文献翻译模板-本部
文献译文模板
院系：经济与管理学院专业班级：营销0702 学生姓名：路妍指导教师：杨淑霞学号：1071340217 译文成绩：≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈华北电力大学毕业设计（论文）译文部分原文著作（期刊）名称：Supply chain design and analysis: Models and methods作者：Benita M Beamon原文出版单位：International Journal Production Economics原文出版时间：15 April 1998原文出版地点：Int. J. Production Economics 55 (1998) 281Ð294供应链的设计与分析：模型和方法摘要：多年来，研究人员和从业人员主要单独调查供应链的各个工序，然而，近年的研究重点放在了供应链的绩效、设计和分析上。
这种改变很大程度上是由于制造成本上升、生产资源萎缩、产品生命周期缩短、制造业内竞争加剧和全球市场经济化所引起的。
本文的主要目的是：（1）提供多级供应链建模的文献综述；（2）定义这一领域未来的研究议程。
关键词：供应链，生产，分销，物流1、介绍供应链被定义为一个完整的过程，在这过程中，有一系列多元化的商业实体（例如供应商、制造商、分销商、零售商）统一协调。
整个过程包括：（1）获取原材料；（2）将原材料生产为指定产品；（3）将产品交付给零售商。
传统意义的供应链的特点是原材料顺向流动，而信息逆向反馈。
近年来，研究者和实践者首先单独地调查了整条供应链上的各个过程。
现在我们应把注意力转移，把供应链作为一个整体考虑，进而评价绩效、研究如何设计、分析整体供应链。
从实际角度研究，供应链的概念源于生产环境的一系列变化，包括生产成本的提高、生产资料的短缺、产品寿命周期的变短、生产领域竞争水平的提高和经济全球化等因素的影响。
2、供应链的概念正如上文所提，供应链是一个完整的过程，包括将原材料转变为最终产品，将产品供应给顾客的整个过程。
文献翻译格式参考
Quantifying the Trade Effects of Technical Barriers to Trade: Evidence from China 1. IntroductionTechnical barriers to trade（TBT）are now widespread and have increasing impacts on international trade. The spread of TBT may have some special reasons.First, it’s legitimate. The WTO members are authorized by WTO TBT/SPS Agreement to take such measures in order to protect human health, as well as animal and plant health, provided that the enforced measures are not disguised protectionism. Second, as Baldwin (1970) emphasized, ―The lowering of tariffs has, in effect, been like draining a swamp. The lower water level has revealed all the snags and stumps of non-tariff barriers that still have to be cleared away‖. Wallner (1998) considered this phenomenon as a ―law of constant protection‖, referring to perfect substitutability between tariff and none-tariff barriers in maintaining a degree of desired domestic protection.Third, with the trade liberalization process, the remaining barriers, like TBT have a more important but not a less important impact due to the ―globalization magnification effect‖, seemingly minor differences in technical norms can have an outsized effect on production and trade (Baldwin 2000). Fourth, the increasing income of importing country and consumer preference may result in a higher demand for product quality, safety and environment protection.Since the proliferation of TBT and its increasing trade-restrictive impacts, OECD (2001) drew attention to TBT and suggested more empirical research on it, becausethe quantitative analysis is an important step in the regulatory reform process and can help inform governments to define more efficient regulations. However, due to the theoretical complexity and data s carcity, TBT have been considered as ―one of the most difficult NTBs imaginable to quantify‖ （Deardorff and Stern 1997）So far, there is not a preferred quantification strategy and claims abound on both sides about―whether such restrictions tend to reduce trade by virtue of raising compliance costsor expand trade by increasing consumer confidence in the safety and quality of imported goods‖ (Maskus and Wilson 2001).Maskus and Wilson (2001), Maskus, Otsuki, and Wilson (2001), Beghin and Bureau (2001), Ferrantino (2006) and Korinek, Melatos and Rau (2008) etc provide comprehensive overviews of key economic issues relating to TBT modeling and measurement. Based on these literatures, quantification techniques can be broadly grouped into two categories. Ex-post approaches such as gravity-based econometric models tend to estimate the observed trade impact of standards. On the other hand, ex ante methods such as simulations involving the calculation of tariff equivalents are usually employed to predict the unobserved welfare impact. No approach is or can bedefinitive. Each methodology offers its own pluses and minuses, depending on a number of factors, including the nature of the technical measure, the availability of data, and the goal of measurement. (Popper et al 2004)Concerning the trade effect1, different from any other trade measures, TBT have both trade promotion and trade restriction effects. Although a unified methodology does not exist, the gravity model is most often used for the evaluation. The gravity model employs a number of different approaches to measure the TBT. The policy indices obtained by survey can be used as proxy for the severity of TBT, and direct measures based on inventory approach are incorporated too. Beghin and Bureau（2001）summarized three sources of information that can be used to assess the importance of domestic regulations as trade barriers: (i) data on regulations, such as the number of regulations, which can be used to construct various statistical indicators,or proxy variables, such as the number of pages of national regulations; (ii) data on frequency of detentions, including the number of restrictions; frequency ratios and the import coverage ratio (iii) data on complaints from the industry against discriminatory regulatory practices and notifications to international bodies about such practices. Besides the above mentioned approach, some studies try to use explicit standards requirements such as maximum residue levels too.There are a considerable number of study combined the variable for the stringency of TBT with gravity model to estimate the direction of the trade impact.Swann, Temple, and Shurmer (1996) used counts of voluntary national and international standards recognized by the UK and Germany as indicators of standard over the period1985–1991, their findings suggest that share standards positively impact exports, but had a little impact on imports; unilateral standards positively influence imports but negatively influence exports. Moenius (2004, 2006) examines the trade effect of country specific standards and bilaterally shared standards over the period 1985-1995. Both papers used the counts of binding standards in a given industry as a measure of stringency of standards.Moenius (2004) focus on 12 OECD countries and found that at aggregate level, bilaterally shared standards and country-specific standards implemented by the importing or exporting country are both trade-promoting on average. At the industry level, the only variation is that importer-specific standards have the expected negative trade effect in nonmanufacturing sectors such as agriculture. In manufacturing industries, importer-specific standards are trade promoting too. Moenius (2006) confirm the result of Moenius (2004) in that bilateral standard in EU has very strong trade promoting effect as to the trade between EU and non-EU members, but harmonization decrease the internal trade of EU. Moenius (2006) distinguish 8 EU members and 6 non-EU developed countries. So he also found that importer specific standard in EU promote trade between EU members, but depress trade between EU members and non-EU members; Exporter specific standard inside EU has little trade promoting effect ,but export specific standard of non-EU members expand their tradewith EU.The paper using frequency or coverage ratio within a gravity model framework include Fontagné, Mimouni and Pasteels (2005) and Disdier, Fontagné, and Mimouni (2007). Both of them use the frequency ratio based on notification directly extracted from the TRAINS database. Fontagné, Mimouni and Pasteels (2005) collect data on 61 product groups, including agri-food products in 2001. Their paper generalized the findings of Moenius (2004): NTMs, including standards, have a negative impact on agri-food trade but an insignificant or even positive impact on the majority of manufactured products. Moreover, they distinguish trade effects among ―suspicious products‖, ―sensitive products‖ as well as ―remaining products‖ according to the number of notifications and distinguish different country group. Based on data covering 61 exporting countries and 114 importing countries, they find that over the entire product range, LDCs, DCs and OECD countries seem to be equally affected. However, OECD agrifood exporters tend to benefit from NTMs, at the expense of exporters from DCs and LDCs. The authors account for tariff and other NTM in the model , so they also find that tariffs matter more than NTMs, particularly foragri-food products on which comparatively high tariffs are levied.Disdier, Fontagné, and Mimouni (2008) estimate the trade effect of standards and other NTMs on 690 agri-food products (HS 6-digit level). Their data covers bilateral trade between importing OECD countries and 114 exporting countries (OECD and others) in 2004. As well as a frequency index, they use a dummy variable that records whether the importing country has notified at least one NTM and ad-valorem tariff equivalent measures of NTMs as two alternative approaches to measure NTMs. They find that these measures have on the whole a negative impact on OECD imports and affect trade more than other trade policy measures such as tariffs. The tariff equivalent shows the smallest effect. When they consider different groups of exporting countries, they show that OECD exporters are not significantly affected by SPS and TBTs in their exports to other OECD countries while developing and least developed countries’ exports are negatively and significantly affected. For the subsample of EU imports, NTMs no longer influence OECD exports positively, but exports from LDCs and DCs seem to be more negatively influenced by tariffs and SPS & TBTs than that of OECD. Finally, their sectoral analysis suggests an equal distribution of negative and positive impacts of NTBs on agricultural trade.Many studies are supportive of using maximum residue levels to directly measure the severity of food safety standards within a gravity model. These studies include Otsuki, Wilson and Sewadeh (2001a, b), Wilson and Otsuki (2004b,c) Wilson,Otsuki and Majumdsar (2003), Lacovone (2003) and Metha and Nambiar（2005）. These studies tend to focus on specific cases of standards for particular products and countries. Otsuki, Wilson and Sewadeh (2001a,b) and Wilson and Otsuki (2004b) examine the trade effect of aflatoxin standards in groundnuts and other agriculturalproducts (vegetables,fruits and cereals). The first two papers covered African export data to EU members and the third paper covered 31 exporting countries (21 developing countries) and 15 importing countries(4 developing countries). All three studies show that imports are greater when the importing country imposes less stringent aflatoxin standards on foreign products. Lacovone (2003) also used MRL of aflatoxin and found that there were substantial export losses to Latin-America from the tightening of the aflatoxin standards set by Europe. Similarly, Wilson, Otsuki and Majumdsar (2003) analyze the effect of standards for tetracycline residues on beef trade and find that regardless of the exporter standards, the standards of tetracycline imposed by the importing countries have the same negative trade impact. Wilson and Otsuki (2004c) analyze MRL relating to chlorpyrifos and Metha and Nambiar（2005）analyze the impact of MRL on India’s export of four processing agri-products to 7 developed countries and yield the similar result.Since our paper focus on the trade effect of technical barrier, we will use the most suitable ex post quantification methods. Moreover, while frequency and coverage ratio can give some guidance as to the potential trade impact of a technical measure, econometric model is used to estimate its magnitude.Our paper make contributions to the current literature in the following ways: First, in contrast to the existing empirical studies which exclusively focus on developed countries TBT, this paper focuses on a developing country, China. Second, this paper has a self-constructed trade measure database based on disaggregated data covered all HS2 products, including agricultural and processing food products (HS01-24) and manufacturing products (HS25-97) so that it can identify the sectors/products with predominant negative impacts on trade. Third, tariff data, import licenses and quotas are included as additional explanatory variables, allowing the distinction between the impact of traditional trade barriers and TBT on trade. Fourth, our data covers 43 exporting countries (including 25 developing countries), it helps to distinguish the trade effect of different country groups. Fifth, in contrast to most literature relied on cross-section data1, our paper covers 9 years time series data on TBT, so we can both capture variation across products and variation within products over time, in particular the changing effects before and after China’s entry into the WTO.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we construct a TBT database from 1998 to 2006 and use inventory approach (frequency index and coverage ratio) to quantify the stringency of technical measures in China. In section 3, we present our regression model, discuss all the variables and describe the data. In section 4, we discuss our findings. We make some concluding remarks in section 5. 2. Quantification of TBT2.1 Measurement of NTM: Inventory approachThe inventory approach allows estimates of the extent of trade covered by NTMs or their frequency of application in specific sectors or against individual countries orgroups of countries. Bora etc (2002) reviews various approaches to quantify NTMs and give a detailed instruction on how to construct frequency index and coverage ratio as follows. The percentage of trade subject to NTMs for an exporting country j at a desired level of product aggregation is given by the trade coverage ratio:2.2 China’s NTM database: data description and methodologyFollowed the method described above, we will construct a Chinese NTMs database from 1998 to 2006 by using inventory approach. The data covered 96 HS2 digit level agricultural and manufacturing industries. First, we calculate a series of frequency index at 4-digit-level of the Harmonized System and then aggregate them into import coverage ratio at HS2. In this database, data are collected by tariff item on the application of a range of tariff and NTMs (TBT, license and import quota) against Chinese imports. The main source of the information on the trade control measures in the database is from Chinese government publications. ―Administrative Measures Regarding Impor t & Export Trade of the People's Republic of China‖ published bythe Ministry of Commerce and Custom General Administration of China provide detailed information at HS 8-digit-level on tariff and non-tariff measures.The code list of supporting documents subject to customs control provide detailed name of licenses or instruments of ratification, which helps to identify whether a tariff line product subject to a specific non-tariff barrier. Concerning the technical measures, it includes those government administrative measures for environmental protection, safety, national security and consumer interests. The code subject to TBT control remains almost the same during the 1998-2001. Specificly, the code subject to TBT in 1998 is IRFM, denoting for Import commodity inspection (I), Quarantine control release for animal, plant and thereof product (R), Import food inspection certificate (F) and Medicine inspection certificate (M). The code concerning TBT in 1999-2001 is AMPR, denoting for Import inspection and quarantine (A), Import commodity inspection (M), Import animal, plant and thereof product inspection (P) and Import food hygiene supervision inspection (R). Since 2002, the government revised the code list into details. Although there is some tiny difference between years, the new code list remains quite stable during 2002-2006 (See the code list in Annex1). The code subject to TBT is ACFIPQSWX during 2002-2005 and AFIPQSWX in 2006, each code stands for Certificate of inspection for goods inward (A), Certificate of inspection for goods inward: Civil commodity import inspection (C), Import licencing certificate for endangered species (F), Import or export permit for psychotropic drugs (I), Import permit for waste and scraps (P), Report of inspection of soundness on import medicines (Q), Import or export registration certificate for pesticides (S), Import or export permit for narcolic drugs (W), Environment control release noticefor poisonous chemicals (X).Note that our data on trade control measures do not have a bilateral dimension. TBT measures, import license and import quotas are enforced unilaterally by Chinese government and applicable to all exporting countries. When we calculate coverageratio and frequency ratio, Vi is the total value of imports in product i from the whole world and Mi indicates whether there are imports from the whole world of good i. Hence, in a specific year, NTM variables vary among different sectors but remain the same among different countries. Although we miss the bilateral dimension associated with such measures, still the exporters are differently affected by TBT measures depending on the structure of their exports in terms of products and markets.To be precise, the frequency ratio of TBT (FR-TBT) measures the proportion of product items covered by TBT measures within a product category, which varies between 0% (no coverage) and 100% (all products covered). We first count the number of HS items (defined at the 8 digit level of the HS) covered by the TBT measures and divide it by the maximum number of product items belonging to the product category (defined here at the 4-digit level of the HS). So we get the results of frequency ratio of TBT at HS4 digit level. For example, regarding HS2402 (Cigars, cheroots, cigarillos and cigarettes, of tobacco or of tobacco substitutes), there are 3 product items with codes 24021000 (Cigars, cheroots and cigarillos, containing tobacco), 24022000 (Cigarettes containing tobacco), 24029000(other). Only one of them (HS24022000) is covered by TBT measures, so the corresponding TBT frequency index equals 33.33% (1 / 3). Then we do the same at HS2 digit level.The import coverage ratio(IC-TBT) measures the proportion of affected import of the total import within a product category. Take HS17 (Sugars and sugar confectionery) as an example, there are 4 product items with code HS1701, 1702, 1703 and 1704 respectively. Only three of them (except HS1703) are covered by TBT measures (it means the frequency index for HS1703 equals 0, while the other three are between 0 and 100%), the import value of the TBT affected products sum up to 111.216 million US$, the import valued of HS17 is 182.244 million US$, so the corresponding TBT import coverage ratio equals 66.46% (111.216/182.244).2.3 TBT rocked sectors in ChinaBy calculating frequency index and import coverage ratio of TBT, we can examine which products are the most affected. According to the definition by UNCTAD (1997), those with a frequency ratio and coverage ratio both above 50% are TBT rocked product. In our sample, 34 products（HS01-24; HS30,31,33; HS 41;HS 44-47; HS51 and HS72）are TBT-rocked during the period from 1998-2002. In 2003, two product items (HS 42-43) become TBT-rocked. In 2004, two more products (HS 50 and HS80) added into the category. During 2005-2006, HS78 are included asTBT-rocked products but HS50 is excluded. See Annex2 for the detailed product information of TBT rocked products.There are a significant number of products, particularly agricultural products and processing food widely affected by technical measures (HS01-24). However, enforcement of TBT is not limited to those products, but is spreading to manufacturing products also. The TBT rocked manufacturing products includePharmaceutical products（HS30, Essential oils, perfumes, cosmetics, toiletries (HS33), Raw hides and skins, leather, furskins and articles thereof (HS41-43), Wood and articles of wood（HS44-46）, Base metals and articles thereof, like iron and steel, aluminium and tin.( HS72, 76 and 80) etc. They are either labor intensive products or final goods concerning consumer safety, like medicaments in particular. Although TBT rocked sectors cover about 1/3 of total number of products at HS2 digit level, the proportion of affected trade is limited: about 10-16% of total import. However technical barriers are the most frequent type of NTM, the import subject to TBT account for above 90% of Chinese total import except for the rare case in 2001 (77.29%). (see Table 1).3. Model, methodology and data3.1 Model specificationWe use gravity model to examine how TBT imposed by China influence the country’s bilateral trade. To capture the size effect, population of both countries is used as proxy for exporting country’s supply capacities and importing country’s demand capacity. Per capita income of the two countries is included because higher income countries trade more in general. Transport costs are measured using the bilateral distance countries’ cultural proximity. We therefore control for this p roximity by introducing a common language dummy variable. Based on the typical gravity model, we introduce our key variables—tariff and non-tariff trade barriers. Our basic regression model takes the following forms:4. Empirical results4.1 The whole sample resultsTable 2-1 shows the summary statistics of our key variables. Table 2-2 reports the Pearson coefficients of the trade control measure variables. For the frequency index, import license and tariff appear to be negatively correlated. For the coverage ratio, besides import license, TBT seems to be slightly negative correlated with the tariff. Except for the above rare cases, the import control policies are positively correlated to each other. In general, different kinds of import control measures in China seem to be complementary to each other. Among them, import license and import quota have the highest positive coefficient, this accords with the fact that these two measures are sometimes combined together. Normally a country will distribute quota by issuing import license.We use OLS to estimate the gravity model. Regressions are run on pooled data for 9 years (see Table 3 and 4) and on data for each year separately (see Table 5 and 6). Table 3 and 5 report the result using frequency index, while Table 4 and 6 report the result using coverage ratio, both at HS 2-digit-level. For the whole sample regression results in Table 3 and 4, column 1 shows the result of the basic gravity model, column 2 introduces tariff and non-tariff barriers, column 3 tries to identify the difference between developing and developed countries and column 4 adds WTO as an additional control variable. Year-country-product fixed effect is used for all thespecifications.The results for standard gravity explanatory variables are consistent with prior expectations except for Contig as a rare case. The effect of GDPPC, POP and dist is positive and highly significant for all regressions. It implies that a 1 percent increase in the population of exporting country yields a 1.39-1.47 percent increase in the bilateral trade, and a 1 percent increase in the per capita GDP of exporting country yields a 0.91-1.40 percent increase in the bilateral trade. A 1 percent increase in geographic distance between the two trade partners will result a 1.42-1.45 percent decrease in bilateral trade. The effect of POPchina and GDPPCchina is positive and significant in two regressions. If Chinese population or per capita GDP increase 1 percent, Chinese import will increase 10.8-14.1 percent or 2.0-2.8 percent respectively. The coefficient for Comlang is positively significant in all specifications, which implies that if the exporting country share a same language with China, Chinese import will be stimulated by 2.6-3.3 percent. If the exporting market belongs to China, it will increase Chinese import by 0.3 percent. The coefficient for Contig is significantly negative, which implies that if the exporting country and China are contiguous, Chinese import will decrease 0.76-0.99 percent. This result is not consistent to the prior expectation. But the intuition is easily understood because the most important importing markets such as the US, Japan, EU members are not contiguous with China mainland.We then discuss the key explanatory variable, Tariff have a significant negative effect on Chinese import. A 1 percent increase in the MFN tariff will decrease import value by 0.64-0.66 percent. The results of the frequency index of NTM are all significant. A 1 unit increase in FRTBT will decrease import value by 1.1%, a 1 unit increase in FRQ will decrease import value by 1.7%, a 1 unit increase in FRL will increase import value by 4.1%. The results of the coverage ration of NTM are different in some extent with that of frequency index. A 1 unit increase in ICTBT will increase import value by 0.2%, a 1 unit increase in ICL will increase the import value by 2.7%, and the coefficient for ICQ is negative but not statistically significant.Table 5 and 6 give us a clear picture about how the effect of trade control measures change yearly. Tariff remains negatively significant for all 9 years.Moreover, the elasticity for Tariff dramatically increased since 2003. The trade depressing effect of Tariff nearly doubled after China’s entry into the WTO. FRTBT is negatively significant in all year specifications, and the coefficient remains stable through the sample period. FRL is positively significant while FRQ is negatively significant except for three years. In 1998, 1999 and 2001, FRL is insignificant while FRQ is positively significant due to the multicollinearity1. The result of ICTBT is changeable during the sample period. The coefficient of ICTBT is positively significant during 1998-2002, negatively significant in 2003 and insignificant during the remaining years. ICL remains positively significant during all 9 years, plus the elasticity for ICL slightly increased since 2002. ICQ is significant during 1998-2002,but the sign of the coefficient is changeable, and ICQ becomes insignificant since 2003. So ICQ doesn’t affect bi lateral trade value in a systematic way. From the yearly result, we observe that some of the trade control measure change trade patterns in a different way. Does the trade effect change significantly before and after China entry into the WTO? Whether there is any systematic difference in the trade effect between developing and developed countries? To solve these two problems, we add two interactions. Column 5 introduces the interaction between Developing and each of frequency indices of trade measures. Column 6 adds the interaction between WTO and each of coverage ratios of trade measure. As we can see, tariff (Tariff) and import quota (FRQ and ICQ) seem to have no difference between difference country groups. The change of FRTBT will affect Chinese import from developing countries less than that from developed countries. The change of ICTBT will affect Chinese import from developing countries more than that from developed countries. The change in FRL or ICL will have less impact on Chinese import from developing countries than from developed countries. On average, tariff, license have an increasing effect but quota has a decreasing effect after China’s entry into the WTO. The effect of TBT does not change significantly.5. ConclusionThe results of current literature suggest that TBT in importing country has restrictive trade effect and exports of poor countries are affected more. The paper explores whether technical measures imposed by China have restrictive effects for the imports from main exporters all over the world. Our research confirms some of the results reported elsewhere in the literature while differences remain in some aspects.First, in general trade control measures do have import restrictive effect in China. Second, tariff plays an important r ole even after China entry into the WTO. So far it’s still the most efficient policy tool. Third, TBT is the most frequently used NTM in China and cover almost all the imports. TBT do have some trade depressing effect but the effect is relatively small compared to the effect of tariff. Fourth, in contrast to the general belief that TBT works as a substitute to tariff and traditional NTM in developed countries（Thonsbury1998, Abbott 1997 etc）, there is no obvious substitution effect between tariff and TBT in China, moreover, the TBT is complementary to tariff in some extent.定量商业作用技术贸易壁垒：证据从中国1. 介绍技术贸易壁垒TBT现在普遍并且增加了对国际贸易的冲击。
外文参考文献译文及原文【范本模板】
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
大学本科毕业设计文献翻译模板
模型预测油田水中溶解的碳酸钙含量：压力和温度的影响XXX 译摘要：油田中水垢沉积会对储层造成伤害、堵塞地层孔道、表面以及注入设备。
碳酸钙是水中最常见的结垢化合物之一，储层产生的盐水会使压力和温度降低，储层压力降低会使CaCO3的溶解度降低，进而提高体系中碳酸钙的饱和速率，而温度下降会产生相反的结果。
因此温度和压力一起作用的结果可能增加或减小CaCO3溶解度，用体系温度的变化来指定其压力的变化。
因此，在石油生产系统中精确的预测方法的应用备受关注。
目前的研究重点是运用基于最小二乘支持向量机(LSSVM)预测模型来估计油田水中溶解碳酸钙浓度的大小。
用超优化参数（r和C2）的遗传算法（GA）嵌入到LSSVM模型，这种方法可简单准确的预测油田卤水中溶解碳酸钙浓度的最小量。
1.引言随着油田卤水压力和温度变化，气体可能会从储层到地表的运动，导致某些固体沉淀。
为了保持注水井压力平衡并将油运移到生产井，有时需要将卤水注入到储层中，因此，过量的盐垢可以沉积在储层或井眼内。
对于大部分油田结垢多会发生在此过程中。
碳酸钙沉积通常是一个自发的过程，沉积形成的主要原因是二氧化碳从水相逸出，导致油气层的压力下降，该过程会除去了水中的碳酸，直到方解石溶解完全。
在恒定二氧化碳分压下，方解石的溶解性随温度的降低而降低[1-4]。
根据公式（1），碳酸钙沉积垢来自碳酸钙沉淀：Ca2+ + CO32-→ CaCO3↓下面的公式为碳酸的电离式[5–7]：CO2 + H2O → H2CO3H2CO3→ H+ + HCO3-HCO3-→ H+ + CO32-若要形成碳酸氢根离子和氢离子，碳酸要电离，因为碳酸的第一电离常数远大于它的第二电离常数，从碳酸第一电离离子化的氢离子与水中自由的碳酸根离子结合。
此外，碳酸钙沉淀的方程式可以说明[8–10]：Ca(HCO3)2→CaCO3↓+ CO2↑+ H2O碳酸钙的溶解度很大程度上取决于二氧化碳在水中的含量（即二氧化碳气体逸出时所需最小的分压）[10–12]。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
外文文献翻译——参考格式
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部经济学部专业经济学年级 2007级班级名称 07经济学6班学号 16020706001学生姓名张瑜琴指导教师陈锶2011 年05月目录1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1)2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2)3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4)3.1内在的单位 (4)3.2财务子公司 (5)3.3策略的同盟 (5)3.4服务公司模型 (6)4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8)5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。
整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。
如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。
资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。
如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。
然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。
举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。
或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。
这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。
在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。
在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。
外文文献及翻译格式模版
毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARM 文献、资料来源：网络文献、资料发表(出版）日期：2012，2院（部)：信息与电气工程学院专业：电气工程与自动化班级：电气084姓名：邓红坤学号: 2008121017指导教师：王克河翻译日期：2012、2、29外文文献：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARMBACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONThis invention relates to an intelligent alarm system for 5 detecting hazardous situations ina building informing building occupants of optimal escape routes or survival strategies and assisting emergency personnel in rescuing people inside the building。
Building hazards, including fire，earthquakes，intruders，etc., have the potential for large numbers of casualties. Effective building alarm systems must have the capability to process a plurality of input types to determine the nature of the situation involving danger to persons in thebuilding. The building alarm system must also have more than simple audio/visual outputs for helping people in the building find safe escape routes.Use of the term building in this invention refers to any structure including，but not limited to, office buildings, commercial buildings，factory/warehouses, residential homes, etc. Aspectsof building alarm systems are described 20 in, U.S。
文献翻译-样张
无线网络的入侵探测和监视1.导言无线计算机网络在世界各地正在成指数性地增加。
无论是无执照的无线电频率（RF）频谱协会和有执照的频谱协会都使用它们。
在现有的无线计算机网络中无线网络操作目前是在无执照协会中最流行的。
ieee 802.11协议的开放性和“自由”射频协会的有效性促使许多公司的制造商和共同生产现成现货（COTS）的电脑网络设备公司进入无线领域的竞争。
这些公司之间的竞争已降低802.11无线网络设备的价格，推动和改善了用户对这些设备的经验。
最终的结果是企业和消费者对于设备采用率的增加，wifi联盟的建立，和联盟“wi-fi”的广泛使用，“wi-fi”被用来描述这些网络。
消费者在家里使用802.11设备，在现有的建设中减少线路运行的负担，促进和室友或邻居宽频互联网服务的共享，并提高它们的“连通范围。
”私营企业和政府机构（各级）正在部署无线网络以减少布线成本，提高员工的流动性，让待业人员上网，在他们现有的商业模式（咖啡馆，机场，酒店等）中创建一个附加的收入来源。
各市（费城，旧金山，大湾，MI）正在部署无线网络，让缺乏这种功能的地方能够实现宽带互联网接入;为贫困社区提供有限的高速宽带接入; 在诸如船坞和国家公园等地方提供宽带，这是由传统的宽带提供商所通过的; 并通过紧急响应站和其他城市机构为他们自己提供更高质量,更完善的网络覆盖来使用。
总之，这些Wi - Fi网络部署无处不在。
许多思想已经并正在投入有线和无线网络的评估成本效益分析，例如如何有效地覆盖写字楼，直辖市，如何有效地管理大型网络的无线接入点，以及如何用802.11技术取代互联网服务提供商来节省金钱。
相比之下，在无线安全和出于安全方面的检测投入了很少的人力和财力。
一些公司如AirMagnet和AirDefense已经建立了推销自己无线安全软件和硬件的体系。
但是，他们出售的产品重点在于办公室环境，网络优化和性能测试，比起较新的无线攻击，更重视现有的攻击。
文献翻译模板
2016届本科毕业设计（论文）文献翻译题目宋体三号字，加粗学院宋体四号字专业宋体四号字班级宋体四号字学号宋体四号字姓名宋体四号字指导教师宋体四号字开题日期宋体四号字文献一：（宋体五号）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译一：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）文献二：（宋体五号，另起一页）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译二：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）（请参照下面模板）文献一：Research on Spillover Effect of Foreign Direct Investment1. IntroductionIn recent decades, economists have begun to identify technical progress, or more generally, knowledge creation, as the major determinant of economic growth. Until the 1970s, the analysis of economic growth was typically based on neoclassical models that explain growth with the accumulation of labor, capital, and other production factors with diminishing returns to scale. In these models, the economy converges to steady state equilibrium where the level of per capita income is determined by savings and investment, depreciation, and population growth, but where there is no permanent income growth. Any observed income growth per capita occurs because the economy is still converging towards its steady state, or because it is in transition from one steady state to another.The policies needed to achieve growth and development in the framework of these models is therefore straightforward: increases in savings and investments and reductions in the population growth rate, shift the economy to a higher steady state income level. From the view of developing countries, however, these policies are difficult to implement. Low income and development levels are not only consequences, but also causes of low savings and high population growth rates. The importance of technical progress was also recognized in the neoclassical growth models, but the determinants of the level of technology were not discussed in detail; instead, technology was seen as an exogenous factor. Yet, it was clear that convergence in income percapita levels could not occur unless technologies converged as well.From the 1980s and onwards, growth research has therefore increasingly focused on understanding and ontogenetic technical progress. Modern growth theory is largely built on models with constant or increasing returns to reproducible factors as a result of the accumulation of knowledge. Knowledge is, to some extent, a public good, and R&D, education, training, and other investments in knowledge creation may generate externalities that prevent diminishing returns to scale for labor and physical capital. Taking this into account, the economy may experience positive long-run growth instead of the neoclassical steady state where per capita incomes remain unchanged. Depending on the economic starting point, technical progress and growth can be based on creation of entirely new knowledge, or adaptation and transfer of existing foreign technology.Along with international trade, the most important vehicle for international technology transfer is foreign direct investment (FDI). It is well known that multinational corporations (MNCs) undertake a major part of the world’s private R&D efforts and production, own and control most of the world’s advanced technology. When a MNC sets up a forei gn affiliate, the affiliate receives some amount of the proprietary technology that constitutes the parent’s firm specific advantage and allows it to compete successfully with local firms that have superior knowledge of local markets, consumer preferences, and business practices. This leads to a geographical diffusion of technology, but not necessarily to any formal transfer of technology beyond the boundaries of the MNCs; the establishment of a foreign affiliate is, almost per definition, a decision to internalize the use of core technology.However, MNC technology may still leak to the surrounding economy through external effects or spillovers that raise the level of human capital in the host country and createproductivity increases in local firms. In many cases, the effects operate through forward and backward linkages, as MNCs provide training and technical assistance to their local suppliers, subcontractors, and customers. The labor market is another important channel for spillovers, as almost all MNCs train operatives and managers who may subsequently take employment in local firms or establish entirely new companies.It is therefore not surprising that attitudes towards inward FDI have changed considerably over the last couple of decades, as most countries have liberalized their policies to attract all kinds of foreign investment. Numerous governments have even introduced various forms of investment incentives to encourage foreign MNCs to invest in their jurisdiction. However, productivity and technology spillovers are not automatic consequences of FDI. Instead, FDI and human capital interact in a complex manner, where FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits.2. Foreign Direct Investment and SpilloversThe earliest discussions of spillovers in the literature on foreign direct investment date back to the 1960s. The first author who systematically introduced spillovers (or external effects) among the possible consequences of FDI was MacDougall (1960), who analyzed the general welfare effects of foreign investment. The common aim of the studies was to identify the various costs and benefits of FDI.Productivity externalities were discussed together with several other indirect effects that influence the welfare assessment, such as those arising from the impact of FDI on government revenue, tax policies, terms of trade, and the balance of payments. The fact that spillovers included in the discussion was generally motivated by empirical evidence from case studies rather than by comprehensive theoretical arguments.Yet, the early analyses made clear that multinationals may improve locatives efficiency by entering into industries with high entry barriers and reducing monopolistic distortions, and induce higher technical efficiency if the increased competitive pressure or some demonstration effect spurs local firms to more efficient use of existing resources. They also proposed that the presence may lead to increases in the rate of technology transfer and diffusion. More specifically, case studies showed that foreign MNCs may:(1) Contribute to efficiency by breaking supply bottlenecks (but that the effect may become less important as the technology of the host country advances);(2) Introduce new know-how by demonstrating new technologies and training workers who later take employment in local firms;(3) Either break down monopolies and stimulate competition and efficiency or create a more monopolistic industry structure, depending on the strength and responses of the local firms;(4) Transfer techniques for inventory and quality control and standardization to their local suppliers and distribution channels;Although this diverse list gives some clues about the broad range of various spillover effects, it says little about how common or how important they are in general. Similar complaints can be made about the evidence on spillovers gauged from the numerous case studies discussing various aspects of FDI in different countries and industries. These studies often contain valuable circumstantial evidence of spillovers, but often fail to show how significant the spillover effectsare and whether the results can be generalized.For instance, many analyses of the linkages between MNCs and their local suppliers and subcontractors have documented learning and technology transfers that may make up a basis for productivity spillovers or market access spillovers. However, these studies seldom reveal whether the MNCs are able to extract all the benefits that the new technologies or information generate among their supplier firms. Hence, there is no clear proof of spillovers, but it is reasonable to assume that spillovers are positively related to the extent of linkages.Similarly, there are many works on the relation between MNCs entry and presence and market structure in host countries, and this is closely related to the possible effects of FDI on competition in the local markets. There are also case studies of demonstration effects, technology diffusion, and labor training in foreign MNCs. However, although these studies provide much detailed information about the various channels for spillovers, they say little about the overall significance of such spillovers.The statistical studies of spillovers, by contrast, may reveal the overall impact of foreign presence on the productivity of local firms, but they are generally not able to say much about how the effects come about. These studies typically estimate production functions for locally owned firms, and include the foreign share of the industry as one of the explanatory variables. They then test whether foreign presence has a significant positive impact on local productivity once other firm and industry characteristics have been accounted.Research conclude that domestic firms exhibited higher productivity in sectors with a larger foreign share, but argue that it may be wrong to conclude that spillovers have taken place if MNC affiliates systematically locate in the more productive sectors. In addition, they are also able to perform some more detailed tests of regional differences in spillovers. Examining the geographical dispersion of foreign investment, they suggest that the positive impact of FDI accrue mainly to the domestic firms located close to the MNC affiliates. However, effects seem to vary between industries.The results on the presence of spillovers seem to be mixed; recent studies suggest that there should be a systematic pattern where various host industry and host country characteristics influence the incidence of spillovers. For instance, the foreign affiliate’s levels of tech nology or technology imports seem to influence the amount of spillovers to local firms. The technology imports of MNC affiliates, in turn, have been shown to vary systematically with host country characteristics. These imports seem larger in countries and industries where the educational level of the local labor force is higher, where local competition is tougher, and where the host country imposes fewer formal requirements on the affiliates’ operations.Some recent studies have also addressed the apparent contradictions between the earlier statistical spillover studies, with the hypothesis that the host country’s level of technical development or human capital may matter as a starting point.In fact, in some cases, large foreign presence may even be a sign of a weak local industry, where local firms have not been able to absorb any productivity spillovers at all and have therefore been forced to yield market shares to the foreign MNCs.3. FDI Spillover and Human Capital DevelopmentThe transfer of technology from MNC parents to its affiliates and other host country firms is not only mbodied in machinery, equipment, patent rights, and expatriate managers and technicians,but is also realized rough the training of local employees. This training affects most levels of employees, from simple manufacturing operatives through supervisors to technically advanced professionals and top-level managers. While most recipients of training are employed in the MNCs own affiliates, the beneficiaries also include employees among the MNCs suppliers, subcontractors, and customers.Types of training ranged from on-the-job training to seminars and more formal schooling to overseas education, perhaps at the parent company, depending on the skills needed. The various skills gained through the elation with the foreign MNCs may spill over directly when the MNCs do not charge the full value of the training provided to local firms or over time, as the employees move to other firms or set up their own businesses.While the role of MNCs in primary and secondary education is marginal, there is increasingly clear evidence hat FDI may have a noticeable impact on tertiary education in their host countries. The most important effect is perhaps on the demand side. MNCs provide attractive employment opportunities to highly skilled graduates in natural sciences, engineering, and business sciences, which may be an incentive for gifted students to complete tertiary training, and MNCs demand skilled labor, which may encourage governments to invest in higher education.Many studies undertaken in developing countries have emphasized the spillovers of management skills. There is evidence of training and capacity development in technical areas, although the number of detailed studies appears smaller.While training activities in manufacturing often aim to facilitate the introduction of new technologies that are embodied in machinery and equipments, the training in service sectors is more directly focused on strengthening skills and know-how embodied in employees. This means that training and human capital development are often more important in service industries. Furthermore, many services are not tradable across international borders, which mean that service MNCs to a great extent are forced to reproduce home country technologies in their foreign affiliates. As a consequence, service companies are often forced to invest more in training, and the gap between affiliate and parent company wages tends, therefore, to be smaller than that in manufacturing.4. ConclusionThis paper has noted that the interaction of FDI and spillovers is complex and highly non-linear, and that several different outcomes are possible. FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits. Hence, it is possible that host economies with relatively high levels of human capital may be able to attract large amounts of technology intensive foreign MNCs that contribute significantly to the further development of labor skills. At the same time, economies with weaker initial conditions are likely to experience smaller inflows of FDI, and those foreign firms that enter are likely to use simpler technologies that contribute only marginally to local learning and skill development.翻译一：外商直接投资溢出效应研究1.引言在最近几十年中，经济学家们已开始确定技术进步，或更普遍认为知识创造，作为经济增长原动力的一个重要决定因素，直到20世纪70年代，分析经济增长运用典型的新古典主义模型来解释经济增长的积累，劳动力、资本等生产要素与收益递减的规模。
4文献翻译模板
(2-7)
（如果有的话）
表6-1■2000—2010年世界聚氨酯产量
CASE
3484940
4792195
5877100
476000
592370
669700
3672125
4944500
5942000
2290215
3423500
4418800
9923280
13752565
16907600
■■数据来源：2008年(企业快报[J].聚氨酯)
（正文部分字数应在3000字以上，具体应按各系(部)的具体要求执行）
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[1] Miller JA, Lin SB, Huang KKS, Cooper SL. Macromolecules ,1985;18:32.
[2] Boyarchuk YM, Rapport LY, Apukhtine NP. Polym Sci, USSR ,1965;7:859.
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聚氨酯弹性体有许多特性，使用范围非常广泛。它们的合成是以聚醚或聚酯二醇和二异氰酸酯为基础，然后扩链形成大分子。其基本化学结构是氨基甲酸酯基团（R - NHCOO - R1）。由于氮原子具有很强吸引电子的能力，氢原子可以与氧原子形成氢键。结果产生物理交联[ 1,2 ]，这种链结构可以用硬段和软段来描述。软段部分主要来自二醇低聚物。随着二醇链的长度增加，玻璃化转变温度（Tg）变低，从而导致更多的相分离[ 3,4 ]。
[3] Petrovic ZS, Simendic B. Rubber Chem and Technol ,1985; Rubber Chem and Technol,1985;58:701.
文献翻译模板_建筑工程与环境学院_科院
英文翻译分院理工分院专业土木工程届别2008 届学号084174263姓名朱鑫指导教师梧松2011 年 12 月 14日<文献翻译一：原文>USE OF SHALLOW SLOTTED FOUNDATIONSoil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, V ol. 48, No. 1, March, 2011 (Russian Original No. 1, Jan.-Feb., 2011)Experience acquired with the design and installation of slotted foundations during the construction of buildings in Moscow and the Moscow Oblast is codified. Examples are cited for use of these foundations on construction projects.In Moscow, these foundation designs have been used for the construction of a 22-story adminis-trative building on Nametkina Street, a 25-story hotel on the Dmitrovskii Highway, and a warehouse complex in the city of Vidnoe within the Moscow Oblast . As a rule, continuous monolithic reinforced-concrete slabs on a natural bed are used as foundations for the construction of residential and administrative buildings up to 25-stories high in Moscow.In a number of cases, however, installation of a slab foundation is difficult, since the limiting allowabletilts and the relative difference between settlements of the foundation bed are exceeded with this design;this is frequently caused by nonuniform loads due to the structure, or by nonuniformity of occurrence of geologic-engineering layers of the bed in plan, and with respect to depth. Nonuniformity of the load on the bed may be caused by insufficient stiffness of the building's superstructure resulting from an archi- tectural-planning decision, wind loads, etc.An example of the design and installation of foundations with a nonuniform load on the bed is the construction of the 22-story administrative building on Nametkina Street.The building has a trapezoidal planform with dimensions of 64.7 30.3 m. Clayey loams of slightly plastic and semi-hard consistencies with a layer thickness of 1.5 m below the bottom of the pit, which are underlain by dense sands ranging from silty to medium fineness with a thickness of 1.0-3.0m, reside at a depth of from 10.0 to 11.5 m in the bed of the foundation slab under design. Clayey loams and sandy loams of slightly plastic andsemi-hard consistency with a layer thickness of 3 m, which are underlain by 4 m of clayey loams of fluid consistency, are encountered below throughout the section. Saturated fine and silty sandy soils are encountered at a depth of 20 m and more.It was initially proposed to install a continuous monolithic reinforced-concrete slab 1.6 m thick on the natural bed comprised of slightly plastic and semi-hard clayey loams. The average coefficient of subgrade reaction calculated via the KROSS program C = 402 tons/m. Static analyses based on the SCAD software package indicated that: the maximum slab settlement s max was 14.3 cm, and the relative 2 Fig. 1. Monolithic slotted foundations: a) single-slot; b) dual-slot;c) multiple-slot in the bed of foundation slab; 1) monolithicreinforced-concrete wall; 2) raft; 3) foundation slab; 4) concretepreparation.The slot foundations were installed from a monolithic Class V15 concrete in the ground under a reinforced-concrete slab with use of a bar machine mounted on a MZTs-75 tractor), and were reinforced by a 5VpI-100 mesh. A single-slot foundation was tested in conformity with requirements set forth in [5] to determine the limiting allowable load per 1 m of a single-slot strip foundation for a wall height d = 1.2 m and thickness δ = 0.15 m. The test results indicated that the maximum load taken-up by the foundations ranged from 380 kN for a settlement of 13.8 mm to 470 kN for a settlement of 5.65 mm (Fig. 2).Use of multiple-slot strip foundations in the bed of the foundation slab of the administrative building on Nametkina Street made it possible to accrue a significant saving as compared with a slab- pile foundation. Material outlays were reduced by a factor of 1.9. of slotted foundation based on results of field tests on Nametkina Street.Operations involving the installation of a foundation slab with slotted foundations under the 25- story hotel were conducted on the construction project for the Dmitrovskii business zone. In the upper part of the geologic-engineering section, clayey loams of from highly plastic to semi-hard consistency and of different origin reside at a depth of 3-4 m under a layer of saturated soils 1.5 m thick. Below in a layer 8.2-10.1 m thick, morainic clayey loams of predominantly highly plastic con- sistency exist in the roof, but are semi-hard at the lower surface of the layer.Thereafter, fluvioglacial semi-hard clayey loams are encountered in a layer 1.5 m thick and morainic hard clayey loams in a layer 17.8 m thick. Turning attention to the 0.5-0.7-m layer of highly plastic clayey loams in the upper section of the bed of the foundation slab, it was decided to cut through this layer with slotted foundations, embed- ding the lower surfaces of the walls of the foundations in the slightly plastic clayey loams.To reduce the difference in settlement of the foundation slab, the thickness of which was set equal to 1.5 m in accordance with the initial design, it was specified that multiple-slot foundations be installed in the longitudinal and transverse directions with a wall height of 1,200 mm, thickness of 150 mm, and an inter-wall spacing of 1.2-1.8 m. In conformity with the design, the slotted foundations were built in trenches previously excavat- ed with a bar machine mounted on an MZTs-75 tractor. The foundations were formed from Class 15A segment of a double-slotted foundation with a length of 1.0 m, thickness of 0.15 m, inter-slot distance (spacing) of 1.8 m, and depth of 1.2 m, which is joined along the top to a reinforced-concrete footing (below the raft) with dimensions of 1.8 1.0 m, was tested under a vertical static press-in load [5], which was transferred onto the reinforced-concrete footing by a DG-100 hydraulic jack. In testing one segment of the dual-slot foundations, the press-in load was brought to P = 750 kN with a settlement s = 7.34 mm without separation the soil (Fig. 4). Shallow slotted foundations have also been used in the bed of transportation ramp ona project in the industrial zone of Vidnoe. The consumption of concrete for the retaining wall of the ramp was reduced, and a significant saving accrued owing to the anchoring capacity of the slotted foundation in the silty-clayey soils. The soil conditions at the entrance to the industrial zone for freight-transport facilities are char- acterized by the occurrence of highly plastic clayey loams with a compression modulus of 12-19 In connection with possible collapse of the walls of the trenches, a foundation was installed using a ditcher mounted on a DT 75 crawler tractor with subsequent manual grading of soil in the trench. The geometric parameters of the single-slot foundation were: wall height d = 1.0 m, and thickness δ = 0.25 m. The reinforcement was a single A-III mesh with d = 20 mm and 300 300-mm openings. The cut-through slot was filled with monolithic Class V25 concrete of casting consistency.The foundation was tested under a vertical static press-in load using a DG-100 jack in conformity with requirements of [5]. Settlement was recorded by two dial deflectometers. Results of the tests are presented in Fig. 5. The maximum load on the foundation was 150 kN, and the settlement 19.6 mm. No foundation settlement had been recorded prior to the 40-50 kN load.As for the tests of the single-slot foundation, the dependence of settlement on load was linear during construction of the 22-story administrative building on Nametkina Street. In that case, use of the single-slot foundation made it possible to reduce material consumption by a factor of 1.6 as compared with traditional designs of shallow foundations, and by a factor of 2.1 as compared with pile foundations.The examples cited demonstrate that based on test results, the loads on the shallow slotted foundations are comparable to those of foundations of traditional designs. Use ofmultiple-slot strip foundations in the beds of monolithic reinforced-concrete slabs makes it possible to lower vertical displace-ments of the slabs in required sections, reducing the relative difference in settlements, and also to compensate for bending moments that develop in the foundation slab. Examples of effective implementation of shallow slotted foundations suggest their reliability.REFERENCES1. EA Sorochan, Foundations of Industrial Buildings [in Russian], Stroiizdat, Moscow (1986).2. EA Sorochan, VI Krutkov, and V A Kovalev, Shallow Foundations [in Russian], Izdatel'stvo ASV, Moscow (2009).3. Building Code 50-101-2004. Design and Installation of Beds and Foundations for Buildings and Structures [in Russian].4. Design Manual. Beds, Foundations, and Underground Structures [in Russian], Stroiizdat, Moscow (1985).5. GOST 5686-94. Soils. Methods for the Field Testing of Piles [in Russian].<文献翻译一：译文>使用浅层开槽基础土力学及基础工程第48卷2011年1月（俄罗斯原件2011年1~2月）开槽地基的设计和安装是根据在莫斯科和莫斯科州的楼宇建设中获得的经验而编纂的。
英语文献翻译文档
The literature review (domestic and foreign research and development trend of the current situation)1. Domestic wastewater treatment technology1.1 AB Applied Technology for Wastewater Biological TreatmentWastewater Treatment Technology AB (the AB process) is the adsorption - process referred to as biodegradable. AB Technology have developed rapidly in recent years, and applied to much urban sewage treatment plants. Proved through practice, AB conventional activated sludge process and f method compared to the efficiency, operation stability, project investment and operation cost, etc. all have distinctive features.AB two activated sludge process is divided into segments A and B section, a section of the adsorption section, B section for the biological oxidation section. AB A process has a major section of the aeration tank structure, intermediate sedimentation tank, B section of the aeration tank and secondary sedimentation tank, usually without a settling tank, the A section as well as processing system. A segment and the segment has a separate sludge return system, so has its own unique microbial populations, is conducive to the stability of system functions.The basic principles of AB Process: A section of continuous inoculation from the sewer system in the pipe network system has survived the number of bacteria, which can be viewed as the drainage system in the middle of a huge reactor, in which a large number of bacteria surviving , continue to proliferate but also to adapt to, out of the process of optimization, etc., thus able to develop adaptive and active microbial communities are strong. This process does not set a settling tank, so that all microorganisms in raw wastewater into the system, so that A section of a biological dynamics of open systems.A section of high load, is conducive to the proliferation of fast growth andreproduction of microorganisms, and can only survive here is strong resistance to impact load the prokaryotic bacteria and other microorganisms can not survive. A section of the treated waste water, BOD removal of 40 to 70 percent, also improved biodegradability, is conducive to the work of B segments.A section of the sludge production rate was higher adsorption capacity, heavy metals, refractory material and nitrogen, phosphorus and other plant nutrients such as to pass through the sludge adsorption, and have been removed.A section on organic removal, mainly by the flock adsorption, biological degradation accounts for only about 1 / 3, due to the dominant role of physical and chemical effects, therefore, a paragraph of toxic substances in wastewater, pH, organic loading and temperature have certain adaptability.Section B Section A of the reaction is based on the normal work, including a section of the adsorption of organic compounds is very important. B section of the biological system is mainly composed of long generations of eukaryotic microbial composition, and according to specific process conditions change. Section B accepted the basic stability of water quality and quantities are, almost without regard to the impact load, to give full play to purification. A section of the function with the addition of nitrogen, BOD / N value decreased, therefore, B segment with the nitrification process conditions.1.2 SBR Biological Treatment for Wastewater ApplicationsSequencing batch (intermittent) activated sludge process (Sequencing Batch Reactor), referred to as the SBR in recent years widespread attention at home and abroad is the growing number of nuclear research of a wastewater treatment process, and a number of production units are already in operation, with a range of better than conventional activated sludge characteristics.At present, SBR process is mainly used in urban sewage and industrial waste water (mainly MSG, beer, pharmaceuticals, coke, food, paper, printing and dyeing, washing, dressing, etc.) processing.SBR process is a certain order by the intermittent operation of the SBR reactor operation composed. SBR process a complete operation, that each SBR reactoroperation when the waste water treatment, including five phases: fill, reaction, sedimentation, water, idle. SBR's methods to intermittent operation of the operating condition as the main feature.SBR process operation and convenient operation, the reactor is in descending order in space, intermittent; in time is arranged in sequence, and intermittent.1.3 Applications for Wastewater Biological TreatmentSince the 70s of the 20th century, people in the anaerobic / aerobic phosphorus removal system and the anoxic / aerobic nitrogen removal system based on the principle, also proposed sewage treatment system, will combine the two systems, the sewage through anaerobic ( Anaerobic), anoxic and aerobic (Anoxic) and aerobic (Oxen) three biological treatment processes (referred to as 2A/ O), to achieve simultaneous removal of BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus purposes. The primary functions of anaerobic phosphorus release, while part of the organic matter ammonification. The primary function of anoxic denitrification, nitrate is through the inner loop sent by the aerobic reactor, a mixture of a large amount of circulating , usually 2Q (Q-raw sewage flow). Aerobic stage is multifunctional, remove organic matter, phosphorus digestion and absorption of other items are reflected in this paragraph. These three reactions are important, the mixture containing NO3-N, the sludge containing excess phosphorus, The water in the BOD (or COD) removal were obtained. 2Q mixture flow back from the anoxic reactor here1.4 The conventional activated sludge biological wastewater treatment Conventional activated sludge, also known as habit or known traditional aeration activated sludge, was the first use of a sludge method.In the normal operation of the conventional activated sludge aeration tank, the aeration tank Qiduan, return activated sludge with boiling water once fully mixed, activated sludge from wastewater in a large number of organic matter. Since then F / M is relatively high, so the growth rate of microbial growth generally increased in the late stages of decline or growth rate of stage. As the organic matter in the aeration tank mixed liquor continuously along the length of the oxidation pond and the continuous synthesis of microbial cells, continue to lower the concentration of organicmatter in water, F / M become smaller and smaller, to the end of the pond, the growth of microorganisms have entered the endogenous metabolism period. Because the conventional activated sludge aeration time longer, you can more organic adsorption and purification, and the aeration tank effluent species of microorganisms have entered the endogenous metabolism of, their activities had diminished capacity, easy to precipitate in the sedimentation tank. After the waste water into the sedimentation tank, where almost all organic matter is "eaten" by the storage of microbial cells become depleted of material, which is hungry activated sludge activity has been fully restored, back to the aeration tank After a good adsorption capacity and oxidation of organic matter. So the conventional activated sludge process of biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solids removal efficiency was very high, about 90 to 95 percent. Achieve this high removal efficiency, commonly known as "full treatment." If you do not need such high processing requirements, to reduce the amount of return sludge and shorten the aeration time, the so-called "part of the deal."1.5 Application of oxidation ditch technology biological wastewater treatment Activated sludge oxidation ditch is a variant, the aeration tank ditches that were closed type, the mixture of sewage and activated sludge in which the cycle of continuous flow, therefore, also known as the "ring aeration Pool "," No end of the aeration system. " Crushed out of wood is widely used in the oxidation ditch types include: Pascal Weil (Passover) oxidation ditch and Carrousel (Carrousel) oxidation ditch, Auber (Orbal) oxidation ditch, T-type oxidation ditch (c oxidation ditch), DE-type oxidation ditch oxidation ditch and integration.1.5.1 Carrousel oxidation ditchCarrousel oxidation ditch is the DHV from the Netherlands in 1967, the company developed. Carrousel oxidation ditch in the original basis, DHV Company and the United States patent licensing company has invented a Carrousel2000 EIMCO system to achieve a higher demand for biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal capabilities.Carrousel oxidation ditch aeration and agitation devices using directional, relative to the level of the mixture speed of delivery, so that the mixture was stirred in theoxidation ditch circulating within the closed channels. Therefore, oxidation ditch has a special hydraulic flow pattern, both completely mixed reactor characteristics; there are plug-flow reactors, the characteristics of trench obvious dissolved oxygen concentration gradient. Oxidation ditch with rectangular or trapezoidal cross section, flat shape of the oval, the trench depth is generally 2.5 to 4.5 meters, width to depth ratio of 2:1, has a water depth of 7m, the average speed of water flow in ditch 0.3 meter per second. Mixed oxidation ditch aeration equipment surface aerators, aeration the brush or wheel, jet aerator conduit and riser-type aerator and so on, there is water in recent years with the use of thrusters.1.5.2 Orbal oxidation ditchOrbal oxidation ditch are generally composed of three concentric oval channel, water channel from the outside to enter, and return sludge mixture into the middle of the channel from the outside and then into the channel within the channel, then the channel to loop up to tens of hundreds of times. Finally, the adjustable weir flows by the Center for the door out of the island, and to the settling tank. Installed in each channel have a different number of levels across the switch to disk aerator, both support a strong push for Liu stirring. Outside the channel volume of the volume of the total oxidation of 50 to 55 percent, control of dissolved oxygen concentration tends to 0, and efficient completion of the main oxidation; the middle of the channel capacity is generally 25 to 30 percent, control of dissolved oxygen concentration in the 1.0mg / L is about , as a "swing-channel", can play outside the channel or the channel of the reinforcement; the total volume of the channel's volume is about 15 to 20 percent, requiring a higher concentration of dissolved oxygen (2.0 Milligrams per liter),to ensure a higher organic matter and ammonia nitrogen removal.Orbal oxidation ditch scope: Orbal oxidation ditch generally applies to 20 ×104 Cubic meters per day's following scale municipal sewage treatment plants, especially recommended for small and medium-scale municipal wastewater treatment plant.1.5.3 Pasveer oxidation ditchPasveer oxidation ditch is a continuous oxidation ditch sewage treatment system,with points built secondary sedimentation tank. Raw sewage directly into the grid through the oxidation ditches, and ditches the sludge mixture in the mix. Oxidation ditch is a trench-shaped runway. Ditch on the installation of one or more aeration, aeration to promote the mixture circulating in the trench, the average flow rate maintained at 0.3m / s or more, the activated sludge in suspension and oxygenation. Mixture road and Sheen pool is for dewatering. Part of the secondary settling tank sludge and surface scum back into the oxidation ditch, sludge is relatively stable, the concentration can be directly after the dehydration of sludge after the storage pool to be further processed.1.5.4 Three oxidation ditchThree oxidation ditch is a Kruger company has developed a new biological nitrogen removal process. The system has set up three identical oxidation ditches to run together as a unit, both between the three oxidation ditches connected. At run time, both sides of the A, C alternately for the two pool aeration tank and settling tank. The middle of the B pool has been maintained aeration, water alternately into a pool or C pool, C pool of water or from the corresponding a pool leads. This increases the utilization rate of aeration the brush, is also beneficial to biological nitrogen removal. Three oxidation ditches with each pool are available for sewage and circulation (mixing) of the brush, the import of each pool were associated with treatment by the grid and the grit chamber and connected via the effluent. Regulating the distribution of water and effluent weir completely controlled by the biological filter unit of organic pollutants in wastewater treatment is the main purpose of the unit operation. Biological filter is a biofilm. Biological filter are generally made of reinforced concrete or masonry, horizontal cross-section mostly round, square or rectangle, which forms the specific use, depending on the type of replenishment device. Biological filter structure consists of the filter bed, drainage and water installment of three parts.1.6 Biological filter purification mechanismPlaced in a fixed biological filter media, water flow in the biological filter constantly in touch with the media, microorganisms reproduce in the filter surface toform a biofilm. Adsorption of wastewater microorganisms suspended, colloidal and dissolved substances, the sewage purification. Biofilm has a larger surface area, with strong oxidation ability. In the biofilm, microbial growth and reproduction, death loss, the cycle and maintain the good biofilm purification.When the membrane is thicker, and reach a certain thickness, the oxygen in the air quickly consume the microbial biofilm surface is difficult to penetrate the inner membrane, resulting in close to the inner layer of the biofilm formation due to lack of oxygen anaerobic state, so that weakened the adhesion of the biofilm, and produce organic acids, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide and other anaerobic decomposition products, sometimes with the smell of the water quality of water, and sometimes may even Biological filter cause the growth of biofilm filter clogging.Operating system is basically a primary sedimentation tank, biological filter, secondary sedimentation tank of three parts.1.6.1 High Load biological filterHigh load biological filter media used in a larger particle size, typically only 40 to 100 mm, high porosity, can prevent filter clogging and improve the ventilation capacity. Media generally use the gravel, quartz stone, granite; plastic filter can also be used.Commonly used high-load rotary biological filter water distributor, a water standpipe and rotating horizontal tubes, water distribution, for round and variability of the biological filter.1.6.2 Biological filter towerBiological filter tower along the height into the general construction of the tower, at the set in a hierarchical grid, the filter loading Stratification burden. Multi-media selection use light filter mostly, such as light weight, high specific surface area and porosity of the synthetic filter media.Water tower biological filter cloth rotating device to use more water distributor, a water standpipe and rotating horizontal tubes, water distribution, the available motor, the reaction can also be driven by the water. Some small tower biological filter to use more water distribution system nozzles, but also can be porous sieve tubes andsplashing water.1.6.3 Biological filter fluidized bed reactorIn recent years, biological fluidized bed technology for the digestion and increasing reports of denitrification. Biological fluidized bed technique is an in stream of water through the state and the growth of biofilm attached to the particle bed, is the matrix of waste water dispersed in the bed biofilm with contacts to get the lift. Biological fluidized bed reactor with a volume load of high mass transfer speed, strong impact, small footprint, stable operation and so on. Biological fluidized bed includes the good support and the anaerobic fluidized bed.1.6.4 RBC purifying methodRBC method is water in a semi-quiescent state, the disk of microbial growth in the dial, the dial slowly in the waste water continue to rotate to approach contact with each other. Disk body and turn waste water and air contact, micro-organisms from the air intake of the necessary oxygen, and biological pollutants in wastewater oxidation and decomposition. Biofilm thickness and the concentration of raw water treatment and the nature of substrate, about 0.1 to 0.5mm, the outer disk attached to the film, aerobic and anaerobic biofilm, and biofilm activity of recession cut the wheel rotation under the action of shear force and loss.RBC is also a group of rational use of natural microbial metabolism in the physiological function of the biological treatment of organic waste water purification method, the principle and the biological filter is similar to the oxidation of organic matter with much decomposition, nitrification and denitrification capabilities.1.6.5 Biological contact oxidationBiological contact oxidation method is a range of activated sludge and biological filter process between the biofilm. Contact oxidation tanks with filler, some form of micro-organisms to sessile biofilm growth in the filler surface, part is the growth of flocculent suspended in the water.Microbial bio-contact oxidation method often required oxygen supply by artificial aeration. Biofilm growth to a certain thickness, nearly filling the walls of microorganisms to lack of oxygen to anaerobic metabolism, resulting in the formationof the gas and the scouring action of aeration will cause the shedding of biofilm, and to promote the growth of new membrane to form a biofilm metabolism. Biofilm will flow off the tank everywhere outside. General biological contact oxidation pool to be set before the primary sedimentation tank to remove suspended solids and reduce the load of biological contact oxidation; biological contact oxidation tank is located after the secondary settling tank to remove entrained water biofilm, water quality assurance system.Now developed a number of continuous improvement of the water inlet of a continuous SBR process.1.7.1 ProcessWith the city's water sewage and industrial waste water \ water quality and the changing requirements of environmental laws on water quality continues to improve, which may be less and less use of land resources, which requires sewage treatment system must not only have great flexibility and need to save as much as possible sites. Process is to adapt to the needs of these areas developed an advanced sewage treatment process. It combines the traditional SBR activated sludge process and the advantages of integrated design not only have the main characteristics of SBR process, but also as to the conventional activated sludge under continuous operation at a constant level. Operating Condition and its three oxidation ditches similar to the continuous water for continuous water treatment process. The study and application of technology has become an efficient, affordable, flexible and sophisticated sewage treatment process.Process is a rectangular body shape, which is divided into three equal rectangular unit cells, adjacent to openings between the unit cells separated by a public wall, so that the hydraulic unit cell relative to each other through. All the three units each in the pools with a aeration diffusion device. Outside of which has twin functions of the two pools, both for the aeration tank, it did the sedimentation tank; two pool also has a fixed weir and the sludge discharge, with water and sludge to make emissions. Intermediate pool is always used to do aeration tank. Sewage into the system through the intake timing control can be divided into three rectangular pool were any one pool.1.7.2 CASS / CAST / CASP processCyclic activated sludge (Cyclic Activated Sludge System / Technology / Process) in the mode of operation, the precipitate phase is not water, drainage and stability are guaranteed. He is the use of different microorganisms in the growth rate under different load conditions, different mechanisms and wastewater biological nutrient removal, biological Selector SBR reactor with the traditional product of the combination, the operation of the CAST is generally divided into three areas: one area for microbial selection; II for the anoxic zone; three areas for the aerobic zone, the district is generally the volume ratio of 1 to 5 to 30.This process combines the plug-flow activated sludge completely mixed initial reaction conditions and the advantages of activated sludge, specifically the main process is simple, construction and equipment investment is small; to good water quality buffer , water fluctuations, flexible operation; nitrification, denitrification full, nitrogen and phosphorus removal to achieve a good effect. CAST pre-set reaction zone and sludge measures to ensure the return of activated sludge in continuous experience in the selection of a high floc load stage, the growth of beneficial bacteria flocculation and improve sludge activity, making it quick and easy removal of wastewater degradation of soluble substrates, and further inhibit the growth and reproduction of filamentous fungi.1.7.3 ICEAS processIntermittent Cycle Extended Aeration Process (Intermittent Cycle Extended Aeration System) is characterized by the influent in the reactor and the reaction zone an additional, continuous operation mode for the influent, intermittent drainage, no obvious reaction stage and idle phases. The advantage is in dealing with municipal sewage and industrial waste water costs more than the traditional province of SBR, the water better. Drawback is that water runs through the whole cycle of precipitation in the main reaction zone of the bottom water caused by hydraulic flocculation, which could affect the separation time, so water is limited, and the capacity utilization is low, generally not more than 60%, nitrogen and phosphorus removal general.1.7.4 IDEA ProcessIntermittent drainage extended aeration process (Intermittently Decanted Extended Aeration) to maintain the advantages of CAST, a continuous feed operation mode, intermittent aeration, periodic drainage form. Compared with the CAST, pre-reaction zone to the main structure and the separation of SBR pre-mixed pool, and part of the sludge back into the pre-reaction cell, and use the central water. Pre-mixed pool could be established so that sewage load in the high floc have a longer residence time to ensure that the choice of high bacterial flocculation.1.7.5 DAT-IAT ProcessICEAS volume utilization is not high, the equivalent of aeration equipment idle for a period of time, in order to improve the reaction tank and equipment utilization, the development of DAT-IAT (Demand Aeration Tank-Intermittent Aeration Tank) process. DAT-IAT process of the main structures in the aerobic tank (DAT), intermittent aeration tanks (IAT) form, under normal circumstances, DAT continuous water continuous aeration, the water from entering IAT, aeration and sedimentation in the completion. Decanter and remove sludge process. Through the grille and the settling ponds of treated wastewater into the DAT, after an initial biochemical quiet as IAT, due to continuous aeration played a role in water balance, improve the stability of the whole project, water process occurs only in DAT, the drainage process is only occurred in the IAT, so that the whole biological system can be further enhanced adjustability is beneficial biodegradable organic matter, part of the sludge has IAT back to the DAT. This process is suitable for relatively large changes in water quality and quantity of the region.1.7.6 MSBRModified Sequencing Batch Reactor MSBR (Modified Sequencing Batch Reactor), the shape is usually designed as a rectangle, divided into three main parts: Two alternating aeration sequencing batch cell and the cell. Main aeration grid to keep the entire operation cycle of continuous aeration, during each half cycle, the two alternating sequence, respectively, as the SBR batch cell pool and clarifier, which is essentially the 2A/ O process and SBR process in series made way for continuous running water continuous water.MSBR process is considered to be intensive in the current high level, while the biological function of nitrogen and phosphorus removal wastewater treatment process. From the system's reliability, civil engineering, total installed capacity, energy efficiency, reduce operating costs and other aspects of land conservation point of view, have the advantage. MSBR not set the primary sedimentation tank, secondary sedimentation tank, and in continuous operation under constant water level. Single cell multi-cell mode, without continuous flow process also eliminates the need for more and more pool connection pipes, pumps and valves.This integration process is characterized by simple process, as only a reaction cell, no secondary sedimentation tank, return sludge and equipment, under normal circumstances no regulation pool, in most cases the primary sedimentation tank can be avoided, so saving accounts land and investment, resistance to shock loading and flexible operation mode can be arranged from time aeration, anoxic and anaerobic different states, to achieve the purpose of nitrogen and phosphorus removal. But because each pool requires aeration and water distribution systems, the use of Decanter and control system, a large head loss intermittent drainage, the pool's capacity utilization rate is not ideal, and therefore, in general, and not suitable for large-scale urban sewage treatment plant.1.8 Anaerobic biological1.8.1 Anaerobic filterAnaerobic filter is equipped with a filter in the anaerobic bioreactor. For example, anaerobic filter effluent, and filter contacts the surface of micro-organisms, organic pollutants in wastewater by microorganisms in the interception, adsorption and decomposition in order to achieve the purpose of purification.Anaerobic biological filter media in the microbial community in the biofilm formed on the surface, In addition, the microbial community in the filter also form aggregates in the form of suspension. Anaerobic filter higher organic loading, hydraulic retention time can be shortened. Reactor teams ability to adapt to toxic substances in the water strong, strong resistance to shock loading capacity, changes in water quantity and the larger case load, the reaction may be more stable operation.1.8.2 Anaerobic DigesterAnaerobic digester is an anaerobic biological treatment method. Anaerobic biological treatment process can also be referred to as anaerobic digestion; the reaction process is in anaerobic conditions, a variety of microbial decomposition of organic matter to produce methane and carbon dioxide in the process.Anaerobic biological treatment process according to the reaction steps can be divided into three stages: hydrolysis stage, the acid phase, methane production phase.1.8.3 Baffle reactor, anaerobic baffledAnaerobic baffle reactor baffle is in the 20th century, the early 80s in anaerobic rotating biological reactor developed based on the improvement of a new high rate anaerobic reactor. The reactor has a simple structure due to the sludge retention ability, and stability advantages attracted the attention of many researchers. In the biological treatment of wastewater, the hydraulic characteristics of the reactor, biological characteristics and shock load capacity of the reactor is an important factor in treatment effect, but also an important measure of reactor performance indicators.1.8.4 up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactorUASB is the up-flow anaerobic sludge bed reactor for short. Upper part UASB reactor gas, solid and liquid phase separator, the lower layer is set to the sludge suspension and the sludge bed zone area. Sewage flows from the bottom of the reactor, to the reactor to the top of the upwelling flow, solid-liquid mixture separation in the sedimentation area, the sludge itself back to the sludge bed zone. UASB reactor sludge bed area can maintain a high sludge concentration; sludge granulation can be achieved with good settling ability and high methane activity.UASB basic principles: UASB reactor during operation contains a very complex process of biochemical reactions. There are a variety of anaerobic microorganisms reaction participated in the transformation of organic pollutants in the metabolic process, and ultimately of pollutants into the final product. Participate in reactions including anaerobic hydrolysis - fermentation bacteria, acetic acid of bacteria and methane bacteria. UASB reactor biotransformation reactions and precipitation concentrated in one, compact structure. Wastewater from the water distribution。
外文文献翻译封面格式及要求(模版)
毕业论文外文文献翻译院年级专业：2009级XXXXXXXXXXX 姓 名：学 号：附 件：备注：（注意：备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印，看懂了即可）1.从所引用的与毕业设计（论文）内容相近的外文文献中选择一篇或一部分进行翻译（不少于3000实词）；2.外文文献翻译的装订分两部分，第一部分为外文文献；第二部分为该外文文献的中文翻译，两部分之间用分页符隔开。
也就是说，第一外文文献部分结束后，使用分页符，另起一页开始翻译。
3.格式方面，外文文献的格式，除了字体统一使用Times new roman 之外，其他所有都跟中文论文的格式一样。
中文翻译的格式，跟中文论文的格式一样。
（注意：备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印，看懂了即可,定稿后,请删除本页.）范文如下：注意,下面内容每一部份均已用分页符分开了,如果用本模板,请将每一模块单独删除,直接套用到每一模板里面,不要将全部内容一次性删除.【Abstract】This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based onthe theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.，Times New Roman.【Key Words】Brand positioning; Marketing mix; Positioning Strategy; enlightenment, lessons；ABC（本页为英文文献摘要，关键词两项一起单独一页，字体为：Times New Roman，小四号，1.5倍行距）(注:以下为英文文献正文内容,英文全文3000字.具体标题以原文为准.全文字体为Times New Roman.行间距为1.5倍.字号大小与论文正文的各级标题一致.如下:)I.Times New Roman ，Times New Roman，Times New RomanTimes New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman,This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons fromthe failure of the WONG LO KAT.II.Times New Roman ，Times New Roman，Times New RomanTimes New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman,This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.III.Times New Roman ，Times New Roman，Times New RomanTimes New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times New Roman,This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal teabeverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.This paper has a systematic analysis on outside Marco-environment of herbal tea beverage industry and major competitors of brands inside the herbal tea market. Based on the theoretic framework, this paper takes WONG LO KAT and JIA DUO BAO herbal tea as an example, and researches the strategy on brand positioning and relevant marketing mix of it. Through analysis on the prevention sense of WONG LO KAT herbal tea, it was positioned the beverage that can prevent excessive internal heat in body, a new category divided from the beverage market. the process of brand positioning of it in Consumers brain was finished. Based on this positioning strategy, WONG LO KAT reasonably organized and arranged its product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy and promotion strategy, which not only served for and further consolidated the position of preventing excessive internal heat in body, but also elevated the value of brand. The JDB and WONG LO KAT market competition brings us enlightenment. Reference the successful experience from the JDB and lessons from the failure of the WONG LO KAT.【摘要】本文是对凉茶饮料的宏观环境以及凉茶市场内部主要品牌的竞争对手进行了系统分析。
外文文献翻译译文【范本模板】
在激光作用下核压力容器钢焊接接头的显微组织和力学性能摘要：设计间接热冲压工艺，利用有限元法对零件的几何尺寸和力学性能进行了预测.在间接热冲压过程的情况下，生产性能与适应车身部件,冷却路径造成扩散和扩散控制的相变。
通过人脸的相变引起的体积膨胀为面心立方（FCC）为体心立方（BCC）和体心四方（BCT）马氏体的形成导致相变诱导株的整体应力热冲压的车身部件的计算是很重要的。
计算的应力和应变状态正确，它是必要的模型的扩散和扩散控制的相变现象，考虑到间接热冲压过程的边界条件。
现有的材料模型进行分析和扩展以提高计算铁氧体、珍珠岩的数量和分布,其预测的准确性，整个退火过程中贝氏体和马氏体.工业用新方法在有限元程序LS-DYNA 971实现关键词：核钢稳压器压水反应堆反应堆压力容器结构完整性焊接韧性SA508钢通常用于民用核反应堆的关键部件,如反应堆压力容器。
核部件通常采用电弧焊接工艺，但与设计为未来的新建设项目超过60年的生活，新的焊接技术正在寻求.在这种探索性的研究,为第一时间，自体激光焊接6毫米厚的进行SA508 Cl。
3钢板使用16千瓦激光系统在4千瓦的功率运行。
这个显微组织和力学性能（包括显微硬度、抗拉强度、延伸率等夏比冲击韧性)的特点和结构进行了比较电弧焊接.基于移动体热的三维瞬态模型源模型也发展到模拟激光焊接热循环，以估计冷却速率的过程。
初步结果表明，激光焊接工艺可以无宏观缺陷的焊缝，激光焊接的强度和韧性在这项研究中的联合，得到的值,在焊接的母材条件。
反应堆压力容器的寿命和安全运行（RPV)，这是核电站中最关键的部件之一.取决于高温压力容器材料的耐久性，高压力和放射性环境.具有较高强度，韧性和抗辐照脆化的材料的需要是上升的，由于增加的发电容量和核电厂的设计寿命［1 ］，[ 2 ］，[ 3 ］，[ 4 ]，[ 5 ]，［7 ］，［8 ]和[ 6 ].SA508钢已经用于许多RPV？的压水反应堆制造因为他们提供的结合强度，延展性好，断裂韧性,相对于机械性能的均匀性，和他们的经济［9 ］、[ 10 ］、[ 11 ]和［12 ］.无人机是采用焊接厚环形锻件或SA508钢板在一起。
本科生文献翻译(中英文)
A study of the role played by renewable energies inChina’s sustainable energy supplyAbstract:This paper first provides an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation. Further, it summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role it plays in the national energy supply. Next it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a long term scenario of the role of renewable energies in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in China’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.Keywords: Renewable energy,Energy supply,Market development,Public policy,China1.IntroductionChina is the largest developing country as well as the second largest energy consumer and carbon dioxide emitter in the world .China’s energy issue has recently become a focus of many talks regarding global energy, environment, and security. Domestically, it is the first time that the Chinese Central Government set a target for improving energy efficiency of the economy together with the economic growth target in its social and economic development plan during the 11th Five-Year-Plan period 1, which was endorsed by the Congress in March 2006. The features of China’s energy system evolution in the future will have significant implications on global energy investment, energy market restructuring, and environmental protection. Increasing the share of renewable energies could be an important dimension of China’s energy system transition.China’s Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Law recognizes the strategic role of renewable energies in optimizing China’s energy supply mix, mitigating environmental pollution,improving energy supply security, and promoting rural social development. It also directly relates renewable energy development and utilization to China’s energy system transition. More importantly, the Law largely shapes an integrated renewable energy policy framework by providing a set of directives encouraging renewable energies, including national renewable energy targets, a feed-in tariff, a special fiscal fund, tax relief, and public R&D support as well as education and training.It is accepted beyond doubt that an enabling environment for renewable energy development and utilization is emerging in China. While recognizing the new opportunities that the Law brings for China’s renewable energy development and utilization, it must also be noted that the main technological, financial, and institutional risks associated with China’s renewable energy developmen t and utilization still remain. The context of the country’s renewable energy development and utilization has never been this complex .To what extent will renewable energies contribute to China’s sustainable energy system transition? What are the characteristics of the main risks for China’s renewable energy development and utilization? What policies and strategies should be in place to manage the risks? Although these questions have been addressed to some extent by a number of studies in the past , yet those studies were not able to take the context of China’s new complex renewable energy development into account. As a consequence, it is of significance and required to carry out a new study to gain answers to these questions, which would largely contribute to formulating China’s new strategy for renewable energy development and utilization.The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 gives an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation.Section 3 summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role that it plays in national energy supply.Next, it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a study of the long term scenario of the role that renewable energies play in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in the country’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.2.Context of renewable energy development2.1. Renewable energy resourcesChina has abundant renewable energy resources. The country’s annual solar energy ranges from 3360 to 8400 MJ/m2, and two thirds of her area’s solar radiation is more than 5020 MJ/m2. China’s wind energy resource is pretty rich, too. The development potential of the on-shore wind resource is as much as 253 GW at a 10 m height with an annual electricity generation of more than 50 billion kWh. China’s hydro power potential amounts to 400 GW; 128 GW of which is for small hydro power plants with an installed capacity below 50MW. The country produces 700 million tons of agricultural residues each year, and approximately 350 million tons of them could be used for energy purposes, equivalent to 170 million tons of coal equivalent (tce). The firewood production amounts to 220 million tons each year, equivalent to 130 million tce . Further, solid wastes and wastewater discharged from livestock and poultry farms and light industry could be used to produce 31 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 26 million tce. The volume of discharge of combustible municipal waste, a renewable source for power generation, has been growing in most Chinese cities. Taking the ase of Beijing for example, it discharged 4.5 million tons of combustible municipal wastes in 2004, and the volume will be growing at 4–5% per year.2.2. Energy supply securityIn general terms, energy security means that a nation’s energy demands could be met at a reasonable price. The new target for China’s economic development set by the country’s government is to quadruple the gross domestic product (GDP) accounted for in 2000 by 2020, ensuring China’s attainment of a well-off society overall. To achieve this target, the total primary energy consumption will reach approximately 3 billions tce, once the substantial energy conservation and economic restructuring efforts are taken into consideration [1]. Under this scenario, the total demand for oil will be 0.45 billion tons with more than 0.2 billion tons relying on imports. Natural gas demand will reach 160 billionm3 with a domestic supply deficiency of 50–60 billion m3. Therefore, there would be a large gap between China’s energy demand and supply capacity to achieve the country’s new social and economic de velopment target, raising significant energy security concerns. In addition to strengthening the country’s energy conservation efforts, development and utilization of renewable energies seem to be an inevitable choice to diversify energy supply and ensure China’s long term energy security [2].From an even far-sighted perspective, China’s demand for energy would reach 5.4 billion tce in 2050 to maintain her sustainable economic growth and social development. But the domesticsupply capacity of coal, oil, and natural gas would be 2.5–2.7 billion tons, 100–200 million tons, and 120–140 billion m3, respectively [3]. The risks involved in China’s energy supply would be even higher without the increasing energy supply from renewable energies.2.3. Environmental managementChina’s total primary energy consumption was approximately 2032 million tce in 2004, of which coal, oil, and natural gas account for 68%, 22.33%, and 2.60%, respectively [4]. The consumption of a huge amount of fossil fuels has caused severe local, regional, and global environmental pollution. Now, one-third of the whole country area is suffering from acid rain, and the combustion of fossil fuels contributes 90% of the sulfur dioxide emissions causing this problem. The economic damage from air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels was estimated at 2–3% of GDP [5]. China is currently the second largest CO2 emitter in the world, just after the United States. However, there is a possibility that by 2025, China’s CO2 emission would exceed that of the United States, and become the largest CO2 emitting country of the world [6]. China has been under increasing pressure from the world to reduce her CO2 emissions. Increasing the share of renewable energies in China’s energy supply mix is one of the most important measures to control the country’s local, regional, and global environmental pollution.2.4. Rural, social, and economic developmentApproximately 27 million people living in remote and mountainous areas of China did not have access to electricity by the end of 2004, and most of them are among the lowest income earners. Electricity supply plays a very important role in promoting social and economic development in remote and mountainous areas, and renewable energy power generating options, such as small hydro system, small-sized wind generating systems, and solar photovoltaic systems are often more cost-effective than the extension of conventional power grids.Some renewable energy technologies can also increase the productivity of agriculture. Human wasteand animal dung after anaerobic fermentation in biogas digesters are quality organicfertilizers. Both the output and the quality of vegetables and fruits can be increased markedly by using such fertilizers. Moreover, the use of these fertilizers can also lead to a decrease in the use of pesticides. As a result, biogas digesters cannot only produce the gas to be used for cooking and lighting in rural households, but also help farmers earn more money from agriculture. Geothermal technology can be applied to increase the output and quality of fisheries as well. Solar greenhouses are a common productivity raising technology in the plantation of vegetables, fruits, and flowers.2.5. The renewable energy lawRecognizing the strategic significance of renewable energy development in China, China Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Renewable Energy Law has put forward a comprehensive renewable energypolicy framework, and institutionalized a number of policies and instruments for China’s renewable energydevelopment and utilization. Among others, the major policies and/or institutions covered by the Law include●Directives on setting indicative renewable energy targets;●Directives on renewable energy planning;●Directives on functions and responsibilities of the relevant government agencies in renewableenergy management;●Directives on removal of barriers of renewable energy products to entry energy market;●Directives on grid connection of renewable power generation project;●Directives on feed-in tariff of renewable power generation;●Directives on taxation measures;●Directives on special fiscal fund of renewable energy development; and●Directives on renewable energy technology standards and certification.3. Current status of renewable energy development3.1. Small hydroIn 2005, the installed capacity of small hydro power plants was 38 GW, about 30% of the estimated 128 GW small hydro potential. Small-scale hydro technologies and turbines are improving. Moreover, the performance of the automated control systems has improved, too. Over 30 research institutes are involved in R&D and 160 small-scale hydro equipment manufacturers exist at present. This market grew by 12–15% in 2004, and 10% annual growth in 2005. Domestic industry can meet current development needs.Small hydro technologies have been primarily used for rural electrification, often in small county-size grids. However, in recent years, the development has become more multi-dimensional, with small hydro technologies serving centralized grids, the smaller county grids becoming interconnected, and also replacing or reducing the growth of other small-scale power plants, like small coal plants. In the future, the electrification supply in rural areas will still be the major aim for small hydro development, including the estimated 7 million rural households that still function without access to electricity.There are a number of factors which could accelerate and improve market development and power plant performance in the future, including market aggregation, better operation and management, improved technology, and standardized tariffs and power delivery.3.2. Wind farmThe rate of growth of wind turbine installations in China is impressive, and this growth could likely continue indefinitely. The installed capacity rose from 550MW in 2003, to 760MW in 2004, and then ultimately to 1250MW in 2005. The growth rate in 2004 was 65%, on top of a 40% growth in 2003. Only one domestic manufacture dominates the domestic market, constituting 20% of the market share. Imported turbines constitute 75% of the market share.China’s wind technology level has fallen behind Europe, as most of 1–2MW scale turbines have to be imported from Europe. Key R&D priorities for wind are large-capacity turbines, variable speed technologies, variable screw distance, and off-shore turbines and wind farm designs. The production costs have been decreasing, in line with the international costs, over the past decade, and these cost declines need to continue among Chinese manufacturers.3.3. Solar photo voltaic (PV)A total of 65MW solar PV was installed as of 2004, about 50% of this in rural (off-grid) areas. Communications and industry account for most of the other 50%, with consumer products constituting a small share. The grid-connected PV is still marginal, falling on the order of a few MW. The domestic market is growing fast, with 20MW added during 2004. The solar PV installation in China amounted to 70MW.Ch ina’s PV industry is growing faster than perhaps any other country in the world, but from a small initial base. As of 2004, China had a module production capacity of 100MW of PV, compared to the total world production capacity of 1200MW. Chinese production capacity doubled during 2004, from 50MW in 2003, and most production is exported. Cell production capacity was 65MW in 2004, and wafer production capacity was 15MW.As production increases rapidly in the coming years, a rapid declining share of production will go to domestic installation, as the domestic market does not keep pace with the production. This is because the grid-connected applications, which are now the predominant market globally, are still in infancy in China, and the price differential between solar PV and conventional power is still very large, on the order of 3 yuan/kW h.The key research areas are quality and cost improvements in materials and components, advanced solar light–heat transforming material, heat collector structure components, new pattern solar cell material and groupware technology, grid-connected and roof solar photovoltaic power system and integrated solararchitecture.3.4. Solar hot waterSolar hot water sales continue to boom. The estimation of the total sales volume in 2004 is 13.5 million m2 with the same growth rate of 19% as in 2003, and about 70% were below 1500 yuan/m2. The solar water heater installation was 80 million m2 as of 2005. The glass vacuum tube solar water heater was the most common type in the Chinese market. Ten brands of solar water heaters had annual sale volumes of over 100 million yuan. But the market is still highly diverse, as those top 10 brands had a combined market share of only 20%. There are more than 1000 manufacturers throughout the country, and an estimated 250,000 people work in the Chinese solar hot water industry. Some famous household appliance enterprises from outside the sector have also recently entered the solar hot water market, including Haier, Ocma, and Huati.Smaller towns and villages, with a large rooftop area per capita, are likely to continue to be the primary market, although multifamily apartment buildings can effectively use solar hotwater if not too tall.Future priorities include test and certification systems, better quality control, better integration into architectural practice and the construction industry, standardization of products, consumer education and awareness, new financing mechanisms, and favorabletax and tariff policies.3.5. Biomass power generationFor heating and power generation, biomass-fueled combustion technology is mature in China, and there are many biomass boiler manufacturers. Most biomass boilers have small or medium capacity, because their feed stocks are not abundant which are collected from nearby area not from distant area. The advanced biomass power generation efficiency has reached 40%. Biomass gasification has developedstrongly in China, with gasifiers up to 6MW in capacity, and system efficiencies reaching 28%.Biomass power generation capacity was about 2000MW in 2005. Current biomass power generation is dominated by bagasse fueled power plants. In 2005, the capacity of bagasse fueled power plants was about 1700MW or 85% of the total biomass power generation capacity. Power generation capacity from agricultural and forestry wastes, biogas, municipal waste incineration, and land fills was 60MW, 20MW, 200MW, and 20MW, respectively.The uncertainty involved in the biomass-fueled power generation development is still quite high in China. Presumably, with the renewable energy law taking effect, and favorable tariffs for biomass, increases will be seen in power generation. But the use of biomass at the local level is likely to be constrained by resource availability, including competing uses, plus collection, and transport infrastructure and businesses.3.6. BiogasChina leads the world in terms of household biogas technology development and diffusion. Approximately 14 million small-sized biogas digesters were built by 2004 with an annual biogas production of 3.5 billionm3, equivalent to 2.5 Mtce. In addition to providing gas for cooking and lighting purposes in rural households, household biogas technology is an important measure to help farms increase their income. The Chinese government attaches great importance to household biogas technology, and gives special fiscal support for the development and deployment of thetechnology.A remarkable progress has also been achieved in the development of large- and medium-sized biogas plants in China. Fifteen hundred large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in operation in livestock breeding farms as of 2004, producing 100 million m3 of biogas, equivalent to 70 thousand tce. Also approximately, 700 large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in use in the food, alcohol, and paper-making industries, producing 1.4 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 1 million tce. In addition to producing biogas, these plants serve as the major facility for treating wastes from livestock farms and effluents from alcohol and paper-making companies. Hence, the biogas technology is not only an energy technology but also environmental technology. As of 2005, the total production of biogas from householdsystems and large- and medium-size biogas plants reached 8 billionm3, equivalent to 4 Mtce.3.7. BiofuelsChina’s ethanol production was 1.02 million tons in 2005. As of late 2004, five provinces Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Henan, and Anhui required ethanol to be mixed with gasoline in a 10% ratio (E10). Four other provinces Hebei, Hubei, Shandong, and Jiangsu were added by late 2005.Ethanol distilleries have already been established in China with a production capacity of 1 million tons, to use ‘‘deteriorative’’ grains as feed stocks. Most fuel ethanol production in Chin a currently comes from the ‘‘deteriorative’’ grain. In 2005, China produced 50 thousand tons of biodiesel. Most biodiesel production currently comes from waste oil.Sorgo plantations have been set up in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang Uygar A.R., Liaoning, and Shandong. Sorgo appears to be a promising crop in China for biofuels, as it grows in colder northern climates and is better able to endure drought.Research is continuing on biofuels crops and distillation/production processes. Research is progressing in southern provinces on bio-oils, including colza oil, cottonseed oil, wood oil, Chinese tallow oil, and tea oil.3.8. SummaryIf all renewable energies were taken into account, China’s total primary energy supplywas 2337 Mtce in 2005. Renewable energies contributed approximately 17.8% of primary energy supply, of which traditional biomass3 10.7%, and all new renewable energies4 together 7.1% (Fig. 1). Electricity dominated the energy supply from renewable energies (Fig. 2). In 2005, the total installed capacity of renewable energy power systems was 119.7 GW, accounting approximately for 23.4% of total installed power capacity of China, of which large and small hydro power was 78 GW and 38 GW, respectively (Fig. 3).Renewable energy technologies can be categorized by four phases: R&D, pilot and demonstration, early commercialized5, and commercialized. Table 1 relates China’s major renewable energy technologies to the four phases. As shown in Table 1, only a small number of the technologies listed are commercialized. They are small hydropower plants/turbines, solar water heater, solar stove, geothermal space heating, and biomass stoves.4. A long term scenario of China’s renewable energy supplyThe scenario assumes that the implementation of the Renewable Energy Law and China’s Medium and Long Term Planning for Renewable Energy Development6 will create an enabling environment for the development of renewable energies in China. The scenario largely represents the economic potential of renewable energy development which is larger than the market potential but smaller than the technological potential.The trajectory of renewable energy supply evolution in China’s primary energy supply mix under the scenario is indicated in Table 5 and Fig. 4. Renewable energies will contribute approximately 21% of China’s total primary energy supply by 2050. Please note that the contribution from traditional biomass will decline from 10.7% in 2005 to 6.8% in 2010, 4.0% in 2020, and 2.3% in 2030. By 2050, traditional biomass will be completely replaced by modernbiomass. The contribution from new renewable energies, however, will grow from 7.1% in 2005 to 12.1% in 2020, 17.3% in 2030, and 21% in 2050, respectively.Most of the renewable energy supply is in the form of electricity.Table 6 and Fig. 5 show the picture of China’s power generation capacity installations till 2050 under the reference scenario. The installed capacity of renewable based power generation systems will reach 141 GW in 2010, 362 GW in 2020, 733 GW in 2030, and 1130 GW in 2050, respectively. The share of renewable based generation capacity will increase from 23.4% in 2005 to 30.8% in 2020, 40.8% in 2030 and 43.1% in 2050, respectively. Renewable energies will play a very important role in diversifying C hina’s power generation sources.5. Risks and uncertainties5.1. Financial risksAs shown in Table 1, most renewable energy technologies fall either in the R&D stage, in the pilot and demonstration stage, or in the early commercialization stage, and a few of them have also been fully commercialized. Often the substantive input of the financial resource is needed before a renewable energy technology is able to compete with conventional fossil energy technologies. Private companies are often reluctant to invest in the demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage due to low economic return. Further private companies often have difficulties borrowing money from banks and other financial institutions due to the high risks involved in these stages. Due to the free-rider issue private companies are also not willing to invest in the R&D stage. As a result, financial resources are often under-provided during the R&D, demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage. Financial risks are important barriers that impede China’s renewable energy development in the future.5.2. Market entry risksConventional energy enterprises dominate China’s current energy industry. They stay in an advantageous position in competition with renewable energy companies in terms of both company scale and market penetration. The power grid is often not willing to accept electricity generated from renewable energy sources, such as wind, biomass, solar PV, and small hydro mainly because of higher cost and smaller scale of renewable electricity compared with the coal-fired electricity.On the other hand, China’s oil market is monopolized by three large groups: China National Petroleum Corp (CNPC), China Petrochemical Corp (Sinopec Group), and China National Offshore Oil Corp (CNOOC). To safeguard a market share of liquid fuels from renewable energies, such as biodiesel, substantive investment is needed to build or restructure the current production and sale infrastructure. Thecooperation from the three companies is of critical importance in this regard.5.3. Technological risksChina holds a leading position in terms of development and deployment of household biogas technology and small hydro technology. However, there is a large technological gap that China has to bridge in the future for most other renewable energy technologies. Although the size of mainstream wind turbines in the European market is as large as 1–1.5MWper unit, China does not yet have the capacity to manufacture wind turbines of more than 1MW. The country does not yet have the property rights of the core technologies for manufacturing solar PV cells. So far China has heavily depended on importing technologies and systems to develop her biomass-fuel power generation industry. In context of the large scale biogas plants, the technological gap between China and the world advanced level is still big in some aspects. More importantly, there is a lack of qualified researchers and engineers to conduct renewable technology R&D, design, and manufacture in China.AcknowledgementThis study is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (grant no. 90410016). References[1] Zhou DD, editor. China sustainable energy scenarios for 2020. Beijing: China Environment Science Press; 2003.[2] Shi LS. China’s energy is sues and renewable energy planning. Energy Policy Research 2004;(No.4)::17–21.[3] Available from: </nynx/nyhg/2005-06/09/ 153.html>.[4] China energy statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press; 2006.[5] Wang YQ. ‘China’s energy consumption and environment protection’. China Development Forum, November 2003. Beijing: 2003.[6] ERI (Energy Research Institute), editor. Climate change mitigation. Beijing: Meteorological Press; 2004.[7] Sijim JPM. The performance of feed-in tariffs to promote renewable electricity in European Countries. The Netherlands: Working Paper, ECN-C-083; 2002.[8] Bechberger M, Reiche D. Renewable energy policy in Germany: pioneering and exemplary regulations. Energy for Sustainable Development 2004;8:47–57.[9] Langni? O. ‘International best practice for renewable energy legislations’ Senior Forum of Renewable Energy Legislation Issue, May 15–16, 2004. Beijing: 2004一项关于再生能源在中国可持续能源供应中地位的研究摘要本文首先提供了中国范围内可再生能源的发展，包括该国最近的可再生能源法的概况。
外文文献翻译(最终版)【范本模板】
造纸机的烘缸摘要：本篇阐述的是有关的造纸机的干燥烘缸。
烘缸是中空的，烘缸的缸体内表面沿长度方向有沟槽。
大多数的集水器沿管道轴向延伸套管。
吸水管的设计是从每个集水器到一个总槽对于由此吸入的冷凝水。
一个虹吸管被连接到每个集水器收集的冷凝水。
虹吸管道是绝缘,以降低内部和外部的温度差异。
虹吸管有固定的形状和间隔以至于虹吸管从凹槽中能尽可能从除掉大量凝结水,与凹槽附近的虹吸管道相比,剩下的套管长度要达到更均匀套管,为了达到更均匀的干燥性能,烘缸的缸体在宽度方向有网格。
例如，虹吸管的吸入管道附近可能有一个更大的直径或可能会有一个更强的负压式凝聚力在管道附近地区。
关键词：烘缸，设计，冷凝水，虹吸管1 造纸机的烘缸1。
1 烘缸的设计背景本发明涉及造纸机的烘干装置或其它类似的过道,更特别地，是指为了在宽度方向达到均匀烘干.烘缸包括一个套管在他的内表面有沟槽和在里面提供一个虹吸功能的，烘缸是从凹槽内吸取冷凝水的。
虹吸管的排列一般包括大量的元素.现在描述，冷凝水的收集在哪个点上的,也就是，在缸体的套管的周边内，提供了小型吸吮管道。
这些周边的凹槽的设计，冷凝水的集水器位于套管的里面，套管被连接到许多小的虹吸管用于接收由此产生的凝结水迷途。
冷凝水收集器是连接到虹吸管道，相反的，，一般来说，大幅度径向延长套管。
相反，导致弯管轴向延伸主要是凝结水的排水线.尽管造纸机有许多的改进，特别是在造纸机的干燥部分, 认为在它的宽度，已经有一系列的连续的问题,纸网是不均匀的潮湿(或不均匀的干燥）。
尤其在大的烘缸对于生产定量很轻的绉纸, 在整个烘缸的长度上，干燥的均匀度是决定性的纸的数量和质量。
干燥状况微小的不同都会对纸网的质量产生很不利的影响.在造纸设备上提高生产的纸质量和造纸设备的结合一直是现代研究首要考虑的.纸的剖面烘干的均匀度已经被努力反复研究。
本研究却很困难,因为有许多来源的扰动导致纸面的干燥不良。
以下可能性应注意，在纸的某个部位出现的水分能被在纸网的部分被拔出,这可能因此而被归因于造纸机的流浆箱的故障，例如,从箱体传送到唇板，在过程中出现问题,在湿部到网部出现问题，堵塞压力辊的抽吸孔,在喷淋管道出现问题，等等.更近一步说，在热风罩的操作也可能出现问题的，在一个压力辊的辊型设计故障可能导致干燥的不均匀。
文献翻译模板-本部
英文翻译分院宋体四号字专业宋体四号字届别宋体四号字学号宋体四号字姓名宋体四号字指导教师宋体四号字200Ｘ年Ｘ月Ｘ日<文献翻译一：原文>××××××1××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××备注：英文文献翻译原文必须注明出处11．著作：作者姓名．书名[M]．xx：出版社，xxxx，xx．2．论文：作者姓名．论文题目[D]．杂志名称，xxxx（）：xx．以英文大写字母方式标识各种参考文献,专著[M]、论文集[C]、报纸文章[N]、期刊文章[J]、学位论文[D]、报告[R]。
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英文翻译
分院宋体四号字
专业宋体四号字
届别宋体四号字
学号宋体四号字
姓名宋体四号字
指导教师宋体四号字
200Ｘ年Ｘ月Ｘ日
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宁波大学科学技术学院本科毕业设计（论文）系列表格<文献翻译一：译文>
宁波大学本科毕业设计（论文）系列表格
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宁波大学科学技术学院本科毕业设计（论文）系列表格<文献翻译二：译文>。