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外文文献翻译模板广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部管理学部专业人力资源管理年级 2008级班级名称 08人力资源管理1班学号 150********学生姓名王凯琪指导教师2012年 5 月目录1 外文文献译文 (1)2 外文文献原文 (9)德国企业中老化的劳动力和人力资源管理的挑战本文的主要目的就是提供一个强加于德国公司的人力资源管理政策上的人口变化主要挑战的概况。

尽管更多方面的业务受到人口改变的影响，例如消费的改变或储蓄和投资，还有资金的花费，我们把注意力集中劳动力老龄化促使人事政策的变化上。

涉及广泛的人力资源管理政策，以有关进行创新和技术变化的招募问题为开端。

1 老化的劳动力及人力资源管理由于人口的变化，公司劳动力的平均年龄在未来将会更年长。

因此，劳动力高于50的年龄结构占主导地位的集团不再是一个例外，并将成为一个制度。

在此背景下，年长的工人的实际份额，以及最优份额，部分是由企业特征的差异加上外在因素决定的。

2 一般的挑战尽管增加公众对未来人口转型带来的各种挑战的意识，公司对于由一个老化劳动力引起的问题的意识仍然是相当低的。

事实上，只有25%的公司预计人口统计的变化在长远发展看来将会导致严重的问题。

然而，现在越来越多关于老化劳动力呈现的挑战和潜在的解决方案的文献。

布施提出了一种分析老员工一般能力的研究文集，并给出有关于年长工人的人力资源政策的实例。

目前，华希特和萨里提出一篇关于研究公司对于提前退休的态度和延长工作生涯的态度的论文。

在这些研究中，老员工的能力通常被认为是不同的，并不逊色，同时指出一个最优的劳动力取决于不同的公司的特殊要求。

一般来说，然而由于越来越缺少合格的员工，人口统计的变化将使得在各种人事政策方面上的压力逐渐增加。

特别是，没有内部人力资源部门的中小型企业，因此缺乏足够的特殊的基础设施，则面临着严峻的挑战。

与他们正常的大约两到五年的计划水平相反，他们将越来越多地要处理长期的个人问题和计划。

英文文献翻译

Effects of Aromatic Carboxylic Dianhydrides on Thermomechanical Properties of Polybenzoxazine-Dianhydride CopolymersChanchira Jubsilp,1Boonthariga Ramsiri,2Sarawut Rimdusit21Department of Chemical Engineering,Faculty of Engineering,Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhonnayok26120,Thailand2Polymer Engineering Laboratory,Department of Chemical Engineering,Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University,Bangkok10330,ThailandEnhanced thermomechanical properties of bisphenol-A based polybenzoxazine(PBA-a)copolymers obtained by reacting bisphenol-A-aniline-type benzoxazine(BA-a)resin with three different aromatic carboxylic dianhy-drides,i.e.,pyromellitic dianhydride(PMDA),3,30,4,40 biphenyltetracarboxylic dianhydride(s-BPDA),or 3,30,4,40benzophenonetetracarboxylic dianhydride (BTDA)were reported.Glass transition temperature(T g), of the copolymers was found to be in the order of PBA-a:PMDA>PBA-a:s-BPDA>PBA-a:-BTDA.The difference in the T g of the copolymers is related to the rigidity of the dianhydride components.Furthermore,the T g of PBA-a:BTDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDAﬁlms was observed to be signiﬁcantly higher than that of the neat PBA-a owing to the enhanced crosslink density by the dianhydride addition.This greater crosslink density results from additional ester linkage formation between the hydroxyl group of PBA-a and the anhydride group of dianhydrides formed by thermal curing.Moreover,the copolymers exhibit enhanced thermal stability with ther-mal degradation temperature(T d)ranging from4108C to 4268C under nitrogen atmosphere.The char yield at 8008C of the copolymers was found to be remarkably greater than that of the neat PBA-a with a value up to 60%vs.that of about38%of the PBA-a.Toughness of the copolymerﬁlms was greatly improved compared to that of the neat PBA-a.POLYM.ENG.SCI.,52:1640–1648, 2012.ª2012Society of Plastics Engineers INTRODUCTIONRecently,there has been an increasing high tempera-ture requirement from the aerospace industry and other industrial applications such as composite matrices,pro-tecting coatings,and microelectronic materials using a thermosetting polymer.An improvement of polymeric material properties particularly by modiﬁcation of the existing polymers through forming alloy,blend,or com-posite to achieve high thermal stability,high char yield, and high glass transition temperature becomes increas-ingly important[1–3].Polymer blends between polyben-zoxazines(PBZs)and other polymers have been subjected to many current investigations,which intend to utilize some outstanding properties of PBZs.Nowadays,there are various companies in the world which have produced benzoxazine resin for trading including multiplicity requirements of individual applications, e.g.,Shikoku Chemicals Corporation,Huntsman Corporation,and Hen-kel Co.,Ltd.PBZs are particularly applied to enhance the processability,mechanical,and thermal properties of the resulting polymer blends.They can be synthesized via a simple and cost-competitive solvent-less method[4].More-over,the molecular designﬂexibility of the resins,compa-rable to that of epoxy or polyimide(PI),provides wide range of properties that can be tailor-made.Importantly,the polymers have been reported to possess many intriguing properties to overcome several shortcomings of conven-tional novolac-and resole-type phenolic resins such as low viscosity,near-zero volumetric shrinkage upon curing,the glass transition temperature(T g)much higher than cure temperature,fast mechanical property build-up as a func-tion of degree of polymerization,high char-yield,low coef-ﬁcient of thermal expansion,(CTE),low moisture absorp-tion,and excellent electrical properties[4,5].As mentioned above,the ability of benzoxazine resins to form alloys or blends with other polymers or resins[5–10]provides the resins with even broader range of applications.In recentCorrespondence to:Sarawut Rimdusit;e-mail:sarawut.r@chula.ac.thContract grant sponsor:New Researcher’s Grant of Thailand ResearchFund-Commission on Higher Education(TRF-CHE);Contract grantnumber:MRG5380077;Contact grant sponsor:Matching Fund of Srina-kharinwirot University(2010-2012);Contract grant sponsor:the HigherEducation Research Promotion and National Research University Projectof Thailand,Ofﬁce of the Higher Education Commission;Contract grantnumber:AM1076A;Contract grant sponsor:100th Anniversary of Chu-lalongkorn University Academic Funding,CU;Contract grant sponsor:the Asashi Glass Foundation and Thai Polycarbonate Co.,Ltd.(TPCC).DOI10.1002/pen.23107Published online in Wiley Online Library().V C2012Society of Plastics EngineersPOLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-2012years,the investigation of PBA-a hybrid systems have been reported such as PBA-a/PU[6–8],PBA-a/phenolic novolac [10,11],PBA-a/epoxy resin[6,11,12],PBA-a/PI[13],and PBA-a/dianhydride[14,15].Interestingly,organic acid dianhydrides which contain aromatic structure and have high functionality have been found to impart improved heat resistance,as well as increased chemical and solvent resistance to the poly-meric materials such as epoxy resin[16,17]and PBA-a [18,19].The success of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA)and3,30,4,40benzophenonetetracarboxylic dia-nhydride(BTDA)as epoxy hardening agents is attributed to their tetrafunctionality,which leads to higher density of crosslinks,thus higher heat distortion temperature(HDT) and increased chemical and solvent resistance[17].Fur-thermore,muti-component polymeric materials of PBZ and aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-based PI have been investigated.Takeichi et al.[18]studied the thermal prop-erty of the polymer alloys between bisphenol-A-aniline-type polybenzoxazine(PBA-a)and PI based on bisphe-nol-A di(phthalic anhydride)ether(BPADA)and oxydia-niline(ODA).The authors reported that the T g of the PBA-a were improved signiﬁcantly by blending with PI due to higher thermal stability of PI(T g of PI¼2228C) than that of the PBA-a,i.e.,1528C.Silicon-containing polyimide(SPI)has also been reported to provide signiﬁcant enhancement on the decomposition temperature of PBA-a[13].The decompo-sition temperatures(T d s)of the blends increase from about3608C to4308C with the SPI content in range of0–75wt%.Interestingly,the char yields of the blends were substantially higher than that of the neat PBA-a and SPI. The highest char yield value at8008C of about45%was found at75wt%of the SPI content.This synergy in the char formation was also observed in the systems of PBA blended with other types of PIs[18].Recently,a novel PBA-a modiﬁed with dianhydride was successfully pre-pared by reacting bisphenol-A-aniline-based bifunctional benzoxazine resin(BA-a)with BTDA[14,15].The PBA-a:BTDA copolymer samples showed only one T g with the value as high as2638C at BA-a:BTDA¼1.5:1mole ra-tio.The value is remarkably higher than that of the unmodiﬁed PBA-a,i.e.,1788C.In addition,the resulting PBA-a:BTDA copolymer displays relatively high thermal stability with T d up to3648C and substantial enhancement in char yield of up to61%vs.that of38%of the PBA-a.In this study,we prepared a series of the high perform-ance copolymers of PBA-a and aromatic carboxylic dia-nhydrides,i.e.,PMDA,3,30,4,40biphenyltetracarboxylic dianhydride(s-BPDA),and BTDA.The effect of these ar-omatic carboxylic dianhydrides on thermomechanical properties of the obtained PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dia-nhydride copolymers is investigated.As aforementioned, blending of the PBA-a with the PI or an aromatic carbox-ylic dianhydride is an excellent method to modify the properties of the PBA suitable for such applications as microelectronics or prepreg fabrication.EXPERIMENTALMaterialsMaterials used in this study are bisphenol-A-aniline-based bifunctional benzoxazine resin(BA-a),dianhy-drides,and1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone(NMP)as solvent.TheBA-a based on bisphenol-A,paraformaldehyde,and ani-line was synthesized according to the patented solvent-less technology[4].Bisphenol-A(polycarbonate grade)was provided by Thai Polycarbonate Co.,Ltd.(TPCC).Paraformaldehyde(AR grade)and aniline(AR grade)were purchased from Merck Co.and Panreac QuimicaSA,respectively.Aromatic carboxylic dianhydrides usedin this work were PMDA purchased from Acros organics,3,30,4,40-biphenyltetracarboxylic dianhydride(s-BPDA)obtained from Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency,JAXA,(Prof.R.Yokota),and BTDA supplied by SigmaAldrich Co.NMP solvent was purchased from FlukaChemical Co.All chemicals were used as-received. Preparation of Benzoxazine-DianhydrideCopolymer FilmsBA-a resin was blended with various types of dianhy-drides(DA)at BA-a:DA¼1.5:1mole ratio which is anoptimal composition with good thermomechanical proper-ties as reported in our previous work[14,15].The mix-tures,i.e.,BA-a:PMDA¼15:1mole ratio,BA-a:s-BPDA ¼1.5:1mole ratio,and BA-a:BTDA¼1.5:1mole ratio, were dissolved in NMP and stirred at808C until a clear ho-mogeneous mixture was obtained.The solution was cast onTeﬂon sheet and dried at room temperature for24h.Addi-tional drying was carried out at808C for24h in a vacuumoven followed by thermal curing at1508C for1h,1708Cfor1h,at1908C,2108C,2308C for2h each,and2408C for1h to guarantee complete curing of the mixtures. Characterizations of the SamplesFourier transform infrared spectra of fully cured sam-ples were acquired at room temperature using a SpectrumGX FTIR spectometer from Perkin Elmer with an attenu-ated total reﬂection(ATR)accessory.In the case of aBA-a resin and a pure aromatic carboxylic dianhydride,asmall amount of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride powderwas cast as thinﬁlm on a potassium bromide(KBr)win-dow.All spectra were taken with64scans at a resolutionof4cm21and in a spectral range of4000–400cm21.The glass transition temperature(T g)of all sampleswere examined using a differential scanning calorimeter(DSC)model2910from TA Instruments.The thermo-gram was obtained at a heating rate of108C/min from308C to3008C under nitrogen purging with a constantﬂowrate of50ml/min.A sample with a mass in a rangeof8–10mg was sealed in an aluminum pan with lid.TheDOI10.1002/pen POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-20121641T g,DSC was obtained from the temperature at half extrap-olated tangents of the step transition midpoint.The dynamic mechanical analyzer(DMA)modelDMA242from NETZSCH was used to investigate theviscoelastic properties of all samples.The dimension ofthe samples was7.0mm310mm30.1mm.The testwas performed in a tension mode at a frequency of1Hzwith strain amplitude of0.1%and at a heating rate of2 8C/min from308C to4008C under constant nitrogenﬂow of80ml/min.The storage modulus(E0),loss modulus(E00),and loss tangent or damping curve(tan d)were thenobtained.The T g,DMA was taken as the maximum point onthe loss modulus curve in a DMA thermogram.Degradation temperature(T d)and char yield of allsamples were acquired using a Diamond TG/DTA fromPerkin Elmer.The testing temperature program wasramped at a heating rate of208C/min from308C to10008C under nitrogen purging with a constantﬂow of50ml/min.The sample mass used was measured to beapproximately8–15mg.The T d s and char yields of thesamples were reported at their10%weight loss and at8008C,respectively.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONNetwork Formation by Thermal Cure ofPBA-a:Dianhydride CopolymersBA-a containing BTDA-type aromatic carboxylic dia-nhydride at BA-a:BTDA¼1.5:1mole ratio was selected to examine the curing reaction by DSC as displayed in Fig.1.From the DSC thermograms as line(a)in Fig.1, after vacuum drying at808C,BA-a:BTDA mixture showed endothermic peak at2008C which corresponded to boiling point of NMP solvent(b.p.¼2028C).This endothermic peak decreased with an increase of heat treatment temperature,and completely disappeared after heat treatment at1508C as line(b)in Fig.1.This implied that the NMP solvent was completely removed from the BA-a:BTDA mixture at this heat-treatment stage.Further-more,the BA-a:BTDA mixture possessed an exothermic peak at2458C as line(e)in Fig.1.The area under the exothermic peak was observed to decrease as the cure temperature increased,and completely disappeared after curing at2408C.This suggested that the fully cured stage of BA-a:BTDA¼1.5:1mole ratio was achieved at up to 2408C heat treatment.Additionally,we obtained similar fully cured samples of BA-a:PMDA¼1.5:1mole ratio as line(f)in Fig.1and BA-a:s-BPDA¼1.5:1mole ratio as line(g)in Fig.1after the same heat treatment up to 2408C.After thermal curing at elevated temperature up to 2408C,the obtained thickness of the transparent PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDAﬁlms was about100l m as shown in Fig.2b–d.It is well known that PBA-aﬁlm is very brittle and we could not bend the ﬁlm more than as being shown in Fig.2a.Interestingly, all of PBA-a:PMDA,BA-a:s-BPDA,and BA-a:BTDA co-polymerﬁlms exhibited greatly improved toughness com-pared to the neat PBA-a as can be seen in Fig.2b–d.The ﬂexibility enhancement of all copolymer samples due to additional ester linkages,structurallyﬂexible functional group,formed in the PBA-a network as a result quoted in previous publications[15,19].Furthermore,the tensile properties, e.g.,tensile modulus,tensile strength,and elongation at break,are displayed in Table1.From the ta-ble,we can see that the tensile modulus of all copolymer ﬁlms were slightly higher than that of the neat PBA-a. Interestingly,tensile strength and elongation at break of the neat PBA-a were found to increase with an addition of PMDA or s-BPDA or BTDA dianhydrides.Especially, the tensile strength of PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhy-dride copolymerﬁlms were observed to be about three times greater than that of the neat PBA-a.This behavior was attributed to ester linkage formation in copolymer structures.In addition,the great toughness showed a similar trend for all copolymer samples with that of the commercial PIﬁlms such as Kaptonﬁlm[20]and UPILEX-sﬁlm.Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Investigation Chemical structures of BA-a,PBA-a,dianhydride modiﬁers,and their network formation reactionsbetween FIG.1.DSC thermograms of the benzoxazine blending with BTDA at 1.5:1mole ratio at various curing conditions:(a)608C,808C/24h,(b) 608C,808C/24hþ1508C/1h,(c)608C,808C/24hþ1508C,1708C/ 1h,(d)608C,808C/24hþ1508C,1708C/1hþ1908C,2108C/2h, (e)608C,808C/24hþ1508C,1708C/1hþ1908C,2108C,2308C/2h þ2408C/1h,(f)608C,808C/24hþ1508C,1708C/1hþ1908C,210 8C,2308C/2hþ2408C/1h(BA-a:s-BPDA¼1.5:1mole ratio),(g) 608C,808C/24hþ1508C,1708C/1hþ1908C,2108C,2308C/2hþ2408C/1h(BA-a:PMDA¼1.5:1mole ratio).1642POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-2012DOI10.1002/penthe PBA-a and dianhydride modiﬁers were studied by FTIR spectroscopic technique.The FTIR spectra of BA-a resin and the PBA-a are previously reported in detail [18,21,22].Characteristic absorption bands of the BA-a resin were found at 1232cm 21assigned to C ÀÀO ÀÀC stretch-ing mode of oxazine ring whereas the band around 1497cm 21and 947cm 21were attributed to the tri-substituted benzene ring.Following the curing phenomenon,an inﬁ-nite three dimensional network was formed from benzoxa-zine ring opening by the breakage of C ÀÀO bond and then the benzoxazine molecule transformed from a ring struc-ture to a network structure.During this process,the back-bone of benzoxazine ring,the tri-substituted benzene ring around 1497cm 21,became tetra-substituted benzene ring centered at 1488cm 21and 878cm 21which led to the formation of a phenolic hydroxyl group-based polyben-zoxazine (PBA-a)structure.In addition,an indication of ring opening reaction of the BA-a resin upon thermal treatment could also be observed from the appearance of a broad peak about 3300cm 21which was assigned to the hydrogen bonding of the phenolic hydroxyl group forma-tion.The chemical transformation of BA-a:PMDA,BA-a:s-BPDA,and BA-a:BTDA at 1.5:1mole ratio upon thermal curing was investigated and the resulting spectra are shown in Fig.3a–c.The important characteristic infra-red absorptions of the neat PBA-a structure were clearly observed as aforementioned.On the other hand,the aro-matic carboxylic dianhydride,i.e.,PMDA,s-BPDA,and BTDA,may be identiﬁed by a distinctive carbonyl band region.From the Fig.3a–c,the spectra of all aromatic carboxylic dianhydrides provided the strong carbonyl characteristic absorption peaks with component in the1860cm 21and 1780cm 21region.Moreover,all dianhy-drides also showed a strong C ÀÀO stretching band inrange of 1300–1100cm 21[15,23].After fully cured stage,the new absorption bands of PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA copolymers at 1.5:1mole ratio was observed.The phenomenon was ascribed to the appearance of carbonyl stretching bands of ester linkage [24].From the PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride spectra in Fig.3a–c,we can see that the carbonyl stretch-ing bands of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride at 1860cm 21and 1780cm 21completely disappeared.It was sug-gested that the reaction between the phenolic hydroxyl group of the PBA-a and the anhydride group of the aro-matic carboxylic dianhydrides could occur to form ester linkage as evidenced by the observed peak in the spec-trum at 1730cm 21.In general,IR spectra for esters exhibit an intense band in the range 1750–1730cm 21of its C ¼¼O stretching band.This peak varies slightly depending on the functional groups attached to the car-bonyl with exempliﬁcation of a benzene ring or double bond in conjugation with the carbonyl which will bring the wavenumber down to 30cm 21.Furthermore,thecar-FIG. 2.Photographs of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modiﬁed PBA-a ﬁlms:(a)PBA-a,(b)PBA-a:PMDA,(c)PBA-a:s-BPDA,(d)PBA-a:BTDA.TABLE 1.Tensile properties of PBA-a and aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modiﬁed PBA-a copolymers.Samples (mole ratio)Modulus (GPa)Strength (MPa)Elongation (%)PBA-a2.1025 1.9PBA-a:PMDA (1.5:1) 2.6078 5.4PBA-a:s-BPDA (1.5:1) 2.6895 6.6PBA-a:BTDA (1.5:1)2.50886.0DOI 10.1002/penPOLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-20121643boxylic acid occurred after thermal curing of the PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride mixture can also befollowed by monitoring a band at1650–1670cm21[25]and1613cm21[19]due to C¼¼O stretching.In addition,carboxylic acid shows characteristic CÀÀO stretching,in-plane and out-of-plane,and OÀÀH bending bands at1320–1210cm21,1440–1395cm21,and960–900cm21,respectively[23,26].As a consequence,we proposed areaction model of these PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dia-nhydride copolymers as shown in Scheme1.The reactionmechanism was similar to the esteriﬁcation of di-(2-ethyl-hexyl)phthalate and hydroxyl group of allyl alcohol[27]as well as the reaction between BTDA dianhydride andhydroxyl group of2-hydroxyethyl acrylate[28].More-over,the ester linkage formation in anhydride-cured ep-oxy resin systems has also been reported[29,30].FT-Raman analysis revealed that curing propagation of theepoxy-anhydride system mainly occurs by polyesteriﬁca-tion between hydroxyl group of the ring-opened epoxideand anhydride groups.The decrease of epoxide ring at1260cm21and anhydride ring at1860cm21resulted in arelative increase of a new band observed at1734cm21due to ester group formation on curing[31].Dynamic Mechanical Properties of PBA-a:DiandydrideCopolymersViscoelastic properties of PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA copolymerﬁlms at a mole ratioof 1.5:1were evaluated and storage modulus(E0),lossmodulus(E00),and tan d are illustrated in Figs.4–6.Gen-erally,the storage modulus demonstrates the deformationFIG.3.FTIR spectra of PBA:PMDA(a),PBA-a:s-BPDA(b),PBA-a:BTDA(c).SCHEME1.Model reaction of dianhydride-modiﬁed polybenzoxazinecopolymers.1644POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-2012DOI10.1002/penresistances of the material when external force is applied sinusoidally.The E 0at room temperature (258C)of the PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride copolymer sys-tems shown in Fig.4exhibited values of 3.02GPa for PBA-a:PMDA, 3.42GPa for PBA-a:s-BPDA,and 2.94GPa for PBA-a:BTDA,which are higher than that of the neat PBA-a,i.e.,2.57GPa.We can see that the storage modulus of all PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride copolymers is approximately equal to that of typical PI ﬁlms with a reported value in the range of 2.3–3.0GPa such as in s-BPDA/ODA,ODPA/ODA,PMDA/ODA PIs [32,33],and ﬂuorinated PI [34].Figure 5displays T g which shows the dimension stabil-ity,from the maximum point of a loss modulus curve,of the PBA-a:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride copolymers,i.e.,PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA at a ﬁxed mole ratio of 1.5:1.From the ﬁgure,PBA-a and its copolymers showed only single T g which suggested that all the PBAa:aromatic carboxylic dianhydride copoly-mer ﬁlms were a homogeneous network and no phase separation occurred.The ultimate T g value of the neat PBA-a was determined to be about 1788C and that of the copolymers,i.e.PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBAa:BTDA was found to be 3008C,2708C,and 2638C,respectively.That is the T g value of PBA-a was signiﬁ-cantly enhanced by an incorporation of all aromatic car-boxylic dianhydrides.In addition,we can clearly see that the T g of the copolymers is in the order of PBA-a:PMDA [PBA-a:s-BPDA [PBA-a:BTDA which is a similar trend as that found in aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-based PI ﬁlms derived from those dianhydrides,i.e.,PMDA,s-BPDA,BTDA mixed with DADE [35],and with ODA [36].This observed behavior is attributed to the nature of the stiffness/bulkiness of the dianhydride moieties and the bridging group in the dianhydrides whichstrongly affects T g of the copolymers.From our result,it is found that T g values of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride modiﬁed with PBA-a were decreased according to the increase of structural ﬂexibility of selected dianhydrides.As expected,the PBA-a:PMDA ﬁlm showed the highest T g due to the rigid pyromellitimide unit while the PBA-a:s-BPDA and the PBA-a:BTDA exhibited the lower T g than that of the PBAa:PMDA due to the presence of a more ﬂexibility bridging group,i.e.,biphenyl and benzo-phenone units in a dianhydride structure [37,38].More-over,an enhanced crosslink density via ester linkage between phenolic hydroxyl group of PBA-a and anhydride group of dianhydride as depicted in FTIR spectra results in further T g improvement of the copolymers.In a tight network structure,in which rubbery plateau modulus is greater than 107Pa such as in our case,the non-Gaussian character of the polymer network becomes increasingly more pronounced and the equation from theory of rubbery elasticity is no longer applicable.The approximate rela-tion expressed in the equation below proposed by Nielsen and Landel [39]is thus preferred and is reported to better describe the elastic properties of dense network,e.g.,in epoxy systems [40,41].As a consequence,a crosslink density of these copolymer networks,q x ,can be estimated from a value of the equilibrium storage shear modulus inthe rubbery region (G e 0)which equals to E 0e 3as follow:log E0e 3¼7:0þ293r x ðÞ(1)where E 0e (dyne/cm 2)is an equilibrium tensile storage modulus in rubbery plateau,q x (mol/cm 3)is crosslink density which is the mole number of network chains per unit volume of thepolymers.FIG.4.Storage modulus of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modiﬁed PBA-a ﬁlms:(l )PBA-a,(n )PBA-a:PMDA,(^)PBA-a:s-BPDA,(~)PBA-a:BTDA.FIG. 5.Loss modulus of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modiﬁed PBA-a ﬁlms:(l )PBA-a,(n )PBA-a:PMDA,(^)PBA-a:s-BPDA,(~)PBA-a:BTDA.DOI 10.1002/penPOLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-20121645Crosslink density values of the PBA-a and its copoly-mers,i.e.,PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA at an equal mole ratio of 1.5:1,calculated from Eq.1are 3981mol/cm 3,8656mol/cm 3,7664mol/cm 3,and 7630mol/m 3,respectively.It is evident that the crosslink density of the neat PBA-a was greatly enhanced by an addition of PMDA,s-BPDA,or BTDA,correspond-ing to an enhancement in their T g values discussed previ-ously.An effect of crosslink density which is one key parameter on T g of aromatic carboxylic diandydride-modiﬁed PBA-a network can be accounted for using Fox–Loshaek equation [42].T g ¼T g ð1ÞÀkM nþk x r x (2)where T g ð1Þis glass transition temperature of inﬁnite molecular weight linear polymer,k and k x are numerical constants,M n is number average molecular weight which equals inﬁnity in a crosslinking system (therefore,thisterm,kM n,can be neglected),(x is the crosslink density.From the equation,the higher the crosslink density,the greater the T g of the copolymers,which was in excellent agreement with our DMA results.Loss tangent (tan d )of the PBA-a and their copoly-mers of various aromatic carboxylic dianhydride types is illustrated in Fig. 6.A peak height of tan d of PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA at an equal mole ratio of 1.5:1tended to decrease while the peak position of their copolymers clearly shifted to higher tem-perature.The results suggested that an increase in the crosslink density caused a restriction of the chain’s seg-mental mobility in aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modi-ﬁed PBA copolymers thus a more elastic nature of the copolymer ﬁlms compared to the PBA-a.In addition,thewidth-at-half-height of tan d curves was found to be broader in their PBA-a copolymers,which indicated a more heterogeneous network in the resulting copolymers due to a hybrid polymer network formation.Moreover,the obtained transparent copolymer ﬁlms and the single tan d peak observed in each copolymer suggested no mac-roscopic phase separation in these copolymer ﬁlms.Thermal Stability of PBA-a:Dianhydride Copolymers Thermal stability of the PBA-a and their copolymers including PBA-a:PMDA,PBA-a:s-BPDA,and PBA-a:BTDA was investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).Figure 7compares TGA thermograms of the PBA-a and its copolymers in nitrogen atmosphere.From the ﬁgure,we can see that the degradation temperature (T d )reported at 10%weight loss of the neat PBA-a was 3618C while the T d of the copolymers increased in the order of PBAa:PMDA (4268C)[PBA-a:s-BPDA (4228C)[PBA-a:BTDA (4108C).In other words,the order of thermal stability (T d )with respect to aromatic skeleton of acid dianhydride component is phenylene unit [biphenyl unit [benzophenone unit [40].Furthermore,the T d value of the neat PBA-a ﬁlm was observed to sig-niﬁcantly increase with an incorporation of aromatic carboxylic dianhydrides.This is due to the formation of poly(aromatic ester)in the copolymers,i.e.,reported T d of polyester $320–4008C [43,44],which clearly had higher T d than the neat PBA-a.As previously reported in FTIR spectra,the formation of additional crosslinking sites via ester linkage between the anhydride group in the aromatic carboxylic dianhydride and hydroxyl group of the neat PBA-a thus clearly contributed this T d enhancement.In summary,the higher crosslink density and the presence of an aromatic structure of these aromatic carboxylicdianhy-FIG. 6.Loss tangent of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modiﬁed PBA-a ﬁlms:(l )PBA-a,(n )PBA-a:PMDA,(^)PBA-a:s-BPDA,(~)PBA-a:BTDA.FIG.7.Thermal degradation of aromatic carboxylic dianhydride-modi-ﬁed PBA-a ﬁlms:(l )PBA-a,(n )PBA-a:PMDA,(^)PBA-a:s-BPDA,(~)PBA-a:BTDA.1646POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE—-2012DOI 10.1002/pen。

文献翻译格式参考

Quantifying the Trade Effects of Technical Barriers to Trade: Evidence from China 1. IntroductionTechnical barriers to trade（TBT）are now widespread and have increasing impacts on international trade. The spread of TBT may have some special reasons.First, it’s legitimate. The WTO members are authorized by WTO TBT/SPS Agreement to take such measures in order to protect human health, as well as animal and plant health, provided that the enforced measures are not disguised protectionism. Second, as Baldwin (1970) emphasized, ―The lowering of tariffs has, in effect, been like draining a swamp. The lower water level has revealed all the snags and stumps of non-tariff barriers that still have to be cleared away‖. Wallner (1998) considered this phenomenon as a ―law of constant protection‖, referring to perfect substitutability between tariff and none-tariff barriers in maintaining a degree of desired domestic protection.Third, with the trade liberalization process, the remaining barriers, like TBT have a more important but not a less important impact due to the ―globalization magnification effect‖, seemingly minor differences in technical norms can have an outsized effect on production and trade (Baldwin 2000). Fourth, the increasing income of importing country and consumer preference may result in a higher demand for product quality, safety and environment protection.Since the proliferation of TBT and its increasing trade-restrictive impacts, OECD (2001) drew attention to TBT and suggested more empirical research on it, becausethe quantitative analysis is an important step in the regulatory reform process and can help inform governments to define more efficient regulations. However, due to the theoretical complexity and data s carcity, TBT have been considered as ―one of the most difficult NTBs imaginable to quantify‖ （Deardorff and Stern 1997）So far, there is not a preferred quantification strategy and claims abound on both sides about―whether such restrictions tend to reduce trade by virtue of raising compliance costsor expand trade by increasing consumer confidence in the safety and quality of imported goods‖ (Maskus and Wilson 2001).Maskus and Wilson (2001), Maskus, Otsuki, and Wilson (2001), Beghin and Bureau (2001), Ferrantino (2006) and Korinek, Melatos and Rau (2008) etc provide comprehensive overviews of key economic issues relating to TBT modeling and measurement. Based on these literatures, quantification techniques can be broadly grouped into two categories. Ex-post approaches such as gravity-based econometric models tend to estimate the observed trade impact of standards. On the other hand, ex ante methods such as simulations involving the calculation of tariff equivalents are usually employed to predict the unobserved welfare impact. No approach is or can bedefinitive. Each methodology offers its own pluses and minuses, depending on a number of factors, including the nature of the technical measure, the availability of data, and the goal of measurement. (Popper et al 2004)Concerning the trade effect1, different from any other trade measures, TBT have both trade promotion and trade restriction effects. Although a unified methodology does not exist, the gravity model is most often used for the evaluation. The gravity model employs a number of different approaches to measure the TBT. The policy indices obtained by survey can be used as proxy for the severity of TBT, and direct measures based on inventory approach are incorporated too. Beghin and Bureau（2001）summarized three sources of information that can be used to assess the importance of domestic regulations as trade barriers: (i) data on regulations, such as the number of regulations, which can be used to construct various statistical indicators,or proxy variables, such as the number of pages of national regulations; (ii) data on frequency of detentions, including the number of restrictions; frequency ratios and the import coverage ratio (iii) data on complaints from the industry against discriminatory regulatory practices and notifications to international bodies about such practices. Besides the above mentioned approach, some studies try to use explicit standards requirements such as maximum residue levels too.There are a considerable number of study combined the variable for the stringency of TBT with gravity model to estimate the direction of the trade impact.Swann, Temple, and Shurmer (1996) used counts of voluntary national and international standards recognized by the UK and Germany as indicators of standard over the period1985–1991, their findings suggest that share standards positively impact exports, but had a little impact on imports; unilateral standards positively influence imports but negatively influence exports. Moenius (2004, 2006) examines the trade effect of country specific standards and bilaterally shared standards over the period 1985-1995. Both papers used the counts of binding standards in a given industry as a measure of stringency of standards.Moenius (2004) focus on 12 OECD countries and found that at aggregate level, bilaterally shared standards and country-specific standards implemented by the importing or exporting country are both trade-promoting on average. At the industry level, the only variation is that importer-specific standards have the expected negative trade effect in nonmanufacturing sectors such as agriculture. In manufacturing industries, importer-specific standards are trade promoting too. Moenius (2006) confirm the result of Moenius (2004) in that bilateral standard in EU has very strong trade promoting effect as to the trade between EU and non-EU members, but harmonization decrease the internal trade of EU. Moenius (2006) distinguish 8 EU members and 6 non-EU developed countries. So he also found that importer specific standard in EU promote trade between EU members, but depress trade between EU members and non-EU members; Exporter specific standard inside EU has little trade promoting effect ,but export specific standard of non-EU members expand their tradewith EU.The paper using frequency or coverage ratio within a gravity model framework include Fontagné, Mimouni and Pasteels (2005) and Disdier, Fontagné, and Mimouni (2007). Both of them use the frequency ratio based on notification directly extracted from the TRAINS database. Fontagné, Mimouni and Pasteels (2005) collect data on 61 product groups, including agri-food products in 2001. Their paper generalized the findings of Moenius (2004): NTMs, including standards, have a negative impact on agri-food trade but an insignificant or even positive impact on the majority of manufactured products. Moreover, they distinguish trade effects among ―suspicious products‖, ―sensitive products‖ as well as ―remaining products‖ according to the number of notifications and distinguish different country group. Based on data covering 61 exporting countries and 114 importing countries, they find that over the entire product range, LDCs, DCs and OECD countries seem to be equally affected. However, OECD agrifood exporters tend to benefit from NTMs, at the expense of exporters from DCs and LDCs. The authors account for tariff and other NTM in the model , so they also find that tariffs matter more than NTMs, particularly foragri-food products on which comparatively high tariffs are levied.Disdier, Fontagné, and Mimouni (2008) estimate the trade effect of standards and other NTMs on 690 agri-food products (HS 6-digit level). Their data covers bilateral trade between importing OECD countries and 114 exporting countries (OECD and others) in 2004. As well as a frequency index, they use a dummy variable that records whether the importing country has notified at least one NTM and ad-valorem tariff equivalent measures of NTMs as two alternative approaches to measure NTMs. They find that these measures have on the whole a negative impact on OECD imports and affect trade more than other trade policy measures such as tariffs. The tariff equivalent shows the smallest effect. When they consider different groups of exporting countries, they show that OECD exporters are not significantly affected by SPS and TBTs in their exports to other OECD countries while developing and least developed countries’ exports are negatively and significantly affected. For the subsample of EU imports, NTMs no longer influence OECD exports positively, but exports from LDCs and DCs seem to be more negatively influenced by tariffs and SPS & TBTs than that of OECD. Finally, their sectoral analysis suggests an equal distribution of negative and positive impacts of NTBs on agricultural trade.Many studies are supportive of using maximum residue levels to directly measure the severity of food safety standards within a gravity model. These studies include Otsuki, Wilson and Sewadeh (2001a, b), Wilson and Otsuki (2004b,c) Wilson,Otsuki and Majumdsar (2003), Lacovone (2003) and Metha and Nambiar（2005）. These studies tend to focus on specific cases of standards for particular products and countries. Otsuki, Wilson and Sewadeh (2001a,b) and Wilson and Otsuki (2004b) examine the trade effect of aflatoxin standards in groundnuts and other agriculturalproducts (vegetables,fruits and cereals). The first two papers covered African export data to EU members and the third paper covered 31 exporting countries (21 developing countries) and 15 importing countries(4 developing countries). All three studies show that imports are greater when the importing country imposes less stringent aflatoxin standards on foreign products. Lacovone (2003) also used MRL of aflatoxin and found that there were substantial export losses to Latin-America from the tightening of the aflatoxin standards set by Europe. Similarly, Wilson, Otsuki and Majumdsar (2003) analyze the effect of standards for tetracycline residues on beef trade and find that regardless of the exporter standards, the standards of tetracycline imposed by the importing countries have the same negative trade impact. Wilson and Otsuki (2004c) analyze MRL relating to chlorpyrifos and Metha and Nambiar（2005）analyze the impact of MRL on India’s export of four processing agri-products to 7 developed countries and yield the similar result.Since our paper focus on the trade effect of technical barrier, we will use the most suitable ex post quantification methods. Moreover, while frequency and coverage ratio can give some guidance as to the potential trade impact of a technical measure, econometric model is used to estimate its magnitude.Our paper make contributions to the current literature in the following ways: First, in contrast to the existing empirical studies which exclusively focus on developed countries TBT, this paper focuses on a developing country, China. Second, this paper has a self-constructed trade measure database based on disaggregated data covered all HS2 products, including agricultural and processing food products (HS01-24) and manufacturing products (HS25-97) so that it can identify the sectors/products with predominant negative impacts on trade. Third, tariff data, import licenses and quotas are included as additional explanatory variables, allowing the distinction between the impact of traditional trade barriers and TBT on trade. Fourth, our data covers 43 exporting countries (including 25 developing countries), it helps to distinguish the trade effect of different country groups. Fifth, in contrast to most literature relied on cross-section data1, our paper covers 9 years time series data on TBT, so we can both capture variation across products and variation within products over time, in particular the changing effects before and after China’s entry into the WTO.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we construct a TBT database from 1998 to 2006 and use inventory approach (frequency index and coverage ratio) to quantify the stringency of technical measures in China. In section 3, we present our regression model, discuss all the variables and describe the data. In section 4, we discuss our findings. We make some concluding remarks in section 5. 2. Quantification of TBT2.1 Measurement of NTM: Inventory approachThe inventory approach allows estimates of the extent of trade covered by NTMs or their frequency of application in specific sectors or against individual countries orgroups of countries. Bora etc (2002) reviews various approaches to quantify NTMs and give a detailed instruction on how to construct frequency index and coverage ratio as follows. The percentage of trade subject to NTMs for an exporting country j at a desired level of product aggregation is given by the trade coverage ratio:2.2 China’s NTM database: data description and methodologyFollowed the method described above, we will construct a Chinese NTMs database from 1998 to 2006 by using inventory approach. The data covered 96 HS2 digit level agricultural and manufacturing industries. First, we calculate a series of frequency index at 4-digit-level of the Harmonized System and then aggregate them into import coverage ratio at HS2. In this database, data are collected by tariff item on the application of a range of tariff and NTMs (TBT, license and import quota) against Chinese imports. The main source of the information on the trade control measures in the database is from Chinese government publications. ―Administrative Measures Regarding Impor t & Export Trade of the People's Republic of China‖ published bythe Ministry of Commerce and Custom General Administration of China provide detailed information at HS 8-digit-level on tariff and non-tariff measures.The code list of supporting documents subject to customs control provide detailed name of licenses or instruments of ratification, which helps to identify whether a tariff line product subject to a specific non-tariff barrier. Concerning the technical measures, it includes those government administrative measures for environmental protection, safety, national security and consumer interests. The code subject to TBT control remains almost the same during the 1998-2001. Specificly, the code subject to TBT in 1998 is IRFM, denoting for Import commodity inspection (I), Quarantine control release for animal, plant and thereof product (R), Import food inspection certificate (F) and Medicine inspection certificate (M). The code concerning TBT in 1999-2001 is AMPR, denoting for Import inspection and quarantine (A), Import commodity inspection (M), Import animal, plant and thereof product inspection (P) and Import food hygiene supervision inspection (R). Since 2002, the government revised the code list into details. Although there is some tiny difference between years, the new code list remains quite stable during 2002-2006 (See the code list in Annex1). The code subject to TBT is ACFIPQSWX during 2002-2005 and AFIPQSWX in 2006, each code stands for Certificate of inspection for goods inward (A), Certificate of inspection for goods inward: Civil commodity import inspection (C), Import licencing certificate for endangered species (F), Import or export permit for psychotropic drugs (I), Import permit for waste and scraps (P), Report of inspection of soundness on import medicines (Q), Import or export registration certificate for pesticides (S), Import or export permit for narcolic drugs (W), Environment control release noticefor poisonous chemicals (X).Note that our data on trade control measures do not have a bilateral dimension. TBT measures, import license and import quotas are enforced unilaterally by Chinese government and applicable to all exporting countries. When we calculate coverageratio and frequency ratio, Vi is the total value of imports in product i from the whole world and Mi indicates whether there are imports from the whole world of good i. Hence, in a specific year, NTM variables vary among different sectors but remain the same among different countries. Although we miss the bilateral dimension associated with such measures, still the exporters are differently affected by TBT measures depending on the structure of their exports in terms of products and markets.To be precise, the frequency ratio of TBT (FR-TBT) measures the proportion of product items covered by TBT measures within a product category, which varies between 0% (no coverage) and 100% (all products covered). We first count the number of HS items (defined at the 8 digit level of the HS) covered by the TBT measures and divide it by the maximum number of product items belonging to the product category (defined here at the 4-digit level of the HS). So we get the results of frequency ratio of TBT at HS4 digit level. For example, regarding HS2402 (Cigars, cheroots, cigarillos and cigarettes, of tobacco or of tobacco substitutes), there are 3 product items with codes 24021000 (Cigars, cheroots and cigarillos, containing tobacco), 24022000 (Cigarettes containing tobacco), 24029000(other). Only one of them (HS24022000) is covered by TBT measures, so the corresponding TBT frequency index equals 33.33% (1 / 3). Then we do the same at HS2 digit level.The import coverage ratio(IC-TBT) measures the proportion of affected import of the total import within a product category. Take HS17 (Sugars and sugar confectionery) as an example, there are 4 product items with code HS1701, 1702, 1703 and 1704 respectively. Only three of them (except HS1703) are covered by TBT measures (it means the frequency index for HS1703 equals 0, while the other three are between 0 and 100%), the import value of the TBT affected products sum up to 111.216 million US$, the import valued of HS17 is 182.244 million US$, so the corresponding TBT import coverage ratio equals 66.46% (111.216/182.244).2.3 TBT rocked sectors in ChinaBy calculating frequency index and import coverage ratio of TBT, we can examine which products are the most affected. According to the definition by UNCTAD (1997), those with a frequency ratio and coverage ratio both above 50% are TBT rocked product. In our sample, 34 products（HS01-24; HS30,31,33; HS 41;HS 44-47; HS51 and HS72）are TBT-rocked during the period from 1998-2002. In 2003, two product items (HS 42-43) become TBT-rocked. In 2004, two more products (HS 50 and HS80) added into the category. During 2005-2006, HS78 are included asTBT-rocked products but HS50 is excluded. See Annex2 for the detailed product information of TBT rocked products.There are a significant number of products, particularly agricultural products and processing food widely affected by technical measures (HS01-24). However, enforcement of TBT is not limited to those products, but is spreading to manufacturing products also. The TBT rocked manufacturing products includePharmaceutical products（HS30, Essential oils, perfumes, cosmetics, toiletries (HS33), Raw hides and skins, leather, furskins and articles thereof (HS41-43), Wood and articles of wood（HS44-46）, Base metals and articles thereof, like iron and steel, aluminium and tin.( HS72, 76 and 80) etc. They are either labor intensive products or final goods concerning consumer safety, like medicaments in particular. Although TBT rocked sectors cover about 1/3 of total number of products at HS2 digit level, the proportion of affected trade is limited: about 10-16% of total import. However technical barriers are the most frequent type of NTM, the import subject to TBT account for above 90% of Chinese total import except for the rare case in 2001 (77.29%). (see Table 1).3. Model, methodology and data3.1 Model specificationWe use gravity model to examine how TBT imposed by China influence the country’s bilateral trade. To capture the size effect, population of both countries is used as proxy for exporting country’s supply capacities and importing country’s demand capacity. Per capita income of the two countries is included because higher income countries trade more in general. Transport costs are measured using the bilateral distance countries’ cultural proximity. We therefore control for this p roximity by introducing a common language dummy variable. Based on the typical gravity model, we introduce our key variables—tariff and non-tariff trade barriers. Our basic regression model takes the following forms:4. Empirical results4.1 The whole sample resultsTable 2-1 shows the summary statistics of our key variables. Table 2-2 reports the Pearson coefficients of the trade control measure variables. For the frequency index, import license and tariff appear to be negatively correlated. For the coverage ratio, besides import license, TBT seems to be slightly negative correlated with the tariff. Except for the above rare cases, the import control policies are positively correlated to each other. In general, different kinds of import control measures in China seem to be complementary to each other. Among them, import license and import quota have the highest positive coefficient, this accords with the fact that these two measures are sometimes combined together. Normally a country will distribute quota by issuing import license.We use OLS to estimate the gravity model. Regressions are run on pooled data for 9 years (see Table 3 and 4) and on data for each year separately (see Table 5 and 6). Table 3 and 5 report the result using frequency index, while Table 4 and 6 report the result using coverage ratio, both at HS 2-digit-level. For the whole sample regression results in Table 3 and 4, column 1 shows the result of the basic gravity model, column 2 introduces tariff and non-tariff barriers, column 3 tries to identify the difference between developing and developed countries and column 4 adds WTO as an additional control variable. Year-country-product fixed effect is used for all thespecifications.The results for standard gravity explanatory variables are consistent with prior expectations except for Contig as a rare case. The effect of GDPPC, POP and dist is positive and highly significant for all regressions. It implies that a 1 percent increase in the population of exporting country yields a 1.39-1.47 percent increase in the bilateral trade, and a 1 percent increase in the per capita GDP of exporting country yields a 0.91-1.40 percent increase in the bilateral trade. A 1 percent increase in geographic distance between the two trade partners will result a 1.42-1.45 percent decrease in bilateral trade. The effect of POPchina and GDPPCchina is positive and significant in two regressions. If Chinese population or per capita GDP increase 1 percent, Chinese import will increase 10.8-14.1 percent or 2.0-2.8 percent respectively. The coefficient for Comlang is positively significant in all specifications, which implies that if the exporting country share a same language with China, Chinese import will be stimulated by 2.6-3.3 percent. If the exporting market belongs to China, it will increase Chinese import by 0.3 percent. The coefficient for Contig is significantly negative, which implies that if the exporting country and China are contiguous, Chinese import will decrease 0.76-0.99 percent. This result is not consistent to the prior expectation. But the intuition is easily understood because the most important importing markets such as the US, Japan, EU members are not contiguous with China mainland.We then discuss the key explanatory variable, Tariff have a significant negative effect on Chinese import. A 1 percent increase in the MFN tariff will decrease import value by 0.64-0.66 percent. The results of the frequency index of NTM are all significant. A 1 unit increase in FRTBT will decrease import value by 1.1%, a 1 unit increase in FRQ will decrease import value by 1.7%, a 1 unit increase in FRL will increase import value by 4.1%. The results of the coverage ration of NTM are different in some extent with that of frequency index. A 1 unit increase in ICTBT will increase import value by 0.2%, a 1 unit increase in ICL will increase the import value by 2.7%, and the coefficient for ICQ is negative but not statistically significant.Table 5 and 6 give us a clear picture about how the effect of trade control measures change yearly. Tariff remains negatively significant for all 9 years.Moreover, the elasticity for Tariff dramatically increased since 2003. The trade depressing effect of Tariff nearly doubled after China’s entry into the WTO. FRTBT is negatively significant in all year specifications, and the coefficient remains stable through the sample period. FRL is positively significant while FRQ is negatively significant except for three years. In 1998, 1999 and 2001, FRL is insignificant while FRQ is positively significant due to the multicollinearity1. The result of ICTBT is changeable during the sample period. The coefficient of ICTBT is positively significant during 1998-2002, negatively significant in 2003 and insignificant during the remaining years. ICL remains positively significant during all 9 years, plus the elasticity for ICL slightly increased since 2002. ICQ is significant during 1998-2002,but the sign of the coefficient is changeable, and ICQ becomes insignificant since 2003. So ICQ doesn’t affect bi lateral trade value in a systematic way. From the yearly result, we observe that some of the trade control measure change trade patterns in a different way. Does the trade effect change significantly before and after China entry into the WTO? Whether there is any systematic difference in the trade effect between developing and developed countries? To solve these two problems, we add two interactions. Column 5 introduces the interaction between Developing and each of frequency indices of trade measures. Column 6 adds the interaction between WTO and each of coverage ratios of trade measure. As we can see, tariff (Tariff) and import quota (FRQ and ICQ) seem to have no difference between difference country groups. The change of FRTBT will affect Chinese import from developing countries less than that from developed countries. The change of ICTBT will affect Chinese import from developing countries more than that from developed countries. The change in FRL or ICL will have less impact on Chinese import from developing countries than from developed countries. On average, tariff, license have an increasing effect but quota has a decreasing effect after China’s entry into the WTO. The effect of TBT does not change significantly.5. ConclusionThe results of current literature suggest that TBT in importing country has restrictive trade effect and exports of poor countries are affected more. The paper explores whether technical measures imposed by China have restrictive effects for the imports from main exporters all over the world. Our research confirms some of the results reported elsewhere in the literature while differences remain in some aspects.First, in general trade control measures do have import restrictive effect in China. Second, tariff plays an important r ole even after China entry into the WTO. So far it’s still the most efficient policy tool. Third, TBT is the most frequently used NTM in China and cover almost all the imports. TBT do have some trade depressing effect but the effect is relatively small compared to the effect of tariff. Fourth, in contrast to the general belief that TBT works as a substitute to tariff and traditional NTM in developed countries（Thonsbury1998, Abbott 1997 etc）, there is no obvious substitution effect between tariff and TBT in China, moreover, the TBT is complementary to tariff in some extent.定量商业作用技术贸易壁垒：证据从中国1. 介绍技术贸易壁垒TBT现在普遍并且增加了对国际贸易的冲击。

(完整word版)光学外文文献及翻译

学号2013211033 昆明理工大学专业英语专业光学姓名辜苏导师李重光教授分数导师签字日期2015年5月6日研究生部专业英语考核In digital holography, the recording CCD is placed on the ξ-ηplane in order to register the hologramx ',y 'when the object lies inthe x-y plane. Forthe reconstruction ofthe information ofthe object wave,phase-shifting digital holography includes two steps:(1) getting objectwave on hologram plane, and (2) reconstructing original object wave.2.1 Getting information of object wave on hologram plateDoing phase shifting N-1 times and capturing N holograms. Supposing the interferogram after k- 1 times phase-shifting is]),(cos[),(),(),,(k k b a I δηξφηξηξδηξ-⋅+= （1） Phase detection can apply two kinds of algorithms:synchronous phase detection algorithms [9]and the least squares iterative algorithm [10]. The four-step algorithm in synchronous phase detection algorithm is in common use. The calculation equation is)2/3,,(),,()]2/,,()0,,([2/1),(πηξπηξπηξηξηξiI I iI I E --+=2.2 Reconstructing original object wave by reverse-transform algorithmObject wave from the original object spreads front.The processing has exact and clear description and expression in physics and mathematics. By phase-shifting technique, we have obtained information of the object wave spreading to a certain distance from the original object. Therefore, in order to get the information of the object wave at its initial spreading position, what we need to do is a reverse work.Fig.1 Geometric coordinate of digital holographyexact registering distance.The focusing functions normally applied can be divided into four types: gray and gradient function, frequency-domain function, informatics function and statistics function. Gray evaluation function is easy to calculate and also robust. It can satisfy the demand of common focusing precision. We apply the intensity sum of reconstruction image as the evaluation function:min ),(11==∑∑==M k Nl l k SThe calculation is described in Fig.2. The position occurring the turning point correspondes to the best registration distanced, also equals to the reconstructing distance d '.It should be indicated that if we only need to reconstruct the phase map of the object wave, the registration distance substituted into the calculation equation is permitted having a departure from its true value.4 Spatial resolution of digital holography4.1 Affecting factors of the spatial resolution of digital holographyIt should be considered in three respects: (1) sizes of the object and the registering material, and the direction of the reference beam, (2) resolution of the registering material, and (3) diffraction limitation.For pointx2on the object shown in Fig.3, the limits of spatial frequency are λξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-'-=-=-0211maxmax tan sin sin sin sin z x f R R Fig.2 Determining reconstructing distanceλξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-'-=-=-211minmintansinsinsinsin zxfRRFrequency range isλξξ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-'-⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-=∆--211211tansintansinzxzxfso the range is unrelated to the reference beam.Considering the resolution of registering material in order to satisfy the sampling theory, phase difference between adjacent points on the recording plate should be less than π, namely resolution of the registration material.cfff=∆η21)(minmaxπ4.2 Expanding the spatial resolution of reconstruction imageExpanding the spatial resolution can be realized at least in three ways: (1) Reducing the registration distance z0 can improve the reconstruction resolution, but it goes with reduction of the reconstruction area at the same ratio.Therefore, this method has its limitation. (2) Increasing the resolution and the imaging size of CCD with expensive price. (3) Applying image-synthesizing technique[11]CCD captures a few of images between which there is small displacement (usually a fraction of the pixel size) vertical to the CCD plane, shown in Fig.4(Schematic of vertical moving is the same).This method has two disadvantages. First, it is unsuitable for dynamic testing and can only be applied in the static image reconstruction. Second, because the pixel size is small (usually 5μm to 10μm) and the displacement should a fraction of this size (for example 2μm), it needs a moving table with high resolution and precision. Also it needs high stability in whole testing.In general, improvement of the spatial resolution of digital reconstruction is Fig.3 Relationship between object and CCDstill a big problem for the application of digital holography.5 Testing resultsFig.5 is the photo of the testing system. The paper does testing on two coins. The pixel size of the CCD is 4.65μm and there are 1 392×1 040 pixels. The firstis one Yuan coin of RMB (525 mm) used for image reconstruction by phase-shifting digital holography. The second is one Jiao coin of RMB (520 mm) for the testing of deformation measurement also by phase-shifting digital holography.5.1 Result of image reconstructionThe dimension of the one Yuancoin is 25 mm. The registrationdistance measured by ruler isabout 385mm. We capture ourphase-shifting holograms andreconstruct the image byphase-shifting digital holography.Fig.6 is the reconstructed image.Fig.7 is the curve of the auto-focusFig.4 Image capturing by moving CCD along horizontal directionFig.5 Photo of the testing systemfunction, from which we determine the real registration distance 370 mm. We can also change the controlling precision, for example 5mm, 0.1 mm,etc., to get more course or precision reconstruction position.5.2 Deformation measurementIn digital holography, the method of measuring deformation measurement differs from the traditional holography. It gets object wave before and after deformation and then subtract their phases to obtain the deformation. The study tested effect of heating deformation on the coin of one Jiao. The results are shown in Fig.8, Where (a) is the interferential signal of the object waves before and after deformation, and (b) is the wrapped phase difference.5.3 Improving the spatial resolutionFor the tested coin, we applied four sub-low-resolution holograms to reconstruct the high-resolution by the image-synthesizing technique. Fig.9 (a) is the reconstructed image by one low-resolution hologram, and (b) is the high-resolution image reconstructed from four low-resolution holograms.Fig.6 Reconstructed image Fig.7 Auto-focus functionFig.8 Heating deformation resultsFig.9 Comparing between the low and high resolution reconstructed image6 SummaryDigital holography can obtain phase and amplitude of the object wave at the same time. Compared to other techniques is a big advantage. Phase-shifting digital holography can realize image reconstruction and deformation with less noise. But it is unsuitable for dynamic testing. Applying the intensity sum of the reconstruction image as the auto-focusing function to evaluate the registering distance is easy, and computation is fast. Its precision is also sufficient. The image-synthesizing technique can improve spatial resolution of digital holography, but its static characteristic reduces its practicability. The limited dimension and too big pixel size are still the main obstacles for widely application of digital holography.外文文献译文：标题：图像重建中的相移数字全息摘要：相移数字全息术被用来研究研究艺术品的内部缺陷。

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英文翻译分院宋体四号字专业宋体四号字届别宋体四号字学号宋体四号字姓名宋体四号字指导教师宋体四号字200Ｘ年Ｘ月Ｘ日<文献翻译一：原文>××××××1××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××备注：英文文献翻译原文必须注明出处11．著作：作者姓名．书名[M]．xx：出版社，xxxx，xx．2．论文：作者姓名．论文题目[D]．杂志名称，xxxx（）：xx．以英文大写字母方式标识各种参考文献,专著[M]、论文集[C]、报纸文章[N]、期刊文章[J]、学位论文[D]、报告[R]。

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模型预测油田水中溶解的碳酸钙含量：压力和温度的影响XXX 译摘要：油田中水垢沉积会对储层造成伤害、堵塞地层孔道、表面以及注入设备。

碳酸钙是水中最常见的结垢化合物之一，储层产生的盐水会使压力和温度降低，储层压力降低会使CaCO3的溶解度降低，进而提高体系中碳酸钙的饱和速率，而温度下降会产生相反的结果。

因此温度和压力一起作用的结果可能增加或减小CaCO3溶解度，用体系温度的变化来指定其压力的变化。

因此，在石油生产系统中精确的预测方法的应用备受关注。

目前的研究重点是运用基于最小二乘支持向量机(LSSVM)预测模型来估计油田水中溶解碳酸钙浓度的大小。

用超优化参数（r和C2）的遗传算法（GA）嵌入到LSSVM模型，这种方法可简单准确的预测油田卤水中溶解碳酸钙浓度的最小量。

1.引言随着油田卤水压力和温度变化，气体可能会从储层到地表的运动，导致某些固体沉淀。

为了保持注水井压力平衡并将油运移到生产井，有时需要将卤水注入到储层中，因此，过量的盐垢可以沉积在储层或井眼内。

对于大部分油田结垢多会发生在此过程中。

碳酸钙沉积通常是一个自发的过程，沉积形成的主要原因是二氧化碳从水相逸出，导致油气层的压力下降，该过程会除去了水中的碳酸，直到方解石溶解完全。

在恒定二氧化碳分压下，方解石的溶解性随温度的降低而降低[1-4]。

根据公式（1），碳酸钙沉积垢来自碳酸钙沉淀：Ca2+ + CO32-→ CaCO3↓下面的公式为碳酸的电离式[5–7]：CO2 + H2O → H2CO3H2CO3→ H+ + HCO3-HCO3-→ H+ + CO32-若要形成碳酸氢根离子和氢离子，碳酸要电离，因为碳酸的第一电离常数远大于它的第二电离常数，从碳酸第一电离离子化的氢离子与水中自由的碳酸根离子结合。

此外，碳酸钙沉淀的方程式可以说明[8–10]：Ca(HCO3)2→CaCO3↓+ CO2↑+ H2O碳酸钙的溶解度很大程度上取决于二氧化碳在水中的含量（即二氧化碳气体逸出时所需最小的分压）[10–12]。

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2016届本科毕业设计（论文）文献翻译题目宋体三号字，加粗学院宋体四号字专业宋体四号字班级宋体四号字学号宋体四号字姓名宋体四号字指导教师宋体四号字开题日期宋体四号字文献一：（宋体五号）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译一：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）文献二：（宋体五号，另起一页）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译二：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）（请参照下面模板）文献一：Research on Spillover Effect of Foreign Direct Investment1. IntroductionIn recent decades, economists have begun to identify technical progress, or more generally, knowledge creation, as the major determinant of economic growth. Until the 1970s, the analysis of economic growth was typically based on neoclassical models that explain growth with the accumulation of labor, capital, and other production factors with diminishing returns to scale. In these models, the economy converges to steady state equilibrium where the level of per capita income is determined by savings and investment, depreciation, and population growth, but where there is no permanent income growth. Any observed income growth per capita occurs because the economy is still converging towards its steady state, or because it is in transition from one steady state to another.The policies needed to achieve growth and development in the framework of these models is therefore straightforward: increases in savings and investments and reductions in the population growth rate, shift the economy to a higher steady state income level. From the view of developing countries, however, these policies are difficult to implement. Low income and development levels are not only consequences, but also causes of low savings and high population growth rates. The importance of technical progress was also recognized in the neoclassical growth models, but the determinants of the level of technology were not discussed in detail; instead, technology was seen as an exogenous factor. Yet, it was clear that convergence in income percapita levels could not occur unless technologies converged as well.From the 1980s and onwards, growth research has therefore increasingly focused on understanding and ontogenetic technical progress. Modern growth theory is largely built on models with constant or increasing returns to reproducible factors as a result of the accumulation of knowledge. Knowledge is, to some extent, a public good, and R&D, education, training, and other investments in knowledge creation may generate externalities that prevent diminishing returns to scale for labor and physical capital. Taking this into account, the economy may experience positive long-run growth instead of the neoclassical steady state where per capita incomes remain unchanged. Depending on the economic starting point, technical progress and growth can be based on creation of entirely new knowledge, or adaptation and transfer of existing foreign technology.Along with international trade, the most important vehicle for international technology transfer is foreign direct investment (FDI). It is well known that multinational corporations (MNCs) undertake a major part of the world’s private R&D efforts and production, own and control most of the world’s advanced technology. When a MNC sets up a forei gn affiliate, the affiliate receives some amount of the proprietary technology that constitutes the parent’s firm specific advantage and allows it to compete successfully with local firms that have superior knowledge of local markets, consumer preferences, and business practices. This leads to a geographical diffusion of technology, but not necessarily to any formal transfer of technology beyond the boundaries of the MNCs; the establishment of a foreign affiliate is, almost per definition, a decision to internalize the use of core technology.However, MNC technology may still leak to the surrounding economy through external effects or spillovers that raise the level of human capital in the host country and createproductivity increases in local firms. In many cases, the effects operate through forward and backward linkages, as MNCs provide training and technical assistance to their local suppliers, subcontractors, and customers. The labor market is another important channel for spillovers, as almost all MNCs train operatives and managers who may subsequently take employment in local firms or establish entirely new companies.It is therefore not surprising that attitudes towards inward FDI have changed considerably over the last couple of decades, as most countries have liberalized their policies to attract all kinds of foreign investment. Numerous governments have even introduced various forms of investment incentives to encourage foreign MNCs to invest in their jurisdiction. However, productivity and technology spillovers are not automatic consequences of FDI. Instead, FDI and human capital interact in a complex manner, where FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits.2. Foreign Direct Investment and SpilloversThe earliest discussions of spillovers in the literature on foreign direct investment date back to the 1960s. The first author who systematically introduced spillovers (or external effects) among the possible consequences of FDI was MacDougall (1960), who analyzed the general welfare effects of foreign investment. The common aim of the studies was to identify the various costs and benefits of FDI.Productivity externalities were discussed together with several other indirect effects that influence the welfare assessment, such as those arising from the impact of FDI on government revenue, tax policies, terms of trade, and the balance of payments. The fact that spillovers included in the discussion was generally motivated by empirical evidence from case studies rather than by comprehensive theoretical arguments.Yet, the early analyses made clear that multinationals may improve locatives efficiency by entering into industries with high entry barriers and reducing monopolistic distortions, and induce higher technical efficiency if the increased competitive pressure or some demonstration effect spurs local firms to more efficient use of existing resources. They also proposed that the presence may lead to increases in the rate of technology transfer and diffusion. More specifically, case studies showed that foreign MNCs may:(1) Contribute to efficiency by breaking supply bottlenecks (but that the effect may become less important as the technology of the host country advances);(2) Introduce new know-how by demonstrating new technologies and training workers who later take employment in local firms;(3) Either break down monopolies and stimulate competition and efficiency or create a more monopolistic industry structure, depending on the strength and responses of the local firms;(4) Transfer techniques for inventory and quality control and standardization to their local suppliers and distribution channels;Although this diverse list gives some clues about the broad range of various spillover effects, it says little about how common or how important they are in general. Similar complaints can be made about the evidence on spillovers gauged from the numerous case studies discussing various aspects of FDI in different countries and industries. These studies often contain valuable circumstantial evidence of spillovers, but often fail to show how significant the spillover effectsare and whether the results can be generalized.For instance, many analyses of the linkages between MNCs and their local suppliers and subcontractors have documented learning and technology transfers that may make up a basis for productivity spillovers or market access spillovers. However, these studies seldom reveal whether the MNCs are able to extract all the benefits that the new technologies or information generate among their supplier firms. Hence, there is no clear proof of spillovers, but it is reasonable to assume that spillovers are positively related to the extent of linkages.Similarly, there are many works on the relation between MNCs entry and presence and market structure in host countries, and this is closely related to the possible effects of FDI on competition in the local markets. There are also case studies of demonstration effects, technology diffusion, and labor training in foreign MNCs. However, although these studies provide much detailed information about the various channels for spillovers, they say little about the overall significance of such spillovers.The statistical studies of spillovers, by contrast, may reveal the overall impact of foreign presence on the productivity of local firms, but they are generally not able to say much about how the effects come about. These studies typically estimate production functions for locally owned firms, and include the foreign share of the industry as one of the explanatory variables. They then test whether foreign presence has a significant positive impact on local productivity once other firm and industry characteristics have been accounted.Research conclude that domestic firms exhibited higher productivity in sectors with a larger foreign share, but argue that it may be wrong to conclude that spillovers have taken place if MNC affiliates systematically locate in the more productive sectors. In addition, they are also able to perform some more detailed tests of regional differences in spillovers. Examining the geographical dispersion of foreign investment, they suggest that the positive impact of FDI accrue mainly to the domestic firms located close to the MNC affiliates. However, effects seem to vary between industries.The results on the presence of spillovers seem to be mixed; recent studies suggest that there should be a systematic pattern where various host industry and host country characteristics influence the incidence of spillovers. For instance, the foreign affiliate’s levels of tech nology or technology imports seem to influence the amount of spillovers to local firms. The technology imports of MNC affiliates, in turn, have been shown to vary systematically with host country characteristics. These imports seem larger in countries and industries where the educational level of the local labor force is higher, where local competition is tougher, and where the host country imposes fewer formal requirements on the affiliates’ operations.Some recent studies have also addressed the apparent contradictions between the earlier statistical spillover studies, with the hypothesis that the host country’s level of technical development or human capital may matter as a starting point.In fact, in some cases, large foreign presence may even be a sign of a weak local industry, where local firms have not been able to absorb any productivity spillovers at all and have therefore been forced to yield market shares to the foreign MNCs.3. FDI Spillover and Human Capital DevelopmentThe transfer of technology from MNC parents to its affiliates and other host country firms is not only mbodied in machinery, equipment, patent rights, and expatriate managers and technicians,but is also realized rough the training of local employees. This training affects most levels of employees, from simple manufacturing operatives through supervisors to technically advanced professionals and top-level managers. While most recipients of training are employed in the MNCs own affiliates, the beneficiaries also include employees among the MNCs suppliers, subcontractors, and customers.Types of training ranged from on-the-job training to seminars and more formal schooling to overseas education, perhaps at the parent company, depending on the skills needed. The various skills gained through the elation with the foreign MNCs may spill over directly when the MNCs do not charge the full value of the training provided to local firms or over time, as the employees move to other firms or set up their own businesses.While the role of MNCs in primary and secondary education is marginal, there is increasingly clear evidence hat FDI may have a noticeable impact on tertiary education in their host countries. The most important effect is perhaps on the demand side. MNCs provide attractive employment opportunities to highly skilled graduates in natural sciences, engineering, and business sciences, which may be an incentive for gifted students to complete tertiary training, and MNCs demand skilled labor, which may encourage governments to invest in higher education.Many studies undertaken in developing countries have emphasized the spillovers of management skills. There is evidence of training and capacity development in technical areas, although the number of detailed studies appears smaller.While training activities in manufacturing often aim to facilitate the introduction of new technologies that are embodied in machinery and equipments, the training in service sectors is more directly focused on strengthening skills and know-how embodied in employees. This means that training and human capital development are often more important in service industries. Furthermore, many services are not tradable across international borders, which mean that service MNCs to a great extent are forced to reproduce home country technologies in their foreign affiliates. As a consequence, service companies are often forced to invest more in training, and the gap between affiliate and parent company wages tends, therefore, to be smaller than that in manufacturing.4. ConclusionThis paper has noted that the interaction of FDI and spillovers is complex and highly non-linear, and that several different outcomes are possible. FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits. Hence, it is possible that host economies with relatively high levels of human capital may be able to attract large amounts of technology intensive foreign MNCs that contribute significantly to the further development of labor skills. At the same time, economies with weaker initial conditions are likely to experience smaller inflows of FDI, and those foreign firms that enter are likely to use simpler technologies that contribute only marginally to local learning and skill development.翻译一：外商直接投资溢出效应研究1.引言在最近几十年中，经济学家们已开始确定技术进步，或更普遍认为知识创造，作为经济增长原动力的一个重要决定因素，直到20世纪70年代，分析经济增长运用典型的新古典主义模型来解释经济增长的积累，劳动力、资本等生产要素与收益递减的规模。

4文献翻译模板

(2-7)
（如果有的话）
表6-1■2000—2010年世界聚氨酯产量
CASE
3484940
4792195
5877100
476000
592370
669700
3672125
4944500
5942000
2290215
3423500
4418800
9923280
13752565
16907600
■■数据来源：2008年(企业快报[J].聚氨酯)
（正文部分字数应在3000字以上，具体应按各系(部)的具体要求执行）
空1行
参考文献
空1行
[1] Miller JA, Lin SB, Huang KKS, Cooper SL. Macromolecules ,1985;18:32.
[2] Boyarchuk YM, Rapport LY, Apukhtine NP. Polym Sci, USSR ,1965;7:859.
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空1行
1■□□□□□□
1.1■□□□□□□
1.1.1■□□□□□□
1.1.1.1■□□□□□□
聚氨酯弹性体有许多特性，使用范围非常广泛。它们的合成是以聚醚或聚酯二醇和二异氰酸酯为基础，然后扩链形成大分子。其基本化学结构是氨基甲酸酯基团（R - NHCOO - R1）。由于氮原子具有很强吸引电子的能力，氢原子可以与氧原子形成氢键。结果产生物理交联[ 1,2 ]，这种链结构可以用硬段和软段来描述。软段部分主要来自二醇低聚物。随着二醇链的长度增加，玻璃化转变温度（Tg）变低，从而导致更多的相分离[ 3,4 ]。
[3] Petrovic ZS, Simendic B. Rubber Chem and Technol ,1985; Rubber Chem and Technol,1985;58:701.

山东理工大学商学院毕业英文文献翻译模板

英文资料翻译学院：商学院专业：国际经济与贸易班级：国贸110X 姓名：学号：指导教师：邹松岐2015年 6 月Assessing the Benefits to Developing Countries ofLiberalisation in Services Trade1John WhalleyThe University of Western Ontario1. INTRODUCTIONa. BackgroundThis paper assesses the present state of quantitative literature which seeks to evaluate the potential impacts which would follow from global services trade liberalisation as it relates to developing countries. It is important to emphasize that what are frequently referred to as developing countries are themselves also a heterogeneous group of countries. They span rapidly growing economies in Asia, negative growth economies (in GDP/capita) in Africa, middle income and very poor countries, small and large, landlocked and ocean access; heavily regulated and recently liberalised. I prefer the term poorer countries, and use this interchangeably with the term developing countries in the text. Much of the literature at issue is relatively recent, and is scattered in working papers and other less accessible sources. Policy makers clearly need help in unraveling this at times confusing and fragmentary picture of what the research community has to offer to guide their deliberations. This paper aims to do this rather than to advocate particular policy positions on global services liberalisation.b. Nature of ServicesThe paper begins by characterizing services as a majority of activity for most OECD economies (as measured by employment, and by value added originating),and a smaller but still large portion of activity for poorer developing countries. It suggests that so-called ‘core’ services can best be thought of (see Melvin, 1989) as relating to1This is a draft of a report prepared for the OECD Trade Directorate. The author is grateful to KenHeydon, and his colleagues at OECD for extensive comments and help with logistical and bibliographical support.1intermediation through time (banking, insurance) or space (telecoms, transportation, retailing, wholesaling), with a wide range of diverse additional service items making up the balance of what most people refer to as services(tourism, consulting services, government services, utilities). This diverse range of activities is typically treated in quantitative studies as a single homogeneous entity, frequently labeled as services for analytical convenience, when in fact its heterogeneity suggests a different treatment for each. This heterogeneity is, in my view, key to better understanding how services trade liberalisation could affect poorer countries.c. Impacts of Liberalisation on Poorer CountriesThere is a general presumption in the poorer countries that they will lose from global services trade liberalisation since their domestic service industries are inefficient and non-competitive. This view is despite the arguments from economists as to the gains to domestic consumers from lower prices and the joint benefits which accrue to both exporting and importing countries from exploiting comparative advantage and improved market access opportunities abroad. It is also despite the commonly held view that the production of many services are labor intensive, which economists believe should be the source of comparative advantage for poorer developing countries in services provision. There unfortunately appear to be few if any studies of the relative inefficiency of local versus Foreign Service providers in developing country service markets which allow the strength of these arguments to be evaluated on empirical grounds.This caution towards global services trade liberalisation in the developing world seems to reflect two concerns. One is the general assumption in the developing world that any future negotiated global liberalisation of services trade will be largely one sided in the results it will yield. Their belief is that if new WTO multilateral (or even regional) services liberalisation is negotiated, developed country service providers will likely gain significantly improved access to developing country service markets, but the converse (significantly improved access for developing country service providers to developed country service markets) will likely not happen. Asymmetry in negotiating power is one reason cited for this possible outcome. The presumption is that the present regulatory structure for most service market segments will remain2in place in OECD countries, and few significant improvements in access to developed country markets for developing country service providers will occur. This outcome, for instance, is reflected in recent US bilateral agreements, including the US-Chile agreement.In reality, through the process of ongoing regulatory reform in the OECD,changes are in fact being made in market access arrangements for developing country service providers, though these are not necessarily reflected in scheduled commitments in GATS in the WTO. Another important and neglected dimension to this conclusion is South-South trade, and the potential that developing countries have much to gain from liberalisation of markets in other developing countries. The point is that in terms of model-based (or quantitative) evaluations of the impacts of services trade liberalisation, were genuine two-sided liberalization to take place with their low wage rates, developing country providers could well benefit. This is especially so if there are scale economies in service provision (as in banking, for instance). Most of the available studies of what benefits might flow from services liberalisation assume there will be full multilateral opening of service markets, and results of studies must be interpreted in light of this presumption. If one-sided liberalisation is the expected outcome, developing countries may well remain opposed to liberalisation on the grounds it is non-reciprocal despite the results of studies.The second caution that developing countries express is the nature and size of the adjustments in domestic economies which services liberalisation may imply. One dimension of adjustment relates to potential foreign majority ownership and control of provision in key service sectors, and the related security and cultural concerns. Foreign entities having access to and control over bank records and financial information of domestic residents, for instance, is seen in some countries as unacceptable. Also, a vibrant and vital domestic broadcast or film industry may be viewed as integral to national cultural identity. Added to such concerns is the potential size of labour market adjustments if domestic banks are displaced by foreign banks, domestic by foreign airlines, and other large changes in the organization of labour-intensive sectors which might follow after liberalisation.32. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EVALUATING THE IMPACTS OF SERVICES TRADE LIBERALISATION ON DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Prior to reviewing existing literature relevant to the developing country interest in global services trade liberalisation, it may be helpful to first highlight a number of wider conceptual issues relevant to the discussion.a. The Developing Country Interest in Trade Liberalisation in GeneralThe presumption behind most discussion of potential developing country interests in services trade liberalisation is that countries gain from more open services trade in ways which are similar to trade liberalisation in goods. This reflects the idea that countries have differing comparative advantage in the production of both goods and services, and more open trade will allow comparative advantage to be more fully exploited in all countries. Put simply, the thinking is that propositions regarding the gains from freer trade apply equally to both goods and services. There are, however, many complications with this line of argument even though it is instinctively where most academic economists finish up in their thinking.First, accepting for now the proposition that trade in services and goods can be treated as analytically similar in this way, the issue of how developing countries benefit from services trade liberalisation is subject to all of the nuances set out in the literature on trade policy. While most academic economists instinctively believe that there are benefits for all countries from freer trade, over the years they have nevertheless devoted a considerable portion of their intellectual energy to producing arguments as to why the contrary may be true. These include arguments for an optimal tariff (terms of trade improvement from protection), for infant industry protection, for tariffs which transfer rents (rent shifting), and tariffs that offset other domestic distortions. These arguments presumably apply equally to trade in services and goods if they are analytically similar, and hence qualify the presumption that freer global trade in service is a good thing.Second, there are a series of arguments about protection of trade in goods that relate in one way or another primarily to developing countries and these presumably also come into play in discussing trade in services. Examples are that increased trade can be immiserising due to a terms of trade deterioration; in a Lewis model with4traditional practices in agricultural sectors (average rather than marginal product pricing of labour) protection of traded goods sectors is called for to pull labour into import-competing modern sectors; in a Harris-Todaro model with an urban sector specific downward rigid real wage and unemployment, an import subsidy can be beneficial.In addition there are many broader issues identified in the literature about the form global trade liberalisation takes and hence its impacts on developing countries, and these would again apply equally to services and goods. If, as is usually argued, countries gain more from improved access to larger foreign markets(given the larger size of OECD markets) than from their own liberalisation, what they should seek is genuinely multilateral liberalisation rather than only participate in unilateral liberalisation. This should include freer South-South trade in services, as well as OECD/non-OECD trade. Being smaller economically, developing countries have less bargaining power than larger developed countries in trade negotiations, and this applies equally to trade in goods and services and hence globally negotiated outcomes may well be asymmetric.Developing countries also often argue that both trade liberalisation and its impacts need to be evaluated in the context of its wider impacts on the developmental process, including implications for growth and poverty, which are not typically centrally discussed in conventional trade literature. These arguments also presumably apply equally to trade in goods and services.Hence while the presumption is that global liberalisation of trade in services will yield gains for both developed and poorer developing countries, and hence the central issue is to evaluate the size of any resulting gains, it needs to be borne in mind that the arguments even from conventional literature on trade in goods are more nuanced than this.b. Differences Between Trade in Services and Trade in GoodsAccepting for now that there is a general presumption that global trade liberalization in either goods and services is broadly beneficial for developing countries (a contention some would challenge), the next issue is whether goods and services differ in some important way. Do they need to be approached differently in5evaluating the quantitative impacts involved?This is a key issue in discussing the impacts of services liberalisation on poorer developing countries, since much if not most of the existing quantitative literature treats services as analytically similar to goods. The approach is to define a single product, commonly called producer services, which is an input into production and against which trade protection operates with a tariff-like instrument. Liberalisation is then a reduction in or elimination of the tariff. Not surprisingly numerical results from models are similar to those of trade liberalization in goods. Small positive gains accrue to most countries if there are no factor mobility effects captured, as in goods liberalisation models.In reality, however, the term services captures a heterogeneous group of activities spanning banking, insurance, transportation, telecoms, consulting s captures ervices, retail and wholesale trade, and several others. Much of this activity facilitates transactions, providing the economic function of intermediation either through time or space which, as pointed out by Melvin (1989), when explicitly modeled as such can produce different implications for trade liberalisation.Ryan (1990 and 1992), for instance, shows that when banking is explicitly modelled as intermediation services that themselves do not directly provide utility, but instead facilitate intermediation between borrowers and lenders, liberalization of trade in banking services can reduce GDP, and even welfare. Chia and Whalley (1997) have produced a numerical example of welfare worsening trade liberalisation in banking services based on this approach. The results from such examples reflect the use of specific formulations and parameter values and functional forms and are hence not general results. They do, however, suggest a weakening in the general presumption that gains will be automatically shared between developed and poorer developing countries if global liberalisation of services trade occurs. Bhatterai and Whalley (1999) provide a related analysis of the implications of liberalisation in network services (effectively telecoms) where the same theme emerges that recognition of the special features of individual services changes the analysis of the impacts of services liberalisation.Another difference is that to achieve meaningful trade liberalisation in services6may require modifications of factor mobility restrictions which may not be needed for goods liberalisation. This is recognized in Modes 3 and 4 of GATS which effectively relate to capital (FDI) mobility and labour (service provider) mobility. With restricted or segmented global factor markets (and especially labour markets), large effects can come from services liberalisation if such liberalization becomes an indirect mechanism for liberalising global factor markets. This is a central issue for the poorer developing countries who have long pushed for liberalization of immigration controls in OECD countries, since global services liberalization may be a vehicle for them to achieve this end.Thus whether services are treated as being different from goods, whether their economic characteristics are explicitly modeled, and how factor flows are treated can all make a large difference to the perceived effects of trade liberalisation in servicesc. Types of Services Trade Liberalisation: Deregulation/Competition/BarrierReductionA further key issue in discussing trade/liberalisation in services and its impacts on poorer developing countries is that the types and forms of liberalisation need to be fully and carefully specified. As a result, these often have to be discussed in ways which do not arise with liberalisation in goods trade. Barriers to the flow of goods typically arise as customs and other physical restraints on trade are administered at national borders. Thus, for goods trade, most discussion of liberalization focuses on tariffs (and less so) on other instruments.Within the services trade community and in the policy literature in general, there is an understanding that the outcomes of services liberalisation will depend heavily on the regulatory environment and the need for liberalisation to be underpinned by a sound regulatory framework. Restraints on trade no longer apply in the same way as for goods at borders; a wider variety of restraints than those typically applicable to goods apply beyond borders and hence within national markets. Also, since services generally have no tangible form and hence cannot be physically restrained at the border, but typically foreign service providers need to have entry to the national market for the service itself. The entity that provides the service, or service providers themselves may be restricted in terms of their mobility, and it is here that restraints on7services trade effectively operate.Barriers to service provision may operate through entry barriers to local markets (rights to establish, or to provide services), rules on conduct (regulation), on the number and size of competitors in a market (competition rules), and in other ways. As a result many more barriers come into play with services than with goods trade. They are more complex, and their effects more numerous. Market structure, conduct and performance are all key and all need to be evaluated when discussing quantitative impacts of global liberalisation of services trade on poorer developing countries.3. THE REPRESENTATION AND MEASUREMENT OF BARRIERS TOSERVICES TRADEAs noted earlier, both characterising and measuring the size of barriers to the international flow of services is considerably more complex and nuanced than is true for barriers faced by international trade in goods and the problems encountered in this area also affect any discussion of the quantitative impacts of services trade liberalisation on developing countries. Thinking on barriers facing international trade in goods in part reflects the structure of the 1967 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade incorporated into the Charter of the WTO as GATT 1994. The GATT structure tries to limit barriers to goods flows to transparent and bound tariffs which can then be negotiated down to progressively lower levels.The principle of National Treatment (no discrimination against foreign goods within national economies) in the WTO Charter implies that all barriers apply only at the border as goods enter national markets. This is typically through a tariff or quota, although quotas are formally banned under Article 11 of GATT 1994 in the WTO charter. For services the structure under the 1994 GATT is different. No national borders apply for services trade since there is no customs clearance. Barriers to the free international flow of services take many other forms in place of tariffs: regulation, entry barriers, restrictions on the mobility of service providers. The structure of the GATS thus differs from the GATT; for instance, National Treatment does not stand as an automatic right and must be bargained for. This all makes discussion of and classification of barriers to service flows more difficult than for goods, since trade economists are usually drawn back to analogies with restrictions on goods flows, and8look for tarifflike measures of barriers. Many analogies can be misleading and even ultimately uninformative.a. Approaches to Classifying and Measuring Barriers to Services TradeThere are basically two different approaches used in the literature to classify barriers to trade in service items for the purposes of both measurement of their size and wider liberalisation discussion. One is to separately examine the structure of regulation, entry barriers and mobility restrictions in each service market. Different restrictions/regulations apply, say, in banking from, say, road transport because of the differences in the characteristics of the service. Under this approach, a restriction on the value of reserves of a foreign bank to be retained within a country is a different restriction to one which requires, say, that trucks at the border must enter with a full tank. If they are converted into any comparable form in terms of economic impact, this can be attempted by examining their cost implications. However, some restrictions imply a fixed cost for entering a market, others change marginal costs, others effectively set upper bounds on the quantity of service provided, or establish minimum quality standards. Comparing barriers and evaluating their impacts is thus inherently difficult, and the heterogeneity among broad service types (banking, transportation, for instance) is a further complication, as is the heterogeneity within categories (types of services offered by financial institutions).The other approach is that which has been taken in most of the numerical modeling literature on trade in services and is to treat all services as a single homogeneous entity. Unfortunately, this forced and artificial generality can yield misleading results if used as the basis for policy debate on global services trade liberalisation and its impacts on developing countries. In some more recent literature there are partial modifications to the approach, such as attempts to differentiate among the various ways that services can be supplied. The typical treatment is to model FDI flows as linked to services provision (along the lines of GATS Mode 3 (commercial presence)). Labour mobility arrangements under GATS Mode4 (temporary movement of service providers) has also been separately modeled. But classifying functional barriers which may be service category specific as part of a general categorisation by mode of supply remains as the central feature of the9approach.4. CONCLUDING REMARKSThis paper both discusses the potential impacts of services trade liberalization on developing countries and reviews existing quantitative studies. Its purpose is to distill themes from studies rather than to advocate policy change. The picture that emerges is seemingly one of valiant attempts to quantify in the presence of formidable analytical and data problems. The basic intuition seems to be that with genuine two-sided (OECD/non-OECD) liberalisation in services that are seemingly considerably labour intensive, the potential may be there for significant developing country gains. This position is seemingly not endorsed by studies, neither is it contradicted.10评估服务贸易自由化给发展中国家带来的好处约翰华里西安大略大学1引言A.背景本文评估了目前定量文献的状况，因为它涉及到发展中国家，旨在评估全球服务贸易自由化所带来的潜在影响。

外文文献翻译译文【范本模板】

在激光作用下核压力容器钢焊接接头的显微组织和力学性能摘要：设计间接热冲压工艺，利用有限元法对零件的几何尺寸和力学性能进行了预测.在间接热冲压过程的情况下，生产性能与适应车身部件,冷却路径造成扩散和扩散控制的相变。

通过人脸的相变引起的体积膨胀为面心立方（FCC）为体心立方（BCC）和体心四方（BCT）马氏体的形成导致相变诱导株的整体应力热冲压的车身部件的计算是很重要的。

计算的应力和应变状态正确，它是必要的模型的扩散和扩散控制的相变现象，考虑到间接热冲压过程的边界条件。

现有的材料模型进行分析和扩展以提高计算铁氧体、珍珠岩的数量和分布,其预测的准确性，整个退火过程中贝氏体和马氏体.工业用新方法在有限元程序LS-DYNA 971实现关键词：核钢稳压器压水反应堆反应堆压力容器结构完整性焊接韧性SA508钢通常用于民用核反应堆的关键部件,如反应堆压力容器。

核部件通常采用电弧焊接工艺，但与设计为未来的新建设项目超过60年的生活，新的焊接技术正在寻求.在这种探索性的研究,为第一时间，自体激光焊接6毫米厚的进行SA508 Cl。

3钢板使用16千瓦激光系统在4千瓦的功率运行。

这个显微组织和力学性能（包括显微硬度、抗拉强度、延伸率等夏比冲击韧性)的特点和结构进行了比较电弧焊接.基于移动体热的三维瞬态模型源模型也发展到模拟激光焊接热循环，以估计冷却速率的过程。

初步结果表明，激光焊接工艺可以无宏观缺陷的焊缝，激光焊接的强度和韧性在这项研究中的联合，得到的值,在焊接的母材条件。

反应堆压力容器的寿命和安全运行（RPV)，这是核电站中最关键的部件之一.取决于高温压力容器材料的耐久性，高压力和放射性环境.具有较高强度，韧性和抗辐照脆化的材料的需要是上升的，由于增加的发电容量和核电厂的设计寿命［1 ］，[ 2 ］，[ 3 ］，[ 4 ]，[ 5 ]，［7 ］，［8 ]和[ 6 ].SA508钢已经用于许多RPV？的压水反应堆制造因为他们提供的结合强度，延展性好，断裂韧性,相对于机械性能的均匀性，和他们的经济［9 ］、[ 10 ］、[ 11 ]和［12 ］.无人机是采用焊接厚环形锻件或SA508钢板在一起。

本科生文献翻译(中英文)

A study of the role played by renewable energies inChina’s sustainable energy supplyAbstract:This paper first provides an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation. Further, it summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role it plays in the national energy supply. Next it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a long term scenario of the role of renewable energies in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in China’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.Keywords: Renewable energy,Energy supply,Market development,Public policy,China1.IntroductionChina is the largest developing country as well as the second largest energy consumer and carbon dioxide emitter in the world .China’s energy issue has recently become a focus of many talks regarding global energy, environment, and security. Domestically, it is the first time that the Chinese Central Government set a target for improving energy efficiency of the economy together with the economic growth target in its social and economic development plan during the 11th Five-Year-Plan period 1, which was endorsed by the Congress in March 2006. The features of China’s energy system evolution in the future will have significant implications on global energy investment, energy market restructuring, and environmental protection. Increasing the share of renewable energies could be an important dimension of China’s energy system transition.China’s Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Law recognizes the strategic role of renewable energies in optimizing China’s energy supply mix, mitigating environmental pollution,improving energy supply security, and promoting rural social development. It also directly relates renewable energy development and utilization to China’s energy system transition. More importantly, the Law largely shapes an integrated renewable energy policy framework by providing a set of directives encouraging renewable energies, including national renewable energy targets, a feed-in tariff, a special fiscal fund, tax relief, and public R&D support as well as education and training.It is accepted beyond doubt that an enabling environment for renewable energy development and utilization is emerging in China. While recognizing the new opportunities that the Law brings for China’s renewable energy development and utilization, it must also be noted that the main technological, financial, and institutional risks associated with China’s renewable energy developmen t and utilization still remain. The context of the country’s renewable energy development and utilization has never been this complex .To what extent will renewable energies contribute to China’s sustainable energy system transition? What are the characteristics of the main risks for China’s renewable energy development and utilization? What policies and strategies should be in place to manage the risks? Although these questions have been addressed to some extent by a number of studies in the past , yet those studies were not able to take the context of China’s new complex renewable energy development into account. As a consequence, it is of significance and required to carry out a new study to gain answers to these questions, which would largely contribute to formulating China’s new strategy for renewable energy development and utilization.The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 gives an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation.Section 3 summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role that it plays in national energy supply.Next, it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a study of the long term scenario of the role that renewable energies play in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in the country’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.2.Context of renewable energy development2.1. Renewable energy resourcesChina has abundant renewable energy resources. The country’s annual solar energy ranges from 3360 to 8400 MJ/m2, and two thirds of her area’s solar radiation is more than 5020 MJ/m2. China’s wind energy resource is pretty rich, too. The development potential of the on-shore wind resource is as much as 253 GW at a 10 m height with an annual electricity generation of more than 50 billion kWh. China’s hydro power potential amounts to 400 GW; 128 GW of which is for small hydro power plants with an installed capacity below 50MW. The country produces 700 million tons of agricultural residues each year, and approximately 350 million tons of them could be used for energy purposes, equivalent to 170 million tons of coal equivalent (tce). The firewood production amounts to 220 million tons each year, equivalent to 130 million tce . Further, solid wastes and wastewater discharged from livestock and poultry farms and light industry could be used to produce 31 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 26 million tce. The volume of discharge of combustible municipal waste, a renewable source for power generation, has been growing in most Chinese cities. Taking the ase of Beijing for example, it discharged 4.5 million tons of combustible municipal wastes in 2004, and the volume will be growing at 4–5% per year.2.2. Energy supply securityIn general terms, energy security means that a nation’s energy demands could be met at a reasonable price. The new target for China’s economic development set by the country’s government is to quadruple the gross domestic product (GDP) accounted for in 2000 by 2020, ensuring China’s attainment of a well-off society overall. To achieve this target, the total primary energy consumption will reach approximately 3 billions tce, once the substantial energy conservation and economic restructuring efforts are taken into consideration [1]. Under this scenario, the total demand for oil will be 0.45 billion tons with more than 0.2 billion tons relying on imports. Natural gas demand will reach 160 billionm3 with a domestic supply deficiency of 50–60 billion m3. Therefore, there would be a large gap between China’s energy demand and supply capacity to achieve the country’s new social and economic de velopment target, raising significant energy security concerns. In addition to strengthening the country’s energy conservation efforts, development and utilization of renewable energies seem to be an inevitable choice to diversify energy supply and ensure China’s long term energy security [2].From an even far-sighted perspective, China’s demand for energy would reach 5.4 billion tce in 2050 to maintain her sustainable economic growth and social development. But the domesticsupply capacity of coal, oil, and natural gas would be 2.5–2.7 billion tons, 100–200 million tons, and 120–140 billion m3, respectively [3]. The risks involved in China’s energy supply would be even higher without the increasing energy supply from renewable energies.2.3. Environmental managementChina’s total primary energy consumption was approximately 2032 million tce in 2004, of which coal, oil, and natural gas account for 68%, 22.33%, and 2.60%, respectively [4]. The consumption of a huge amount of fossil fuels has caused severe local, regional, and global environmental pollution. Now, one-third of the whole country area is suffering from acid rain, and the combustion of fossil fuels contributes 90% of the sulfur dioxide emissions causing this problem. The economic damage from air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels was estimated at 2–3% of GDP [5]. China is currently the second largest CO2 emitter in the world, just after the United States. However, there is a possibility that by 2025, China’s CO2 emission would exceed that of the United States, and become the largest CO2 emitting country of the world [6]. China has been under increasing pressure from the world to reduce her CO2 emissions. Increasing the share of renewable energies in China’s energy supply mix is one of the most important measures to control the country’s local, regional, and global environmental pollution.2.4. Rural, social, and economic developmentApproximately 27 million people living in remote and mountainous areas of China did not have access to electricity by the end of 2004, and most of them are among the lowest income earners. Electricity supply plays a very important role in promoting social and economic development in remote and mountainous areas, and renewable energy power generating options, such as small hydro system, small-sized wind generating systems, and solar photovoltaic systems are often more cost-effective than the extension of conventional power grids.Some renewable energy technologies can also increase the productivity of agriculture. Human wasteand animal dung after anaerobic fermentation in biogas digesters are quality organicfertilizers. Both the output and the quality of vegetables and fruits can be increased markedly by using such fertilizers. Moreover, the use of these fertilizers can also lead to a decrease in the use of pesticides. As a result, biogas digesters cannot only produce the gas to be used for cooking and lighting in rural households, but also help farmers earn more money from agriculture. Geothermal technology can be applied to increase the output and quality of fisheries as well. Solar greenhouses are a common productivity raising technology in the plantation of vegetables, fruits, and flowers.2.5. The renewable energy lawRecognizing the strategic significance of renewable energy development in China, China Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Renewable Energy Law has put forward a comprehensive renewable energypolicy framework, and institutionalized a number of policies and instruments for China’s renewable energydevelopment and utilization. Among others, the major policies and/or institutions covered by the Law include●Directives on setting indicative renewable energy targets;●Directives on renewable energy planning;●Directives on functions and responsibilities of the relevant government agencies in renewableenergy management;●Directives on removal of barriers of renewable energy products to entry energy market;●Directives on grid connection of renewable power generation project;●Directives on feed-in tariff of renewable power generation;●Directives on taxation measures;●Directives on special fiscal fund of renewable energy development; and●Directives on renewable energy technology standards and certification.3. Current status of renewable energy development3.1. Small hydroIn 2005, the installed capacity of small hydro power plants was 38 GW, about 30% of the estimated 128 GW small hydro potential. Small-scale hydro technologies and turbines are improving. Moreover, the performance of the automated control systems has improved, too. Over 30 research institutes are involved in R&D and 160 small-scale hydro equipment manufacturers exist at present. This market grew by 12–15% in 2004, and 10% annual growth in 2005. Domestic industry can meet current development needs.Small hydro technologies have been primarily used for rural electrification, often in small county-size grids. However, in recent years, the development has become more multi-dimensional, with small hydro technologies serving centralized grids, the smaller county grids becoming interconnected, and also replacing or reducing the growth of other small-scale power plants, like small coal plants. In the future, the electrification supply in rural areas will still be the major aim for small hydro development, including the estimated 7 million rural households that still function without access to electricity.There are a number of factors which could accelerate and improve market development and power plant performance in the future, including market aggregation, better operation and management, improved technology, and standardized tariffs and power delivery.3.2. Wind farmThe rate of growth of wind turbine installations in China is impressive, and this growth could likely continue indefinitely. The installed capacity rose from 550MW in 2003, to 760MW in 2004, and then ultimately to 1250MW in 2005. The growth rate in 2004 was 65%, on top of a 40% growth in 2003. Only one domestic manufacture dominates the domestic market, constituting 20% of the market share. Imported turbines constitute 75% of the market share.China’s wind technology level has fallen behind Europe, as most of 1–2MW scale turbines have to be imported from Europe. Key R&D priorities for wind are large-capacity turbines, variable speed technologies, variable screw distance, and off-shore turbines and wind farm designs. The production costs have been decreasing, in line with the international costs, over the past decade, and these cost declines need to continue among Chinese manufacturers.3.3. Solar photo voltaic (PV)A total of 65MW solar PV was installed as of 2004, about 50% of this in rural (off-grid) areas. Communications and industry account for most of the other 50%, with consumer products constituting a small share. The grid-connected PV is still marginal, falling on the order of a few MW. The domestic market is growing fast, with 20MW added during 2004. The solar PV installation in China amounted to 70MW.Ch ina’s PV industry is growing faster than perhaps any other country in the world, but from a small initial base. As of 2004, China had a module production capacity of 100MW of PV, compared to the total world production capacity of 1200MW. Chinese production capacity doubled during 2004, from 50MW in 2003, and most production is exported. Cell production capacity was 65MW in 2004, and wafer production capacity was 15MW.As production increases rapidly in the coming years, a rapid declining share of production will go to domestic installation, as the domestic market does not keep pace with the production. This is because the grid-connected applications, which are now the predominant market globally, are still in infancy in China, and the price differential between solar PV and conventional power is still very large, on the order of 3 yuan/kW h.The key research areas are quality and cost improvements in materials and components, advanced solar light–heat transforming material, heat collector structure components, new pattern solar cell material and groupware technology, grid-connected and roof solar photovoltaic power system and integrated solararchitecture.3.4. Solar hot waterSolar hot water sales continue to boom. The estimation of the total sales volume in 2004 is 13.5 million m2 with the same growth rate of 19% as in 2003, and about 70% were below 1500 yuan/m2. The solar water heater installation was 80 million m2 as of 2005. The glass vacuum tube solar water heater was the most common type in the Chinese market. Ten brands of solar water heaters had annual sale volumes of over 100 million yuan. But the market is still highly diverse, as those top 10 brands had a combined market share of only 20%. There are more than 1000 manufacturers throughout the country, and an estimated 250,000 people work in the Chinese solar hot water industry. Some famous household appliance enterprises from outside the sector have also recently entered the solar hot water market, including Haier, Ocma, and Huati.Smaller towns and villages, with a large rooftop area per capita, are likely to continue to be the primary market, although multifamily apartment buildings can effectively use solar hotwater if not too tall.Future priorities include test and certification systems, better quality control, better integration into architectural practice and the construction industry, standardization of products, consumer education and awareness, new financing mechanisms, and favorabletax and tariff policies.3.5. Biomass power generationFor heating and power generation, biomass-fueled combustion technology is mature in China, and there are many biomass boiler manufacturers. Most biomass boilers have small or medium capacity, because their feed stocks are not abundant which are collected from nearby area not from distant area. The advanced biomass power generation efficiency has reached 40%. Biomass gasification has developedstrongly in China, with gasifiers up to 6MW in capacity, and system efficiencies reaching 28%.Biomass power generation capacity was about 2000MW in 2005. Current biomass power generation is dominated by bagasse fueled power plants. In 2005, the capacity of bagasse fueled power plants was about 1700MW or 85% of the total biomass power generation capacity. Power generation capacity from agricultural and forestry wastes, biogas, municipal waste incineration, and land fills was 60MW, 20MW, 200MW, and 20MW, respectively.The uncertainty involved in the biomass-fueled power generation development is still quite high in China. Presumably, with the renewable energy law taking effect, and favorable tariffs for biomass, increases will be seen in power generation. But the use of biomass at the local level is likely to be constrained by resource availability, including competing uses, plus collection, and transport infrastructure and businesses.3.6. BiogasChina leads the world in terms of household biogas technology development and diffusion. Approximately 14 million small-sized biogas digesters were built by 2004 with an annual biogas production of 3.5 billionm3, equivalent to 2.5 Mtce. In addition to providing gas for cooking and lighting purposes in rural households, household biogas technology is an important measure to help farms increase their income. The Chinese government attaches great importance to household biogas technology, and gives special fiscal support for the development and deployment of thetechnology.A remarkable progress has also been achieved in the development of large- and medium-sized biogas plants in China. Fifteen hundred large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in operation in livestock breeding farms as of 2004, producing 100 million m3 of biogas, equivalent to 70 thousand tce. Also approximately, 700 large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in use in the food, alcohol, and paper-making industries, producing 1.4 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 1 million tce. In addition to producing biogas, these plants serve as the major facility for treating wastes from livestock farms and effluents from alcohol and paper-making companies. Hence, the biogas technology is not only an energy technology but also environmental technology. As of 2005, the total production of biogas from householdsystems and large- and medium-size biogas plants reached 8 billionm3, equivalent to 4 Mtce.3.7. BiofuelsChina’s ethanol production was 1.02 million tons in 2005. As of late 2004, five provinces Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Henan, and Anhui required ethanol to be mixed with gasoline in a 10% ratio (E10). Four other provinces Hebei, Hubei, Shandong, and Jiangsu were added by late 2005.Ethanol distilleries have already been established in China with a production capacity of 1 million tons, to use ‘‘deteriorative’’ grains as feed stocks. Most fuel ethanol production in Chin a currently comes from the ‘‘deteriorative’’ grain. In 2005, China produced 50 thousand tons of biodiesel. Most biodiesel production currently comes from waste oil.Sorgo plantations have been set up in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang Uygar A.R., Liaoning, and Shandong. Sorgo appears to be a promising crop in China for biofuels, as it grows in colder northern climates and is better able to endure drought.Research is continuing on biofuels crops and distillation/production processes. Research is progressing in southern provinces on bio-oils, including colza oil, cottonseed oil, wood oil, Chinese tallow oil, and tea oil.3.8. SummaryIf all renewable energies were taken into account, China’s total primary energy supplywas 2337 Mtce in 2005. Renewable energies contributed approximately 17.8% of primary energy supply, of which traditional biomass3 10.7%, and all new renewable energies4 together 7.1% (Fig. 1). Electricity dominated the energy supply from renewable energies (Fig. 2). In 2005, the total installed capacity of renewable energy power systems was 119.7 GW, accounting approximately for 23.4% of total installed power capacity of China, of which large and small hydro power was 78 GW and 38 GW, respectively (Fig. 3).Renewable energy technologies can be categorized by four phases: R&D, pilot and demonstration, early commercialized5, and commercialized. Table 1 relates China’s major renewable energy technologies to the four phases. As shown in Table 1, only a small number of the technologies listed are commercialized. They are small hydropower plants/turbines, solar water heater, solar stove, geothermal space heating, and biomass stoves.4. A long term scenario of China’s renewable energy supplyThe scenario assumes that the implementation of the Renewable Energy Law and China’s Medium and Long Term Planning for Renewable Energy Development6 will create an enabling environment for the development of renewable energies in China. The scenario largely represents the economic potential of renewable energy development which is larger than the market potential but smaller than the technological potential.The trajectory of renewable energy supply evolution in China’s primary energy supply mix under the scenario is indicated in Table 5 and Fig. 4. Renewable energies will contribute approximately 21% of China’s total primary energy supply by 2050. Please note that the contribution from traditional biomass will decline from 10.7% in 2005 to 6.8% in 2010, 4.0% in 2020, and 2.3% in 2030. By 2050, traditional biomass will be completely replaced by modernbiomass. The contribution from new renewable energies, however, will grow from 7.1% in 2005 to 12.1% in 2020, 17.3% in 2030, and 21% in 2050, respectively.Most of the renewable energy supply is in the form of electricity.Table 6 and Fig. 5 show the picture of China’s power generation capacity installations till 2050 under the reference scenario. The installed capacity of renewable based power generation systems will reach 141 GW in 2010, 362 GW in 2020, 733 GW in 2030, and 1130 GW in 2050, respectively. The share of renewable based generation capacity will increase from 23.4% in 2005 to 30.8% in 2020, 40.8% in 2030 and 43.1% in 2050, respectively. Renewable energies will play a very important role in diversifying C hina’s power generation sources.5. Risks and uncertainties5.1. Financial risksAs shown in Table 1, most renewable energy technologies fall either in the R&D stage, in the pilot and demonstration stage, or in the early commercialization stage, and a few of them have also been fully commercialized. Often the substantive input of the financial resource is needed before a renewable energy technology is able to compete with conventional fossil energy technologies. Private companies are often reluctant to invest in the demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage due to low economic return. Further private companies often have difficulties borrowing money from banks and other financial institutions due to the high risks involved in these stages. Due to the free-rider issue private companies are also not willing to invest in the R&D stage. As a result, financial resources are often under-provided during the R&D, demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage. Financial risks are important barriers that impede China’s renewable energy development in the future.5.2. Market entry risksConventional energy enterprises dominate China’s current energy industry. They stay in an advantageous position in competition with renewable energy companies in terms of both company scale and market penetration. The power grid is often not willing to accept electricity generated from renewable energy sources, such as wind, biomass, solar PV, and small hydro mainly because of higher cost and smaller scale of renewable electricity compared with the coal-fired electricity.On the other hand, China’s oil market is monopolized by three large groups: China National Petroleum Corp (CNPC), China Petrochemical Corp (Sinopec Group), and China National Offshore Oil Corp (CNOOC). To safeguard a market share of liquid fuels from renewable energies, such as biodiesel, substantive investment is needed to build or restructure the current production and sale infrastructure. Thecooperation from the three companies is of critical importance in this regard.5.3. Technological risksChina holds a leading position in terms of development and deployment of household biogas technology and small hydro technology. However, there is a large technological gap that China has to bridge in the future for most other renewable energy technologies. Although the size of mainstream wind turbines in the European market is as large as 1–1.5MWper unit, China does not yet have the capacity to manufacture wind turbines of more than 1MW. The country does not yet have the property rights of the core technologies for manufacturing solar PV cells. So far China has heavily depended on importing technologies and systems to develop her biomass-fuel power generation industry. In context of the large scale biogas plants, the technological gap between China and the world advanced level is still big in some aspects. More importantly, there is a lack of qualified researchers and engineers to conduct renewable technology R&D, design, and manufacture in China.AcknowledgementThis study is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (grant no. 90410016). References[1] Zhou DD, editor. China sustainable energy scenarios for 2020. Beijing: China Environment Science Press; 2003.[2] Shi LS. China’s energy is sues and renewable energy planning. Energy Policy Research 2004;(No.4)::17–21.[3] Available from: </nynx/nyhg/2005-06/09/ 153.html>.[4] China energy statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press; 2006.[5] Wang YQ. ‘China’s energy consumption and environment protection’. China Development Forum, November 2003. Beijing: 2003.[6] ERI (Energy Research Institute), editor. Climate change mitigation. Beijing: Meteorological Press; 2004.[7] Sijim JPM. The performance of feed-in tariffs to promote renewable electricity in European Countries. The Netherlands: Working Paper, ECN-C-083; 2002.[8] Bechberger M, Reiche D. Renewable energy policy in Germany: pioneering and exemplary regulations. Energy for Sustainable Development 2004;8:47–57.[9] Langni? O. ‘International best practice for renewable energy legislations’ Senior Forum of Renewable Energy Legislation Issue, May 15–16, 2004. Beijing: 2004一项关于再生能源在中国可持续能源供应中地位的研究摘要本文首先提供了中国范围内可再生能源的发展，包括该国最近的可再生能源法的概况。

外文文献翻译封面格式和要求模版

毕业论文外文文献翻译年级专业：2011级国际经济与贸易姓名：学号：附件：Challenges and Opportunities备注：（注意：备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印，看懂了即可）1.从所引用的与毕业设计（论文）内容相近的外文文献当选择一篇或一部份进行翻译（很多于3000实词）；2.外文文献翻译的装订分两部份，第一部份为外文文献，页码从正文开始到英文终止；第二部份为该外文文献的中文翻译，页码从头从正文开始到终止，中英文两部份之间用分页符隔开。

也确实是说，第一外文文献部份终止后，利用分页符，另起一页开始翻译。

3.格式方面，外文文献的格式，除字体统一利用Times new roman之外，其他所有都跟中文论文的格式一样。

中文翻译的格式，跟中文论文的格式一样。

（注意：备注页这一整页的内容都不需要打印，看懂了即可,定稿后,请删除本页.）【Abstract】Exports of dairy products are becoming increasingly important in terms of export earnings for Australia. The industry is the fourth highest foreign exchange earner compared toall Australia's food exports. However, Australian exports of dairy products account for about 67 per cent of the total Australian production of dairy products, and about 13 per cent of total world exports of dairy products. About 68 per cent of Australian dairy products exports are sold on Asian markets. The purpose of this paper is to examine the challenging issues and opportunities for Australian exports of dairy products on world markets and to identify potential and emerging export markets for Australian dairy is highly restricted on its access to world dairy product markets by the impact of export subsidies and other trade barriers of overseas markets. The current cconomic and political crises in Asia are also not favourable to maintain export sales on some of the Asian export support schcme in Australia has made exporting attractive relativc to domestic sales. But it is anticipated that the termination of the scheme after June 2000, will reduce production and exports by 6 and 20 per cent, respectively in the short run. However, in the long run,resources will be efficiently used without government intervention and Australian dairy products will also bc competitivc on the domestic is scope for greater market opportunities in the emerging markets in Asia and other parts of the world for Australian dairy will also bcnefit from the agreement on international trade that directs exporting countries to reduce export subsidy and remove non-tariff trade barriers on exports of dairy products. Australia should implement appropriatc measures to increase the milk yield per ww, to improve the quality of dairy products and to identify the need for market promotion and rescarch in order to increase the volume of dairy product exports on world markets, especially in Asia and othcr potential markets such as Middle East,Africa, Europe and the Americas. 【Keywords】Australia, Dairy Milk（本页为英文文献摘要，关键词两项一路单唯一页，字体为：Times New Roman，小四号，倍行距）I. DAIRY PRODUCTS INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIADairy manufacturing is one of Australia's leading dairy terms of foreign exchange earnings, the industry ranks fourth (after meat, wheat and sugar) compared to all Australia's food exports(ADIC, 1996). The real gross value of production was estimated atA$billion in 1997, accounting for about 66 per cent of the combined value of market and manufacturing milk at the farm gate. The total real value of Australian exports of dairy products was about $ billion in 1996, and represented about 8 per cent of total farm exports. Likewise, Australia's dairy exports contributed about 2 per cent to total Australian exports in 1995-96 (Doucouliagos,1997). However, Australia has little influence on world price as its share accounted for about 13 per cent of world trade in 1996.Manufacturing milk is produced in all states in Australia, and there are significant regional differences in the production of dairying due to climatic and natural resources that are favorable to dairying to be produced based on year round pasture grazing (NSWA, 1996-97). In 1997, national milk production was estimated at 9 billion litres, and New South Wales is second behind Victoria, accounting for 13 per cent and 62 per cent, respectively of the nation's annual milk production(ABARE, 1997). Total milk production increased at an average of about per cent between 1988 and 1997. About billion litres of milk were used for manufacturing purposes, accounting for about 79 per cent of the total milk production. Victoria accounts for 79 per cent,Tasmania 6 per cent, and NSW 5 per cent of the total dairy products produced in the country (ADC,1997).The production of dairy products recorded an average increase of per cent between 1988 and 1997. However, Australian exports of dairy products as a proportion of total production increased on average by per cent over the same period. This was due to world surplus production of dairy products as a result of domestic industry support by some of the world's largest producers (EU and USA). Subsidised exports of dairy products account for about 50 per cent of globally traded dairy products, and this lowers international market prices of dairy products (ADIC, 1997). Australian production of dairy products accounted for about 4 per cent of total world production, and about 13 per cent of total world export sales . Thus, price taker countries such as Australia are adversely affected by the exportable surpluses of dairy products directed to world markets by major exporting countries.The expansion of milk production in Australia has come from an increase in the number of dairy cows. The number of daq cows increased from 1,714,000 head in 1988 to 2,046,000 head in 1997, an average increase of about per cent. The milk yield per cow also recorded an average increase of about 2 per cent over the same , the milk yield per cow declined by about 5 per cent in 1997 compared to 1996. This is attributed to drought and other adverse weather conditions experienced by many dairy-producing regions.Australia's dairy products industry has the potential to increase the volume of its production and exports since the country is well endowed with natural resources necessary to increase dairy also has suitable climate that is favourable to dairy production based on year round pasture production. In addition, Australia's dairy farms are family owned and operated, and hired labour does not contribute a higher percentage to the cost of production. Thus, Australia is considered as one of the efficient, low cost milk producing countries (ADC,1997). The country has also locational advantage to have access to the Asian markets, which are the major importers of Australian dairy domestic production capacity and the exports of dairy products are positively related. Accordingly,the volume of exports could be increased through the expansion of manufacturing milk production by increasing the number of dairy herds and milk yield per cow, provided Australia makes an effort to undertake marketing promotion and research to capture sizeable market shares in the potential and emerging study carried out by ABARE has projected that milk production in Australia will increase by about 3 per cent a year to the 1999-2000 fiscal has been attributed mainly to the estimated increase in the number of dairy herds, milk yield per cow, improved pasture, livestock management techniques and increased capital investment (ADIC, 1996).ARRANGEMENTS FOR MANUFACTURING MILK IN AUSTRALIA To facilitate the proper functioning of a free market system, market information must be available so that buyers and sellers are aware of the production and pricing arrangements (Kidane and Gunawardana,Downloaded by [The University of British Columbia] at 00:35 10 June 2021 1997, p. 37). Thus, producers and consumers would perform their functions efficiently, and prices and quality of dairy products will be competitive. To assist in meeting these market criteria, the government has established the Australian Dairy Industry Council (ADIC), Products Federation Inc. (ADPF), Australia Dairy Farmers' Federation Ltd. (ADFF), Market MilkFederation of Australia Inc. (MMFA),Australian Dairy Corporation (ADC) and Dairy Research Development Corporation (DRDC). These organisations are expected among other things to disseminate market information and coordinate production and market activities. For example, some of the major objectives of the ADC are to improve the domestic market for dairy pioducts; to provide technical and product advice to emerging markets; to undertake a range of export promotion activities in overseas markets;and international promotion focused on growing Asian markets such as Japan, Hong Kong, China, Vietnam, Singapore, etc. (ADIC,1996). The farm gate pricing and domestic milk support schemes are discussed below.(i)Farm Gate PricingThe government does not have formal control over the prices processors pay to farmers Producing milk used in manufacturing products. The manufacturing milk prices are based on both milk fat and protein, and payment to farmers by processors also depends on the quality, volumes and seasonal incentives. High prices are offered to farmers by factories to encourage them to maintain production during the dry period.Most manufacturers offer different prices as their profits are affected by factors such as product mix, marketing strategies and processing efficiencies (NSWA, 1996-97). Consequently, farm gate prices paid for manufacturing milk are lower than the prices paid for market milk . (ii)Domestic Milk Support SchemePrior to July 1, 1995, the marketing of manufactured dairy products were funded by a levy on all Australian milk production under the Market Support Scheme (Crean Plan). The scheme raised domestic farm gate prices for manufacturing milk above international prices by about 2 cents a litre. However, following the Uruguay Round agreement on manufactured dairy products, Australia introduced a scheme known as 'Domestic Market Support Scheme (DMS)' on July 1, 1995. The new scheme that is administered by the Australian Dairy Corporation imposes compulsory levies both on market milk and manufacturing milk for sales on the domestic market. In 1997-98, the rates of these levies were about and cents per litre,respectively (ADC, 1997). The funds raised by these levies are targeted to make domestic support payment to farmers who produce manufacturing milk. This scheme provides incentives to farmers to increase production of milk used in dairy products for export markets. However,this extended market arrangement will cease at the end of June 2000,and like many other industries,the dairy industry will receive Commonwealth assistance estimated at 5 per cent in tariff terms after June 2000. In 1995/96, this implicit export subsidy increased gross returns on manufacturing milk by about 7 per cent (Industry Commission, 1997). This has made exporting dairy products more attractive and has encouraged milk producers to use most of the resources in the production of dairying.However, it is predicted that the removal of this export support will reduce milk production by 6 per cent and the volume of exports by 20 per cent as producers will concentrate on the domestic markets. This will have a short term effect of reducing manufacturing milk producers' incomes, and may also encourage producers to move some resources into alternative enterprises in the long run. Consequently, this is likely to reduce production of manufactured dairy products for export markets with effect from the end of June 2000. However, given the available resources necessary to increase the volume of production, with efficient use of resources without government intervention and export promotion undertaken by ADC and DRDC, Australian dairy producers will still have the incentives to focus on both export and domestic markets. Optimal allocation of resources is also likely to increase dairy production, while domestic prices will decline, as the exportable surplus will be directed to domestic markets (ABARE, 1991a). DAIRY PRODUCTS EXPORTS AND CHALLENGING ISSUESIn Australia, milk production is subject to seasonal influences, but production and exports of dairy products have recorded an average increase of about per cent and per cent between 1988 and 1997. The export price, which includes export freight,insurance, export commission and handling charges, is very attractive compared to the domestic wholesale prices. This partly acts as an incentive for producers to direct a large percentage of their dairy products to export markets and Australian dairy products to be less competitive on domestic markets.Australia is considered as a relatively non-subsidized exporter compared to EU and the USA, and Australia has to compete with countries, which have considerable domestic dairy industry support and guaranteed price for manufactured products. Australia is being excluded by the impact of these export subsidy programs of the major competitors to have access to world markets. As specified in the Uruguay Round Outcome (GAW, the agreement (reduction in export subsidies and use of tariffs as trade barriers)is being implemented over a five year period with effect from , the short run effect from the termination of the domestic support scheme and thelimited access that Australia will have to overseas markets until the Uruguay agreement is fully implemented, will have negative impacts on the exports of Australian dairy products.Cheese, skim milk powder and whole milk powder are the major components of exports of Australian dairy products and account for 22, 33 and 17 per cent of the total exports. Australian exports have continued to grow and accounted for about 67 per cent of total production of dairy products in 1997. However, Australia still has the potential to increase the volume of dairy production,which can be achieved by improved feed, breeding and farm management practices. But Australia will have to give priority to export development to sell the additional supply of dairy products to emerging markets in Asia, Middle East, Africa and the Americas.In 1997, major importers of Australian dairy products (mainly skim milk powder, cheese and whole milk powder) were Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Singapore, and their market shares accounted for about 41 per cent of Australia's total exports of dairy products. Japan and the Philippines are the major importers of Australian cheese and skim milk powder, respectively. In 1997, Japan's imports of cheese accounted for about 47 per cent of Australia's total exports of cheese, and the Philippines's imports of skim milk powder accounted for about per cent of ~ustralia's total exports of skim milk powder (ABARE, 1997). The total volume of exports and total real value of dairy products have increased by 21 per cent and per cent, respectively in 1997 compared to 1996. The world dairy production also increased by about 2 per cent over the same period. This partly affected the Australian export prices and the increase in the value of exports is substantially lower compared to the volume of exports .Asia is the leading export market for Australian dairy , it is anticipated that there are considerable hurdles-to maintain sales on export markets in the region. Most of the Asian nations are experiencing slow economic growth due to the recent financial crisis and political instability in some parts of the region.Australia imports dairy products (mainly cheese) to meet the increasing domestic consumption as most of the country's dairy products are exported due to the relative attractiveness of exporting to domestic total domestic consumption of dairy products fluctuated throughout the 1990s but has shown an upward trend in recent years. Thus, the volume of dairy products sales on the domestic market had also fluctuated during the same period but increased on average by about 2 per cent between 1988 and 1997. Similarly, the consumption per person ofdairy products has been fluctuating since 1989 but has increased on average by per cent over the same period.Imports of dairy products increased on average by about per cent, and exports of the same product recorded an average increase of about per cent, between 1988 and of imported dairy products are relatively lower compared with the prices of domestically processed dairy products. Imports of dairy products at lower prices have made the Australian processed dairy products less competitive on domestic markets. New Zealand is the major supplier of cheese to Australia. The closer Economic Relations agreement between New Zealand and Australia has made Australia's domestic markets more accessible to New Zealand's exportable surplus production of dairy products (ABARE, 1991b). Australia's production costs are similar to those in NZ, but dairy products imported from NZ are relatively cheaper compared to Australia's dairy products sold on domestic markets. Limited domestic market capacity and the inaccessibility of other overseas markets for NZ's exportable excess production, are some of the factors that made NZ's dairy products relatively cheaper on the Australian domestic market.Ⅳ.EXPORT MARKET OPPORTUNITIES FOR AUSTXALIAN DAIRY PRODUCTS In 1997, Australian total real export value of dairy products was estimated at $ billion and recorded an increase of about per cent compared with 1996 . Australian exports of dairy products to . Asia and other Asian countries accounted for about 44 and 25 per cent of their total imports of dairy products, respectively and about 69 per cent of Australia's total exports of dairy products in 1996. Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore,Thailand and Taiwan are the major importers of Australia's dairy products, and their imports account for about 55 per cent of Australia's total exports (ABARE, 1997).Japan, which is considered the number one Asian per capita consumer of dairy products, is the largest importer of dairy products in the Asian region. It is also the largest market for Australian dairy products and the major export market especially for Australian cheese. In 1996, its total imports of dairy products were estimated at thousands tonnes, and about 48 per cent of its total imports was purchased from Australia .Cheese accounted for about 22 per cent of Australia's total exports of dairy products in 1997, and exports to Japan accounted for about 48 per cent of Australia's total exports of cheese (ABARE, 1997). Under the Uruguay Round agreement on dairy products trade, Japan iscommitted to purchase a minimum of about 137,202 tonnes of dairy provides greater export market opportunities for Australian dairy products in the Japanese market. This is based on the assumption that Japan would take action to reduce any existing trade barriers under the proposed Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) free trade agreement and the Uruguay (GATT) commitment.The bulk of Australia's dairy products are exported to the Asian countries, mainly due to Australia's geographical proximity to the region. The lower transportation costs have given Australia competitive advantage over other exporting countries. However, as a result of the recent financial crisis and political instability in some of the Asian countries, their economic growth is slowing down. Australia will need to give priority to export development to emerging markets in which it has competitive advantage. Australia has to diversify its export market base and focus on the markets in Africa, the Americas, Middle East, Europe, Russia, and the Pacific. The imports of dairy products of these countries accounted for about 12, 24, 11, 8 and 3 per cent of total world exports, respectively in 1996. Australia's exports of dairy products to these countries account for about , , , , and per cent of total world exp&, respectively during the same are also estimated at 20 per cent of the total consumption requirements. The preferential tariff agreement between China and Australia will remove the trade barriers for Australian dairy products exports to China (ADIC, 1996).Australia's exports to China accounted for about 5 per cent of China's total dairy products imports in 1996. There is also a scope for greater export market opportunities for Australian dairy products in S. Korea. It is estimated that per capita consumption of dairy products will rise from 45 kg in 1991-92 to more than 63 kg in 2000 (ADIC, 1996). The country is expected to liberalise its trade barriers under the Uruguay Round arrangement. Australia's exports of dairy products to S. Korea account for about per cent of Australia's total exports and per cent of S. Korea's total imports . The geographical proximity and quality of Australian dairy products will provide better opportunities for Australian exporters to have large market shares in the Chinese and S. Korean markets.Australian exports of dairy products to Europe mainly consist of cheese, and the Australian exports account for 5 per cent of Europe'stotal imports of cheese. However, after the implementation of the Uruguay Round agreement, Australia's exports to Europe increased at anaverage of over 30 per cent between 1995 and 1997 (ABARE,1997). Australia has to make efforts to establish markets in the EU member countries as the annual global EU quotas are increasing by 83,175 tonnes for cheese and curd, 67,933 for SMP and 10,000 tonnes for butter (ADC, 1997). Likewise, the USA has agreed to increase import levels for all major dairy products, and Australia has to compete in terms of quality and volume to increase its market share in the USA market.【摘要】关于澳大利亚的出口收入，奶制品出口变得愈来愈重要。

外文翻译模板

外文翻译模板(总12页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--杭州电子科技大学毕业论文外文文献翻译要求根据《普通高等学校本科毕业设计（论文）指导》的内容，特对外文文献翻译提出以下要求：一、翻译的外文文献可以是一篇，也可以是两篇，但总字符要求不少于万（或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上）。

二、翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关着作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）的参考文献。

并在每篇中文译文标题尾部用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文（全文，格式为word）。

不能翻译中国学者的文章，不能翻译准则等有译文的着作。

三、中文译文的基本撰写格式1.题目:采用小三号、黑体字、居中打印；段前二行，段后二行。

2.正文:采用小四号、宋体字，行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。

页边距为左3cm，右，上下各，页面统一采用A4纸。

四、外文原文格式1.题目:采用小三号、Times New Roman、居中打印；段前二行，段后二行。

2.正文:采用小四号、Times New Roman，行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。

页边距为左3cm，右，上下各，页面统一采用A4纸。

五、封面格式由学校统一制作（注：封面上的“翻译题目”指中文译文的题目），并按“封面、封面、译文、外文原文、考核表”的顺序统一装订。

毕业论文外文文献翻译毕业论文题目Xxx翻译题目指翻译后的中文译文的题目学院会计学院（以本模板为准）专业XXXXXX（以本模板为准）姓名XXXXXX（以本模板为准）班级XXXXXX（以本模板为准）学号XXXXXX（以本模板为准）指导教师XXXXXX（以本模板为准）译文管理者过度乐观与债务、股权融资之间的选择1本文采取了一家成长较快速的公司作为样本，比较债务融资和股权融资后的长期股票业绩。