读书笔记篇2语言学概论:探索人类沟通的奥秘在我阅读《语言学概论》这本书的过程中,我深感语言学是一门既深奥又有趣的学科。
它研究人类沟通的符号系统,从微观的语音学和句法学,到宏观的方言学和民族语学,涵盖了语言从发音到语法再到语义的各个方面。
本书的作者对语言学的基本概念和理论进行了深入浅出的介绍,包括语音、音韵、语法、语义、方言、语言习得等。
作者以清晰、简洁的语言,将复杂的理论娓娓道来,使我对语言学有了更深入的理解。
《语言学概论》笔记
《语言学概论》笔记1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicatio n. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather t han randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connecti on between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”:“book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is sy mbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by noth ing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symboliz e what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primar y medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems cam e much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates tha t language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the defi nition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal comm unication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural tr ansmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But lang uage is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we thin k of echo words, like “bang”,“crash”,“roar”, which are motivated in a certain s ense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are n ot entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated word s, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the wor ds that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far inv estigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher lev el, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to for m units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a syste m of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is i mportant for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (wor ds), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no diction ary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an in definitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation . No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he c an understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, prod uctivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativit y” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers t o the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he d oes things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, thi ngs of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked ab out too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or som ething that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is b arking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be b ow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s syste m, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to ge neration, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Ch omsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in i solation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wo lves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He le arned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a produc er and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can recei ve and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” T hough some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different thi ngs, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utt er and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be th e speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to th e listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taki ng that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a do g barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell whi ch dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communic ation systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). L et’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some a nimals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanze es to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human ch ild. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made t he teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believ ed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human languag e, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”i n I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interroga tive, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988, p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whe reby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interper sonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain at mosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging informati on or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English a nd on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language ( e.g. “How are you?”“Fine,thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is impor tant. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi ”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other s orts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s“indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, cha racterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are oft en labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s“Cooper ative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate t he “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interro gative functi on”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives et c., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as wel l, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal infor mation. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about th e feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations ar e good examples, like “Good heavens!”“My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry a bout the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. Whil e language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth o r falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluate s, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in th e hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entert ain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commoditie s; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the e vocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feelin g in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way ro und.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasi ons the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sou nds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge oug ht to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than sp eech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence de claration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, H u Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one languag e of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, tho ugh, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to inve stigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a la nguage varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps ho w a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studi es the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed an d operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the t rue nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structur e, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make hi s analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiven ess, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Co nsistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of t he total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the an alysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be s ubjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter -of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics res earch.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zh uanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to de al with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branch es: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, ap plied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developin g) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it chang es through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the U se of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the p ast of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range o r period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Z huanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analys is, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and Fr ench as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written cod es, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, me ssages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. S econdly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are rea dily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunders tanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from gr ammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive ap proaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of l anguage, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive becau se many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early gram mars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern lingui stics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occur s in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnorma l, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all t he members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actual ized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole a lways a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, par ole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction i s of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realizat ion of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammati cal mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his perf ormance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. (2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather tha n performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker kn ows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the sa me as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue i s a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competenc e is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at lan guage more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Choms ky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, i n the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what h e has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but t hey are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of s peaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal spea ker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire availablefrom which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In oth er words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performin g actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for th eir description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different b ranches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that e xamines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which voca l organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory pho netics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, lookin g into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth a nd ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, a re organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of spe ech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at l east some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a conso nant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) p alatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For e xample, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those t wo lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-v elar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative : [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and sh ort vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and glidi ng vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise s ystem making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating len gth, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was deve loped in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow”and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intend ed to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from anot her in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonolog y?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Mi nimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physica l properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he beli eves are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphologic al features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mi nd phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words , to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear th e following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible t he “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish m eaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive valu e. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is r epresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For ex ample, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., t he different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different a s to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the a bove words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is r epresented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by th e phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not ran dom. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a ph onologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one s ound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e ., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”,“pill” and “ti ll”,“till” and “dill”,“till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a mini mal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what ar e English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see H u Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if th e substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but mer ely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said t o be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). Th e minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These une xploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation s hould be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complem entary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur a fter[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementa ry distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], fo r example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only bef ore a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless conson ant, such as in the words “please”,“butler”,“clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs。
【 读书笔记】语言学概论(崔希亮)
引言语言学的“体”和“用”【语言学的“体”主要是指关于语言学本身的研究,语言的本质,语言是怎么产生的,如何传递信息的(编码-信号传输-解码),语言的习得机制,心理机制,生理机制等等,同时如何研究语言(演绎法:不能直接观察的研究对象我们就用合理的推论来证明某些假设,归纳法:能够直接观察的研究对象我们用观测数据来证明某些假设)语言学的“用”主要体现在语言学在其他领域的应用,如语言信息处理,语言教学,语文政策,语言学习(先天论和白板论,成人和儿童二语习得的不同),词典编纂等等】一、儿童如何习得母语的两种假说:1.先天论:心灵学派,认为有LAD和普遍语法的存在2.白板论:认知学派,认为儿童的大脑是白板一块,通过后天的模仿和练习才学会了语言。
二、成人二语习得和儿童学习语言的不同:1.学习动机不同。
(儿童为了交际,成人的动机不同)2.学习时间不同。
3.学习环境不同。
4.学习方式不同。
(儿童是自然获得,成人是学习)第一章语言和语言学【此章节主要探讨了语言和语言学的本质问题,语言的本质问题较为复杂,,包括自然属性、社会属性和心理属性,在探讨语言观上,索绪尔区分了“语言”和“言语”,明确语言学的研究对象是语言本身。
自然属性主要包括对索绪尔的符号线性理论的探讨,社会属性探讨了语言的交际效应,语言在社会中的运用,心理属性探讨了语言和思维的关系】一、索绪尔的符号线性理论语言是一种符号系统,它的内核是语义,物质外壳是语音。
语义和语音之间的联系是任意的、约定俗成的。
符号的组合是线性的,符号具有生成性,将非线性的思维通过符号线性表达出来。
具有以下特点:1.任意性。
符号的声音和意义之间的结合是社会约定俗成的、没有理据的。
符号的所指和能指之间具有约定俗成的规则。
符号的所指是指概念,能指是指声音形象。
2.线条性。
符号在组合是只能一个跟着一个的出现,构成一个线性的序列。
3.系统性。
语言符号是一个结构分明的层级装置,语言符号的运转在一个系统内进行。
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语言学概论读书笔记汉语言文学邝云梅第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。
2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。
口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。
书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。
3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。
就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。
第二节语言的性质1.句子是最小的交际单位。
2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。
4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。
5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。
它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。
6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。
7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。
即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。
8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。
人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。
在同一社会,同一时代,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的。
同一社会在不同时代,其语言符号的声音、意义,以及两者间的关系就会随着时间的推移和社会的变化而变化。
第三节语言学1.索绪尔创立的语言学被称为结构主义语言学。
2.结构主义语言学是由索绪尔创立的语言学,它主要研究语言系统本身的内在规律。
3.索绪尔的主要贡献在于从语言本体的角度界定了“语言”,明确地限定了语言学的研究对象、范围和重点,是原因呢学脱离了早期什么都研究,什么都难以深入的缺陷,走上了研究对象相对单纯,因而有可能逐步想成本学科特有的理论体系和方法论体系的现代科学的道路。
20世纪语言学在索绪尔语言理论的影响下集中主要精力研究系统本身的内在规律,得到了蓬勃发展,取得了举世瞩目的研究成果;语言学的理论和方法甚至超越了语言学领域,对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等其他科学产生了重大影响。
第二章语音第一节语音的性质1.语音的本质属性是社会属性。
2.语音四要素中最重要的是音质。
3.汉语普通话中的轻声,主要与音强有关。
4.从声音的产生方面分析,音质的不同主要取决于发音体、发音方法、共鸣器形状。
5.音高就是声音的高低,它主要决定于发音体振动频率的高低。
6.音强就是声音的强弱,它主要决定于振幅的大小。
7.音长就是声音的长短,它决定于发音体振动时间的长短。
第二节音素1.音素是从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
2.根据发音时舌头起作用的部位不同,可把元音分为“舌面元音”、“舌尖元音”、“卷舌元音”。
3.常见的辅音发音部位:双唇音、唇齿音、舌尖前音、舌尖后音、舌根音。
第三节音位1.音位是特定的语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。
2.同属于一个音位的不同音素叫音位变体,可分为“条件变体”和“自由变体”。
3.互补关系是指在相同的语音环境里互相排斥,因而不能起区别意义作用的音素,就构成了互补关系。
4.音质音位是以音素为材料,通过音质的差别起区别意义作用的音位。
5.音位与音位变体的关系是一般和个别的关系,音位存在于音位变体之中,离开了音位变体,音位也就不复存在,我们平时发出或听到的都只是音位变体。
属于同一个音位的各个变体,没有主次之分,都是平等关系。
6.音位与音素的区别在于划分角度不同和划分范围不同。
音素是从人类语音的音质上着眼划分出来的最小语音单位,两个音若音质不同,就是两个不同的音素。
而音位则是从语音的社会属性,即辨义功能的角度划分出来的语音单位。
如果两个音音质不同,但彼此间不起辨义作用,仍然只能归为一个音位。
音素是从人类的语言所能用到的全部语音里划分出来的最小语音单位,而音位则是在某种特定的语言或方言的语言系统中划分出来的最小语音单位。
第四节音位的组合1.音节是语流中最小的发音单位,也是听觉上能够自然辨别出来的最小的语音单位。
2.开音节是以元音收尾的音节。
3.闭音节是以辅音收尾的音节。
4.语流音变是指在连续的语流中,一个音可能由于邻近音的影响,或自身所处地位的不同,或说话的快慢、高低、强弱的不同而在发音上产生一些变化。
5.语音的同化是指语流中两个邻近的不同的音,其中一个因受另一个的影响而变得跟它相同或相近。
6.语音的异化是语流中两个邻近的相同或相近的音,其中一个受到另一个的影响而变得不相同或不相近。
7.弱化指的是在语流中一个较强的音由于所处的地位或受邻近音的影响而变成一个较弱的音。
8.脱落是指在语流中,弱化的音往往会进一步消失,或为了发音的方便而省去某些音。
第五节韵律特征1.韵律特征又叫做“超音质特征”或“超音段特征”,指的是语音中除音质特征之外的音高、音长和音强方面的变化。
第三章语汇第一节语汇的性质1.语汇指一种语言中词和语的总和,是一个特定的集合概念。
2.语汇是一种语言中词和语的总汇,是语言的建筑材料。
一种语言可以包含成千上万个词或几百个固定词组,如汉语中有许多具体的词和固定词组,像“天”、“地”、“水”等和“胸有成竹”、“开后门”等,但这些不叫语汇,只能叫词或语。
第二节语汇的类聚系统1.基本词汇是整个语汇系统的基础和核心,它具有产生的历史长、使用的范围广和构词的能力强三大特点。
2.一般词汇是语汇中除去基本语汇以外的那一部分,它包括古语词、方言词、外来词、新造词等。
3.单纯词是由一个语素构成的词。
合成词就是有两个以上语素构成的词。
新造词指过去没有而新创造出来的词。
4.外来词即一种语言和外族语言中翻译或借用的词语,可分为几种:纯粹音译词,半音译半意译,一半音译一半注释,音译兼意译。
5.单纯词与单音节词的关系是它们不是相同的概念,它们的划分角度不同,单纯词是从语素角度划分出来的,是指由一个语素构成的词,单音节词是从音节角度划分出来收尾,是指由一个音节构成的词。
6.词是最小的、能独立使用的、音义结合的单位,具有意义凝固、不可分割、形式固定、能自由运用的特点。
7.词与语素的区别是词是语言中可以独立运用的最小单位,所谓“独立运用”是指词在造句中能够到处作为一个单位出现,强调这一点,是为了把词同语素区别开来。
因为语素也是一种最小的语音单位,但是它在造句中不能独立运用。
也就是说,能够独立运用的是词,不能独立运用的是语素。
.第三节词汇的构造形式1.变性成词是指语素转变词性而形成另一类词。
即某些成词语素在语法功能上本来只是动词性的,或名词性的,或形容词性的但在形成词的时候,却同时形成了两种词性的词。
2.变形成词是把原本合成词中的不成词语素变为成词语素再形成词,包括逆序成词和简缩成词两种。
3.语素是最小的音义结合的语言单位。
4.离合词和词组词是形式上或人们感觉上像词,但在结构上和意义的搭配性上又接近词组的特殊的语汇单位,由于可以插入或扩展,所以可以插入某些成分的词为离合词,可以进行较大扩展的词为词组词。
5.汉语语素的类别系统把语素分为“成词语素”和“不成词语素”。
成词语素是指在某些情况下可以直接形成为词,即可以单用的语素。
(2)把语素分为“自由语素”和“不自由(黏着)语素”。
自由语素指某种语素既可以单独形成词,有时又可以单独说出来。
因为是虚词,所以永远不能单独说出来,这就是黏着语素。
(3)把语素分为“定位语素”和“不定位语素”。
定位语素指的是在最小的合成结构中的位置是固定的,或者总前置,或者总后置。
不定位语素是在最小的合成结构中位置不固定的语素,它们既可以前置,又可以后置。
(4)把语素分为“实义语素”和“虚义语素”。
实义语素就是有实在的词汇意义,或说本身直接负载了词汇意义的语素。
虚义语素就是一般不具有实在词汇意义的语素。
6.语素、音节与字符间有着较为密切的关系。
汉语中语素大多数是单音节形式,书面上用一个汉字记录,三者之间有一种对应关系。
一般而言,一个语素就是一个音节,一个汉字。
但是语素、音节、汉字又属于不同的范畴,语素是语汇单位,音节是语音单位,字是文字单位,因此将三者合起来看,就不成简单的对应了。
7.复合构词就是词根语素+词根语素构成一个新词,构成复合词的词根语素都是实义的成词语素或实义的不成词语素。
主要有陈述式、偏正式、支配式、并列式四种。
8.附加构词就是词根语素+词缀语素构成一个新词,这样得到的合成词叫附加式合成词,即“派生词”。
构成派生词的词根语素都是实义的成词语素或实义的不成词语素,词缀语素是不成词、粘着、定位和虚义的语素。
按照词缀在词中的位置,派生词可分为三种:前缀式、后缀式和中缀式。
9.重叠构词就是词根语素通过重叠形式而构成一个新词。
这样得到的合成词叫重叠式合成词,即重叠词。
汉语的重叠词包括:(1)名词性重叠词。
(2)副词性重叠词。
(3)多重重叠词。
重叠词重叠以后既增加某些语法意义,也不改变重叠词本身的词类。
第四章语法第一节语法的性质1.语法就是语言学中关于词的构成、变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。
2.语言是一个符号系统,尽管语法规则不同于语音、语汇等规则,但其间却有着千丝万缕、相互依存、相互影响的关系。
例如:语音形式有死就可能影响到语法。
像句末用低调或降调表陈述,而如果用了高调或升调就表疑问了。
语汇与语法也相互作用。
例如:“差一点儿迟到”和“差一点儿没迟到”意思一样,都是“没吃到”可是“差一点儿及格”和“差一点儿没及格”的意思不一样,前一句是没及格,后句是及格了,这可以看成是人们对“差一点儿”这个词语的理解的不同而造成了语法上肯定与否定的不对应现象。
3.语法规则具有抽象性与递归性。
第二节语法研究的内容、类别和单位1.根据研究材料的不同,语法研究可分为历时语法和共时语法。
历时语法指的是从语法发展变化角度纵向地、动态地研究语法,研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定时间过程中产生和消失的原因和规律。
共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度横向地、静态地研究语法,研究的重点是某一种语言在特定空间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。