物理学专业英语 仲海洋版9.2节

Unit Three
LESSON 9
9.1 物理学专业英语中的长句分析（一）
总的来说，专业英语文献中的句子长度呈现两种趋向: 长难句多，短的简单句也多。一个句子长达一百来个单词，构成一个完整的段落的现象屡见不鲜。
物理学专业英语用于表达科学理论、原理、规律、概述,以及各事物之间错综复杂的关系，而复杂的科学思维是无法使用简单句来表达的。为了表示严谨、精确的含义，语法结构复杂的长句有较多的应用，而这种严谨周密、层次分明、重点突出的语言手段也就成了专业英语文体又一重要特征。长句由基本句型扩展而成，其方式有增加修饰成分如定语、状语的，有用各种短语如介词、分词、动名词或不定式短语充当句子成分的，也可能是通过关联词将两个或两个以上的句子组合成复合句。从句子结构来看，英语中句子可分简单句，并列复合句和主从复合句。
英语利用形态变化、词序和虚词三大语法手段可构成包孕许多修饰成分或从句的长句，句中各部分顺序灵活多样。通常英语句中的表态部分（如判断和结论）在先，而叙事部分（如事实和描写）在后，汉语则正好相反；英语句中先短后长，“头轻脚重”，而汉语也正好相反；英语借助形态变化和连接手段而将句中成分灵活排列，汉语则常按时间和逻辑顺序由先到后、由因到果、由假设到推论、由事实到结论这样排列。
在专业英语的学习中，长句的分析是一个非常重要的基础，无论是专业文献阅读、翻译还是严谨精确地写作，都要从长句分析开始。长句分析既重要也有些难度。然而，无论多长的句子、多么复杂的结构，它们都是由一些基本的成分组成的。只要弄清英语原文的句法结构，找出整个句子的中心内容，理解各层意思，然后分析各层意思之间的逻辑关系，再按汉语的特点和方式表达就可以理解或译出原文了。
9.1.1 长句结构的分析
抓住主干，添枝加叶。所谓抓住主干，就是在理解长句时首先要找到主语、谓语这两个主要成分。添枝加叶，就是在主语、谓语这两个主要成分的基础上，逐个加上各种修饰语，包括定语、状语、补语、非谓语动词结构、各种从句等。比如:
In the engine, the heat required to change the water into steam is produced by the combination of the oxygen gas in the air with the fuel. 在蒸汽机中，把水变成蒸汽所需要的热是由空气中的氧气与燃料结合而产生的。
该句主语heat容易确定，它后面紧跟一个动词过去分词required，这个required很容易误解为谓语，其实真正的谓语是is produced.
Laser, its creation being thought to be one of today's wonders, is nothing more than a light①that differs from ordinary ligh

ts only in ②that it is many times more powerful and so be applied in fields ③ that no ordinary light or other substance has ever been able to get in.
Unit ThreeLESSON 9此例是带有两个定语从句和一个宾语从句的主从复合句。主句为“Laser...is nothing more than a light." 。定语从句①修饰主句中的名词light，宾语从句②为介词in的宾语，定语从句③修饰名词fields。另外，主句中又有一个独立主格结构“its creation...today's wonder”作状语。
The property the air has of taking up a great amount of water when heated and giving it out when cooled, is the cause of our clouds and rain. 空气所具有的这种热时吸收、冷时放出大量水汽的性能，是云和雨生成的原因。
该句主语property后面省略了一个that或which，用来引导定语从句the air has，修饰主语的介词短语of taking... and giving...中又套两个用when引导的状语从句，显得句子结构复杂。借助is前面这个逗号，使我们找到了这个谓语联系动词。
在进行长句分析时，首先要理解透原文，分析句子结构，弄清语法关系。而对一个句子做结构分析，通常可采取下列步骤: 通读全句，确定句子的种类--简单句或复合句，然后对句子的各种成分进行层次分析。
9.1.2 简单句的分析
对于简单句，进行句子分析时，要先找出句子的主要成分--主语、谓语，并进一步判明句中其余部分的语法成分--宾语、定语、状语、补足语、同位语、插入语等。一个简单句中只有一个主语和谓语，主谓结构是句子的骨干（主干）；其他的句子成分，如定语、状语、补语等，则是生长在这个骨干上的次要（枝叶）成分。因此，在分析简单句时，应首先找出主语和谓语，再确定其他成分跟主语和谓语之间的关系以及各次要成分之间的关系。在把原文的意思彻底弄清楚之后，再来考虑如何用中文进行表达。例如:
In order to understand the operation of a transistor, it is first necessary to be familiar with the mechanism of charge transfer across a junction formed between a piece of n-type semi-conductor and a piece of p-type semi-conductor.
分析: 在这个句子中。It是句子的形式主语，真正的主语是to be familiar with the mechanism; is necessary是谓语。of charge transfer across a junction是个介词短语，作mechanism的定语；formed是过去分词，作junction的定语；between a piece of n-type semi-conductor 是介词短语，作formed的状语。In order to...transistor是个目的状语，修饰全句。这个句子有三层意思: ①为了理解晶体管的工作原理； ②首先必须熟悉电荷越过结的机理； ③结是在一块n型半导体材料和一块P型半导体材料之间形成的。
9.1.3 复合句的分析
所谓复合句就是由两个或两个以上完整的子句组合而

成的句子。一般来说，英语中一个句子只能有一个谓语，如果出现两个谓语，那么其中一个谓语只能是以从句、并列句或非谓语动词的形式出现。
把两个子句结合在一个句子中，英语需要加上连接词或加上标点符号。而由连接词and, or, but...或标点符号结合的子句，在全句内处于并列的地位，这样的复合句称为并列复合句。这种复合句不过是简单地将两句写成一句而已，所以分析起来并不困难。
另一类复合句中的子句地位不平等，一个子句是主句，其他是从句，这样的复合句称为主从复合句。主从复合句是由主句+从句构成，它是专业英语学习中比较复杂的句子结构。所谓从句是指从属于主句的句子，由从属连词连接。从句的种类有很多，但根据其性质和作用可以分为: 名词性从句、形容词性从句（即定语从句）、副词性从句（即状语从句）三大类。
在进行句子分析时，如遇到的长句为复合句，按照我们刚才介绍的方法“抓住主干，添枝加叶”，应先找出主句，然后再确定各个从句的性质及其作用，判明各从句之间的关系--并列关系或从属关系，并对各成分进行层次分析。
对于结构复杂，层次纷纭的主从复合句要抓住引导各种从句的连词，弄清各种从句的性质，这样就能掌握全局结构，分清主次。
在复合句中，包含从句较多的长句又可以分为以下几种:
1) 以状语从句或含有从句的状语短语开头的长主从复合句
由于状语可以位于句首，因而很多长句是以状语从句或含有从句的状语短语开头的。在从句末尾往往有一逗号，逗号之后就是主句。这样的长句，在结构上与汉语的句子类似。例如:
①Although there exists much experimental knowledge in regard to the behaviour of bodies ②which are not in the conditions ③to which the mathematical theory is applicable, yet it appears ④that the appropriate extensions of the theory ⑤which would be needed in order to incorporate such knowledge within it cannot be made ⑥until much fuller experimental knowledge has been obtained.
这是一个以although引导的让步状语从句开头的复合句。它的从句多达六个: ①although引导的修饰主句谓语的让步状语从句； ②which引导的修饰bodies的定语从句； ③to which引导的修饰conditions的定语从句； ④that引导的主语从句； ⑤which引导的修饰extensions的定语从句； ⑥until引导的修饰cannot be made的时间状语从句。
2) 以主句开头的长主从复合句
主句位于句首，后面可以接以引导词引导的各种从句，如主语从句、定语从句、状语从句等。例如:
Viscosity is a general term for all those properties of matter ①by virtue of which the resistance, ②which a body offers to any change, depends upon th

e rate ③at which the change is effected.
这是一个以主句开头的复合句。其中包含三个从句: ①以by virtue of which引导的定语从句； ②以which引导的修饰resistance的定语从句； ③以at which引导的修饰rate的定语从句。
3) 并列成分多或长的长复合句
正确判断并列成分是能否对长句进行正确分析的重要因素。这些并列的成分，既可以是并列的分句，也可以是并列的主语、谓语、宾语、定语和状语等。而且，并列成分一般多由and等连词连接。在大多数情况下，根据该连词后面那个词或短语的性质到前面去找与之性质相同的词或短语，即可对并列成分做出正确判断。例如:
Such activities as investigating the strength and uses of materials, extending the findings of pure mathematics to improve the sampling procedures used in agriculture or social sciences, and developing the potentialities of atomic energy, are all examples of the work of the applied scientist.
该句中and后面是动名词短语developing the potentialities of atomic energy, and前面也有两个动名词短语investigating...和extending...，可以肯定这三个动名词短语并列，用作as引导的定语从句的主语。
4) 从句中含有从句的长复合句
在有的长句中，某个从句本身有可能也是含有一个或一个以上从句的复合句；甚至这种从句本身又含有从句。遇到这种比较复杂的现象，必须要对每个从句的性质做出正确的分析，找出与它发生关系的词。例如:
A further inference was drawn by Pascal, who reasoned that if this "sea of air" existed, its pressure at the bottom (i.e. sea-level) would be greater than its pressure further up, and that therefore the height of mercury column would decrease in proportion to the height above the sea-level.
此句中，who引导的定语从句为一复合句，含有一个以 that引导的宾语从句。而这个that 引导的宾语从句又是一个复合句，其中含有一个以if引导的条件状语从句，and连接的两个并列的宾语从句。
为了能够做好长句结构的分析，掌握好专业英语中关于复合句、非谓语动词的知识是非常必要的。在接下来的几课中，将介绍一下关于复合句、非谓语动词的知识。然后我们再结合实例来介绍长句结构分析的方法（见Lesson 17，物理学专业英语中的长句分析（二）) .
9.2 专业英语阅读9.2.1 Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature（热平衡及温度） Temperature is familiar to us as the measure of the hotness or coldness of objects or of our surroundings.
Our sense of touch can usually tell us if an object is hot or cold. Early in childhood we learn that to make a cold object warmer, we place it in contact with a hot object and to make a hot object cooler, we place it in contact with a cold object.
When an object is heated or cooled, some of its phys

ical properties change. Most solids and liquids expand when they are heated. A gas, if its pressure is kept constant, will also expand when it is heated, or, if its volume is kept constant, its pressure will rise. If an electrical conductor is heated, its electrical resistance changes. A physical property that changes with temperature is called a thermometric property. A change in a thermometric property indicates a change in the temperature of the object.
Suppose that we place a warm copper bar in close contact with a cold iron bar so that the copper bar cools and the iron bar warms. We say that the two bars are in thermal contact. The copper bar contracts slightly as it cools, and the iron bar expands slightly as it warms. Eventually this process stops and the lengths of the bars remain constant. The two bars are then in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Suppose instead that we place the warm copper bar in a cool running stream. The bar cools until it stops contracting, at the point at which the bar and the water are in thermal equilibrium. Next we place a cold iron bar in the stream on the side opposite the copper bar. The iron bar will warm until it and the water are also in thermal equilibrium. If we remove the bars and place them in thermal contact with each other, we find that their lengths do not change. They are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Though it is common sense, there is no logical way to deduce this fact, which is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics (Fig. 9-1):
Fig. 9-1 If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object, C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other
If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Two objects are defined to have the same temperature if they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
9.2.2 The Ideal-Gas Law（理想气体定律）
The properties of gases at low densities allow the definition of the ideal-gas temperature scale. If we compress such a gas while keeping its temperature constant, the pressure increases. Similarly, if a gas expands at constant temperature, its pressure decreases. To a good approximation, the product of the pressure and volume of a low-density gas is constant at a constant temperature. This result was discovered experimentally by Robert Boyle (1627-1691), and is known as Boyle's law:PV=constant(constant temperature) A more general law exists that reproduces Boyle's law as a special case. As we know, the absolute temperature of a low-density gas is proportional to its pressure at constant volume. In addition-a result discovered experimentally by Jacques Charles (1746-1823) and Joseph Gay-Lussac(1778-1850)-the absolute temperature of a low-density gas is proportional to its volume at constant pressure. We can combine these two results by stating PV=CT(9-1)where C is a constant

of proportionality. We can see that this constant is proportional to the amount of gas by considering the following. Suppose that we have two containers with identical volumes, each holding the same amount of the same kind of gas at the same temperature and pressure. If we consider the two containers as one system, we have twice the amount of gas at twice the volume, but at the same temperature and pressure. We have thus doubled the quantity PV/T=C by doubling the amount of gas. We can therefore write C as a constant k times the number of molecules in the gas NC=k N Eq.(9-1) then becomesPV=N kT (9-2) The constant k is called Boltzmann's constant. It is found experimentally to have the same value for any kind of gask=1.381×10-23J/K=8.617×10-5eV/K(9-3) An amount of gas is often expressed in moles. A mole (mol) of any substance is the amount of that substance that contains Avogadro's number NA of atoms or molecules, defined as the number of carbon atoms in 12 g of C12NA=6.022×1023 (9-4) If we have ν moles of a substance, then the number of molecules isN=νNA(9-5)Eq.(9-2) is thenPV=νNAkT=νRT (9-6)where R=NAk is called the universal gas constant. Its value, which is the same for all gases, is R=NAk=8.314J/(mol·K)=0.08206L·atm/(mol·K)(9-7) An ideal gas is defined as one for which PV/(νT) is constant for all pressures. The pressure, volume, and temperature of an ideal gas are related by PV=νRT (9-8) Eq.(9-8), which relates the variables P, V, and T, is known as the ideal-gas law, and is an example of an equation of state. It describes the properties of real gases with low densities (and therefore low pressures). At higher densities, corrections must be made to this equation. For any gas at any density, there is an equation of state relating P, V, and T for a given amount of gas. Thus the state of a given amount of gas is determined by any two of the three state variables P, V, and T.
The temperature 0℃ and the pressure of 1 atm are often referred to as standard conditions. Under standard conditions, a mol of an ideal gas occupies a volume of 22.4L.
For a fixed amount of gas, we can see from Eq.(9-8) that the quantity PV/T is constant. Using the subscripts 1 for the initial values and 2 for the final values, we have
P2V2T2=P1V1T1(9-9)Glossary temperature 温度
hotness热
coldness冷
the zeroth law of thermodynamics
热力学第零定律
ideal-gas temperature scale
理想气体温标
universal gas constant普适气体常量
Boltzmann's constant玻尔兹曼常量
mole摩尔
Avogadro's numbe

r阿伏伽德罗常量
carbon atom碳原子 thermal equilibrium 热平衡
electrical conductor电导体
thermometric property热力学特性
thermal contact热接触

Boyle's law波意耳定律

constant volume等体
equation of state状态方程
state variable状态参量
standard condition标准条件
subscript下标9.3 专业英语常用表达法-9 热学和波动常用实验仪器
refrigerator 电冰箱
digital thermometer 数字温度计
heater 加热器
heat converter 热交换器
hot-water bag 热水袋
thermometer 温度计
thermal converter 热转换器
thermostat 恒温箱/温控器
thermionic tube 热离子管
calorimeter 热量表/量热器/热量计
sonometer 弦音计/振动频率计
resonance tuning forks 共振音叉 refrigerating box 冷藏箱
refrigerating fluid 冷冻液/制冷剂
thermopile 温差电堆/热电堆
heat exchanger 热交换器
thermos, thermos bottle, vacuum bottle 热水瓶
wet and dry thermometer 干湿温度计
empty box barometer 空盒气压计
magnetic barrel calorimeter 磁桶量热器
thermomotor 热力机/热气机/热发动机
boron thermopile 硼温差电堆
tuning fork 音叉
specific heat capacity converter 比热容转换器
varying-temperature viscosity coefficient tester 变温黏滞系数实验仪
single-junction vacuum thermopile 单接头真空温差电堆
sublimation and condensation of iodine demonstrator 碘的升华与凝华演示器
solid shrink force demonstrator 固体缩力演示器
interconversion of mechanical energy and heat energy demonstrator 机械能热能互变演示器
metal linear expansion demonstrator 金属线膨胀演示器
refrigerated centrifuge 冷冻离心分离机
solidification and melt of naphthalene experiment device 萘的熔解凝固实验器
experimental device for gas law 气体定律实验器
gas law demonstrator 气体定律演示器
heat conduction demonstrator 热传导演示器
thermoelectric couple, thermocouple, thermoelectric pair 热电偶/温差电偶
heat flux density converter 热流密度转换器
thermistor thermometer 热敏温度计/热敏电阻温度计
demonstrator of sound propagation 声传播演示器
quick freezing refrigeration device 速冻制冷装置
standing waves on a string instrument 弦线上驻波实验仪
harmonic wave analysis experimental instrument 谐波分析实验仪
liquid specific heat detector 液体比热测定仪
vacuum flask 真空瓶、杜瓦(真空)瓶、保温瓶、热水瓶
vacuum thermopile 真空热电堆/真空温差电堆
refrigeration compressor 制冷压缩机/冷冻机
thermal coefficient meters 导热系数测定仪
meter of metal specific heat capacity 金属比热容测定仪
meter of specific heat ratio of gas 气体比热容比测定仪
thermotics experiment facility 热学实验仪
multi-function constant-temperature controller 多功能恒温控制仪
LESSON 10LESSON 1010.1 物理学专业英语中的主语从句 前面已经提

到过，英语的主从复合句一般分为三大类型: 名词性从句、形容词性从句和副词性从句。
名词性从句在整个复合句中起名词作用。主语、宾语、表语和同位语等各种从句统称为名词性从句，在句中起名词作用，充当主语、宾语、表语和同位语。
引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类:
连接词: that, whether, if （不充当从句的任何成分）
连接代词: what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which
连接副词: when, where, how, why
主语从句是在复合句中充当主语的从句。
10.1.1 主语从句的引导词
主语从句通常由连词that和whether，连接代词或连接副词，以及关系代词what引导。
1) that引导
That each atom has a tiny but massive nucleus that contains protons and neutrons is a general phenomenon. 每个原子都有一个包含质子和中子的小而重的原子核，是个普遍现象。
That two objects carrying the same type of charge repel each other is certain. 带有同种电荷的两个物体互相排斥，这是确定无疑的。
That she became a physicist may have been due to her father's influence. 她成为物理学家可能是受她父亲的影响。
There seems little doubt that radar technology is a permanent and important aspect of research and development in electronics. (That引导的从句作实际主语）似乎没有疑问，在电子学的研究和发展中，雷达技术是一个永久并且重要的方面。
2) whether引导
Whether the experiment of dropping bodies of different weight from the leaning tower of Pisa was performed before a multitude, as some accounts have it, was not known.我们不知道比萨斜塔落体实验是否像某些资料记载那样在很多人目睹下进行。
Whether the plan of carrying out the experiment is feasible remains to be proved. 这一实验计划是否可行还有待证实。
Whether the discharge will do us harm remains to be seen. 放电是否有害还要看一看。
Whether the experimental result would support the theory was a problem. 实验结果是否会支持这个理论还是一个问题。
Whether a length is exactly a meter is a question no experiment can decide. 一段长度是否精确地是1m，没有实验能够决定。
3) 连接代词引导
Whoever discovered the phenomena did not make any difference. 到底是谁发现这个现象的，没有什么分别。
Whichever of the particles gets out first does not matter. 无论哪个粒子先出来都没有关系。
Who should be responsible for the environmental degradation is still unknown.谁对环境恶化负责还不清楚。
4) 连接副词引导
When magnetism was recognized is not quite clear. 磁现象是什么时候被发现的，不是十分清楚。
How the experiment was done was a mystery. 这个实验怎样做的是一个谜。
How this happened

is not clear to anyone. 这件事怎样发生的，谁也不清楚。
Where Coulomb confirmed the inverse-square law for the electrostatic force remains to be proved. 库仑到底是在哪里确定静电力的平方反比定律还有待证实。
5) 关系代词what引导
What we need is a precision tool. 我们需要的是精密工具。
What the physicists were waiting for at that time was a solar eclipse. 那时，物理学家们等待的就是一次日食。
What make the lab more impressive are the modern instruments. 为实验室增色的是现代化的仪器设备。
10.1.2 主语从句与形式主语it
有时为了考虑句子平衡，通常在主语从句的位置使用形式主语it，而将真正的主语从句移至句末。用 it 作形式主语的 that 从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系:
"It+be+形容词+that 从句”，如:
It is necessary that ... 有必要……
It is natural that... 很自然……
It is strange that... 奇怪的是……
"It+be+过去分词+that从句”，如:
It is known to all that ... 众所周知……
It is reported that... 据报道……
It is said that... 据说……
It has been proved that... 已证实……
"It+be+名词+that 从句”，如:
It is a fact that ... 事实是……
It is an honor that... 非常荣幸……
It is common knowledge that... ……是常识
"It+不及物动词+that 从句”，如:
It appears that ... 似乎……
It seems that... 似乎……
It happened that... 碰巧……
It occurs that... 碰巧……
用it作形式主语时分以下三种情况：
1) 对于以连词that引导的主语从句，通常用形式主语代替主语从句:
For example, in electric circuits it is often assumed that the relations between voltages and currents are linear. 例如，在电路中通常假设电压和电流的关系是线性的。
It has been found repeatedly in science that the discovery that two branches are related leads to each branch helping in the development of the other. 在科学中经常发现，与两个分支相关的发现会导致两方相互促进发展。
It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure. 很清楚，整个计划注定要失败。
It's a pity that he didn't find any useful results in the experiment. 很遗憾他在实验中没找到什么有用的结果。
It is important that the experiment should be carried out in vacuum. 实验必须在真空内进行。
2) 对于以连接代词（副词）引导的主语从句，可以使用形式主语代替主语从句，也可直接在句首使用主语从句:
Whether they would support us was a problem. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个