语言学作业第一章
语言学教程习题答案第一章
语言学教程习题答案第一章语言学教程习题答案第一章在语言学的学习过程中，习题是非常重要的一部分，通过习题的练习可以帮助我们巩固知识，提高对语言学理论的理解和应用能力。
本文将针对语言学教程第一章的习题进行解答，并对其中一些重要的概念进行深入探讨。
1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的起源、发展、结构以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
2. 语言学的研究方法有哪些？语言学的研究方法包括田野调查、实验研究、文献研究等。
田野调查是指通过对语言使用环境的观察和实地访谈等方式，收集语言数据并进行分析。
实验研究则是通过实验室环境下的控制变量实验，来研究语言现象。
文献研究则是通过对已有的语言学文献进行分析和综述，来推测和总结语言学理论。
3. 语言学的研究对象是什么？语言学的研究对象是语言。
语言是人类交流的工具，它包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的内容。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的结构、规律以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
4. 什么是语言的层次结构？语言的层次结构是指语言的组成部分之间的关系。
从上到下，语言的层次结构包括语言（language）、语言系统（linguistic system）、语言单位（linguistic unit）以及语言要素（linguistic element）。
语言单位是指语言中的最小有意义的单位，如音素、词素、词等。
语言要素则是指构成语言单位的基本成分，如音素、词素中的音素。
5. 什么是语音学？语音学是研究语言中的语音现象的学科。
它研究的内容包括语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。
通过对语音的研究，我们可以了解语音的分类、规律以及语音与语义、语法之间的关系。
6. 什么是语音？语音是语言中的声音现象。
它是通过声带、口腔、鼻腔等发声器官的协调运动而产生的。
语音可以分为音位和音素两个层次。
音位是语言中的最小音位单位，它是语音的抽象概念。
胡壮麟语言学第一章练习（1）
胡壮麟语言学第一章练习（1）Chapter One Exercise 1 (1.1-1.4)I. Define the following terms:1. design feature2. arbitrariness3. duality4. displacement5. language6. linguisticsⅡ. Beneath each sentence there are 4 choices marked A, B,C and D. Choose the one which is the best answer.1. Which is the commonly accepted definition of “linguistics” ?A. The scientific social science of languageB. The scientific learning and teaching of languageC. The scientific study of languageD. The prescriptive study of language2. ______ is considered as “father of modern linguistics”.A. BloomfieldB. JackobsonC. AristotleD. Saussure3. “______” is a word in English which is onomatopoeic.A. WalkmanB. WaterlooC. TicktackD. Seesaw4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness5. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human ________.A contactB communicationC relationD community6. which of the following words is entirely arbitrary.A treeB crashC typewriterD bang7. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above8. Language is first and foremost a ______ . A. system of wordsB. system of grammarC. system of vocal symbolsD. system of meanings9. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates thedesign feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality10. Unlike animal communication systems, human language isA. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.Ⅲ. Fill in the blanks.1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __ ___.3. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performingheavy work has been called the _____ theory.4.The theory that language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive ofpain or joy has been called the _____ theory.5. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _____ overwriting.6. Language is p________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely largenumber of sentences which they have never heard before.7. P_____ means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.8. Language has two levels. They are _____ level and ___ level.9. Language is _______ because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’s actual speech or writing.10. By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and ____ .Ⅳ. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].1.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact thatlanguage has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.4. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.5. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary./doc/89c6d25c0912a21615792901.ht ml nguage is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in agiven culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.7.The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.8.Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.9. Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.9.10. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.Ⅴ. Answering the questions1.Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?2. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell，thewind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose，the night fell?” If not，why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?3. A discussion on Saussure as the father of modern linguistics.Direction: You can try to answer this question from the following points for answer:1) Saussure’s great achievements in different fields. 2)Saussure’s linguistic views 3) Saussure’s influence on modern linguistics.4.How do you understand arbitrariness in human languages?Answers for exercise 1-1I. Define the following terms:1. design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.2. arbitrariness: One design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.3. duality: One design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.4. displacement: One design feature of human language, which means human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5. language:“Language is a means of verbal communi cation.”It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is also social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.6. linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question–what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.Ⅱ. Beneath each sentence there are 4 choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one which is the best answer.1-5 C D C D B 6-10 A D C C AⅢ. Fill in the blanks.1. verbal2. creativity/productivity3. yo-he-ho4. pooh-pooh5. Speech6. potential7. Productivity8. Primary , secondary9. Conventional 10. formⅣ. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].1. T2. F3. T4. T5. F6. F7. F8. F9. F 10. FⅤ. Answering the questions1.Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.2. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence“As the night fell，the windrose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose，the night fell?” If not，why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?This sentence couldn’t be expressed as “As the wind ro se，the night fell”, if so, the original intention of writer is distorted. That means the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. Based on systemic functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level ,because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. Therefore, to a certain extent, we can see a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order.3. A discussion on Saussure as the father of modern linguistics.1)T he three lines along which Saussure’s ideas were developed:linguistics, sociology, andpsychology.A. In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney,who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasise that language is an institution.B. In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held thatlanguage is one of the “social facts”, which are ideas in the “collective mind” of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts.C. In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, whohypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called theunconscious.2) Saussure’s ideasA. Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language.B. For Saussure, langue is “absence” in the virtual world and parole is “presence” in the actual world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ actual systems are considered unstable and variable.3) Saussure’s influence on modern linguistics.A. He provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which had seldom been questioned.B. He influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concepts, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc.Alllinguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.4.How do you understand arbitrariness in human languages?When we are discussing arbitrariness in human languages, we have to put it on the different language levels.First of all, as one of the design features, arbitrariness exists in human language popularly, so we can find out so many supportive evidences of the relationship between sound and meaning. For example, an object is definitely arbitrarily named as “book” in English while “书” in Chinese. Secondly, language is not always arbitrary at the syntactic level based on systemicfunctionalists and American functionalists, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, Then t he writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. So there is a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order.At last, we shouldn’t be ignored of the relationship between arbitrariness and convention. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, while convention leads language to normal and grammatical. Both of arbitrariness and conventionality develop language in parallel.。
语言学教程第四版 练习 第一章
Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.All languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaning2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.treeB.typewriterC.bowwowD.bang3.The function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play?(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t it?B : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A.PerformativepetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone.This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. DisplacementD.Duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. M ark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.Articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letterof the word is already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.4.The claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.P________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.Modern linguistics is d＿in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.One general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________. IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.How can we use language to do things? Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.The features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.The fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.In Jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.When people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version.10.In functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________.11.Among Halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.12.The________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.Please name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,_____________ _____, _____________________and ____________________.14.In________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.In________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.19.The study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.The study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.The fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageA.PhoneticsB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.A.MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningA.DualityB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageA.poeticB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.ChomskyB.SaussureC.JacobsonD. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.A.InterpersonalB. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.e xperientialB. referentialC. metalingualD. Interpersonal16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the study of_____.A.phonologyB. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.A.articulatoryB. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.A.is illogicalB. has grammatical genderC.has biological genderD. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.A.pragmatic skillB. intuitive knowledge of languageC.perfect knowledge of language skillD. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.What is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language?5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs? What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence?V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.。
语言学作业1
语言学概论：结合层级性，组合和聚合谈谈语言的系统性举例说明语言系统性中各结构要素是相互影响的~~~~语言的系统性特点语言符号之间相互制约相互影响可以映证语言符号的系统性古今词汇最大的差异在于古代汉语单音节词为主，现代汉语双音节为主，例如：令行禁止、身体力行、求全责备、得意忘言、鳏寡孤独、具体而微从单音节词为主变化到双音节为主的主要原因——由于语音系统的简化导致了词汇系统的变化，而词汇的变化又反过来影响了语义、语音和语法——例如做词尾的“子、头”的意义虚化，变读为轻声；附加式结构的产生等等。
这些都是语言系统中各结构要素相互影响的表现。
例如：对头（tou 二声）——对头！你这个答案和我心里想的一模一样！对头（tou 轻声）——他两个是对头，早年两家有过矛盾。
层级性是系统的一个主要特点。
语言符号的层级性，是指语言符号作为一个有机整体是分层分级的。
构成整个语言系统的各种结构要素，虽然是依时间线条依次出现的，但并不处于同一个平面上。
它们在不同的层级上组成语言符号系统。
语言符号的层级性和系统性是密切相关的。
语言符号系统可以分为底层和上层。
语言符号系统的底层是一套音位。
任何一种语言的音位在数量上都是有限的，一般只有几十个，但这几十个音位却可以组成众多的音节，为表达语言符号的意义在形式上准备了足够的声音材料。
语言符号系统的上层是一套音义结合的符号及其序列，又可分为三级：第一级是语素，即一定语音形式和相应的语义内容相结合的最小的语言单位；第二级是由语素构成的词，词是语言中可以独立运用的最小的音义结合体；第三级是由词构成的句子。
这样，语言符号系统的底层与上层、第一级和第二级、第二级和第三级紧密结合，并按照一定的规则，由下向上逐层逐级，最终形成了语言符号这个复杂的系统，显示出了语言符号的系统性。
语言这个音义结合的符号系统，是按照一定的关系组成的。
语言符号的系统性总是表现在各个语言符号之间的关系上。
这就是语言符号的组合关系和聚合关系。
1语言学概论第一章语言与语言学习题
1语言学概论第一章语言与语言学习题语言学概论第一章语言与语言学习题、真题集锦一、单选题(本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分)1．结构主义语言学的奠基人是著名语言学家（ D ）。
（P12）A.葆朴B.乔姆斯基C.洪堡D.索绪尔2.索绪尔提出的语言学被称为( D )。
P12A.对比语言学B.转换生成语言学C.社会语言学D.结构主义语言学3．首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是( B )。
P58 A．洪堡特 B.索绪尔 C．乔姆斯基 D.萨丕尔4．“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜”这句话出自( D )。
（P68）A.《论语?述而》B.《庄子?养生主》C.《韩非子?五蠹》D.《荀子?正名》5.“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜”这句话出自（ D ）P68Ａ．《墨子》Ｂ．《论语》Ｃ．《管子》 D.《荀子》6.下面各项属于语言符号特点的是（ A ）。
P58-59A．约定性 B．自然性 C．固定性 D．想象性7．语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（A ）。
P58-59 A．任意性 B.强制性 C．离散性 D.系统性8．几万、几十万个词通过排列组合可以产生无限多的句子，这主要是由于语言符号具有（ A ）。
P60-61A．离散性 B．强制性 C．可变性 D．任意性9．语言是一种（ C ）。
P49A.自然现象B.生理现象C.社会现象D.个人现象9.“人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”指的是（ A ）p49A.语言B.言语C.言语行为D.言语作品10.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（ A ）p59A.任意性B.强制性C.离散性D.系统性11.语言符号的任意性是指（ B ）p59A.人们可以任意使用或创制语言符号B.语言符号的声音和意义之间没有必然联系C.利用语言可以任意给事物或现象命名D.语言符号的语音形式和意义的关系可以任意改变12.下列关于语言符号的表述中，不正确的一项是（ D ）p60-61A.语言符号包括能指和所指B.语言符号的音和义不可分割C.语言符号音义关系具有任意性D.语言符号不能分解和重新组合13.语言教学理论属于（ B ）。
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.⏹He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.⏹Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.⏹Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________. 4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌi t]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i]rice [rʌi s]rise [ra i z]by [ba i]type [tʌi p]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌi f]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌi k]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。
语言学第一章习题(含答案)
第一章语言的功能一、填空题.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际工具和思维工具：从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号系统。
1 .文字是建立在语言基础上的最重要的辅助交际工具:旗语之类是建立在语言和」^基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
2 . 一种语言的句子数量是无限的，但无限的句子中却包含着有限的博鼠和为数不多的规则。
3 .人类的交际工具分的交际工具和身势等非语言的交际工具。
4 .语言是一种特殊的社会现象的含义是，语言具有全人类性，没有阶级性。
5 .思维的类型可分为宜.观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维。
抽象思维的三种形式是概念、判断、推理。
6 .人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有语言，这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
7 .在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务，例如汉民族点头袤示同意，摇头表示不同意，咬牙切齿表示愤怒，手舞足蹈京示激动或高兴°.人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的上半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性思维。
8 .汉语的哥哥、弟弟，英语用brother表示:汉语的舅妈、姑妈、姨妈、婶婶，英语用aunl 表示。
9 .英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习^10 .如果一个病人大脑&半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出他家的地址，却认得自己的家门。
相反，大脑）半球发生损伤，他尽管能说出他家的地址，却找不到自己的家门。
二、判断题.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（1 .语言是在文字基础之上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（X）.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（X）2 .在一定的条件下，身势等伴随动作也可以脱离语言而独立完成一些交际任务。
（J）.现代社会沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性正日渐削弱。
（X）3 .语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（J）.我们常听人们说“工人有工人的语言，农民有农民的语言”，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
英语专业英语语言学 配套练习题第一章Chapter One
Chapter OneI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general.3. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.4. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.5. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies morphemes,but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.6. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to the society.7. Modern Linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.8. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.9. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spokenlanguage.10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Ferdinandde Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k______ of the rules of hislanguage.2. Langue refers to the a_____ linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of rules.3. D_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thephenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a_____ vocal symbols used for human communication.5. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words intopermissible sentences in language is called s_____.6. Human capacity for language has a g____ basis, but the details of language have tobe taught and learned.7. P______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s_____ study of language.III. Define the following terms briefly.1. language2. linguistics3. design features4. arbitrariness5. productivity6. displacement7. duality8. competence9. performance10. langue11. paroleIV. Answer the following questions briefly. Give examples for illustration if necessary.1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication. Explain it in detail.2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written？5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?V. Further readingBooks:1.Aitchison, J. 1992. Linguistics. London: Hodder & Stoughton.2.Sapir, E. 2002. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press.3.Widdowson, H. G. 1996. Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.4.刘润清等编著，1990，《语言学入门》，北京：人民教育出版社。
语言学作业第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：_________Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrari ness:The forms of lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on ship to their mea ning.The differe nt levels of arbitrari ness:(1) Arbitrary relati on ship betwee n the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, eve n with ono matopoeic words(2) Arbitrari ness at the syn tactic level: la nguage is not arbitrary at the syn tactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary level and each of the two levels has its own prin ciples of orga ni zati on.3. Phatic com munionPhatic com munion refers to the social in teracti on of Ian guage.4. Synchronic lin guistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Lan gue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcom mun ity, that is, the lexic on, grammar, and phono logy impla nted in each in dividual, and it is the lin guist ' s proper object;Parole refers to the realizatio n of Ian gue, the immediately accessible data. While parole con stitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of con fused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation.(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurri ng eve nt.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to pers on al, i ndividual and situati onal con stra in ts.(4) Lan gue is esse ntial while parole is accessory and accide ntal.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character. The grammaria ns tried to lay dow n rules for the correct use of Ian guage and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “ standardsThe.nature of linguistics as a scie nce determ ines its preoccupati on with descripti on in stead of prescripti on.3. Synchronic vs. Diachr onicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Actually synchrony is a fiction since any Ian guage is cha nging as the minu tes pass.Diachr onic lin guistics is the study of a Ian guage through the course of its history.4. Compete nce vs. Performa nceAccordi ng to Chomsky:A Ianguage user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his lin guistic compete nce.Performance refers to the actual use of Ianguage or the actual realization of this kno wledge in uttera nces in con crete situati ons.A speaker ' compete nce is stable while his performa nce is ofte n in flue need by psychological and social factors, so a speaker ' s performance does not always or equal his supposed compete nce.He believes that lin guists ought to study compete nce rather tha n performa nce.5. Lan gue vs. Compete nceAccording to Chomsky:Lan gue is a social product, a systematic inven tory of rules of the Ian guage, a set of conven ti ons for a speech com mun ity.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of gen erative processes.Accord ing to Hymes:He approaches Ian guage from a socio-cultural viewpo int with the aim of study ing the varieties of ways of speak ing on the part of in dividual and the com mun ity.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to in corporate the pragmatic ability for Ian guage use. This exte nded idea of compete nce can be called com muni cative compete nce.III. An swer the follow ing questi ons in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic or diachronicorientation just from the titles?1) En glish Exam in ed: Two Cen turies of Comme nt on the Mother Ton gue2) Protea n Shape: A Study in Eightee nth-ce ntury Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Developme nt in En glish4) The Categories and Types of Prese nt-Day En glish Word-Formati on5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2) synchronic 3) diachronic 4) synchronic5) We can 'judge whether it is synchronic or diachr onic orie ntati on just from the titles.2. What is Ian guage? What is lin guistics?Lan guage can be defi ned as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on and in teract ion.Linguistics is the scientific study of human Ianguage. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is kno wledge of Ian guage? (Compete nee) 2) how is kno wledge of Ianguage acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of Ianguage put to use? (Performa nce/la nguage process in g). Main bran ches of lin guistics: Pho netics. Pho no logy Morphology, Syn tax, Sema ntics, Pragmatics.3. How do you un dersta nd performative function of Ian guage?The performative function of Ianguage is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of crim in als, the bless ing of childre n, the naming of a ship at a launching cerem ony, and the curs ing of en emies.The kind of Ianguage employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and eve n ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasi ons. For example, in Chin ese whe n some one breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of con troll ing the in visible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the follow ing questi on in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that arbitrariness is a matter of degree ”？1) Arbitrary relati on ship betwee n the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, eve n with onomatopoeic words: The dog barks bow wow in English but 汪汪汪” in Chin ese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: Ianguage is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat dow n.He sat dow n and came in.He sat dow n after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Arbitrariness ofIanguage makes it potentially creative. Conventionality of Ianguage makeslearning a Ianguagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the followi ng stateme nts.1. Huma n Ian guage en able their users to symbolize objects, eve nts and con ceptswhich are not prese nt (in time and space) at the mome nt of commu ni catio n. This quality is labeled as _________________ .2. The sound [p] can be described with Voiced, ________ , stop”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word differe nt from ano ther in meanin g,, are _______ .4. Both sema ntics and _______ inv estigate lin guistic meaning, but they focus ondiffere nt aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of Ianguage andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ lin guistics.6. Phones that fall into alloph ones of a phon eme have to satisfy two con diti ons, oneis they are ____________________ , and another is that they should be in7. The vowel ________ i s high front tense unroun ded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itsIan guage does not have the feature of _________ .9. Computatio nal lin guistics ofte n refers to the problems of ________________ ,in formatio n retrieval, and ____________ .10. Halliday proposed a theory of metaf unctions of Ian guage, that is, la nguage has__________ , ____________ and _____________ fun cti ons.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulati on:2. Disti nctive features:3. Inton ati on:4. Assimilatio n:III. An swer the follow ing questi ons briefly.1. Specify the differe nee betwee n each pair of sounds using disti nctive features.1) [I] [?] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k ] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the follow ing soun ds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [e] _________________________________________5) [l] _________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions thatfollow.A B. Cbite [b?i t] bide [baid] tie [tai]rice [r?i s] rise [raiz] by [bai]type [t?i p] bribe [braib] sigh [sai]wife [w?i f] wives [wa ivz] die [dai]tyke [t?i k] time [taim] why [wai]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [?i ] and [ai] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a)ife and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialects of En glish shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mi ne6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representationsto be phonetic tran scripti ons of thewords give n above.IV. Discuss the questi ons in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what exte nt is pho no logy related ot phon etics and how do they differ?。
语言学作业（Linguisticshomework）
语言学作业（Linguistics homework）1章。
邀请语言学对于每个问题，答案有四种选择。
在某些情况下，只有一种选择是正确的，而在另一种情况下，应该选择一种以上。
选择所有正确的。
1。
下列哪一项是语言的设计特征？任意性b二元性C.人际关系D.位移2。
我们说的_____因为语言有其双重性和递归性。
任意性B创造性C. C.人际关系D.位移三.“我可以引用孔子虽然他2000年前死的。
”这说明语言具有_____设计特点。
任意性b.创造性。
4。
移位性赋予人类的力量来处理_____。
任意性和创造性B.概括和抽象C.人际关系D.施为功能5。
下面哪一个不是关于语言起源的理论？弓理论C.“他和他”理论。
6。
下列哪一种理论认为语言的起源是痛苦、愤怒和欢乐的本能声音？弓理论C.“他和他”理论。
7。
关于雅各布森语言功能框架，下列哪个陈述是正确的？参考功能是为了自己而沉迷于语言。
情感功能是传递信息和信息。
C.意动功能是清楚的意图，词汇和意义。
D.寒暄功能是建立与他人的交流。
8。
在韩礼德的语言功能理论中，下列哪一项是正确的？概念关系。
9。
对于纯粹的喜悦的语言使用说明语言具有_____功能。
A. B. C. D.元信息娱乐表演10。
_____研究词语的内部组织。
音系学B形态学C语义学d句法11。
_____关注治理结构规则，分布和序列的语音。
A.语音学B.形态学C.语用学D.音韵学12。
_____在语境中研究意义。
语义学B.语用学C.社会语言学，心理语言学13。
在第十八世纪，研究_____是所有主要的欧洲语言。
A. B. C. D.描述性规范的同步性14。
“不要结束句子介词。
“这是_____规则的一个例子。
A.说明性B。
15。
语言和言语的区分是由_____提出。
布卢姆菲尔德·B·索绪尔·C·乔姆斯基·D·韩礼德。
16。
能力与绩效之间的区别是由_____。
A.布卢姆菲尔德B.索绪尔C.乔姆斯基D.海姆斯17。
《语言学》第一次作业
第一次作业导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释（10分，每小题2分）1．专语语言学以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。
2．语言语言是人类最重要的交际工具，也是思维的工具。
（有的语言学著作认为语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
我们的教材认为音义问题是属于语言的结构内容，因此不采纳这样的定义，这是需要大家注意的。
）3．符号符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。
4．语言的二层性语言是由一定的单位按照一定的层级组成的，可分为音位层和符号层，其音位层和符号层我们合称为语言的二层性。
5．社会现象二、填空（20分，每空0.5分）1．结构主义语言学内部又分布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派三大学派。
2．历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4．一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5．用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6．语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7．语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。
8．语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。
9．组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。
三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉）（20分，每小题2分）1．文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
（×）2．地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（×）3．在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（×）4．现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（×）5．语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
语言学第一章试题及答案
语言学第一章试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学是研究人类语言的科学，它主要研究语言的哪些方面？A. 语音、语法、语义B. 语音、语法、语用C. 语音、语义、语用D. 语法、语义、语用答案：C2. 以下哪个选项不属于语言的组成部分？A. 词汇B. 语法C. 语义D. 逻辑答案：D3. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句答案：C4. 语言学的哪一项研究关注语言在社会中的使用？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 语用学D. 语义学答案：C5. 以下哪种语言现象属于语言的演变？A. 音变B. 词义演变C. 句法结构变化D. 所有以上答案：D6. 语言的哪一部分是研究语言的物理属性？A. 社会语言学B. 心理语言学C. 语音学D. 计算语言学答案：C7. 以下哪个选项是研究语言如何表达意义的学科？A. 语音学B. 语用学C. 语义学D. 句法学答案：C8. 语言学中，研究语言如何随时间变化的学科是什么？A. 历史语言学B. 心理语言学C. 社会语言学D. 计算语言学答案：A9. 以下哪个选项是研究语言的起源和发展的学科？A. 比较语言学B. 心理语言学C. 历史语言学D. 社会语言学答案：C10. 语言学中的“转换生成语法”理论是由谁提出的？A. 弗洛伊德B. 乔姆斯基C. 索绪尔D. 布隆菲尔德答案：B二、填空题（每题2分，共10分）1. 语言学的主要分支包括语音学、语法学、语义学和______。
答案：语用学2. 语言的三个基本功能是表达思想、______和表达情感。
答案：交流信息3. 语言学中的“深层结构”和“表层结构”的概念是由______提出的。
答案：乔姆斯基4. 语言的最小音义结合单位是______。
答案：词5. 语言学研究的两个主要对象是语言和______。
答案：言语三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述语言学的主要研究内容。
答案：语言学主要研究语言的结构、意义、使用和演变等方面，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、社会语言学、心理语言学等分支。
语言学第一章答案
Chapter 1. Language and LinguisticsI. For each question, there are four choices of answers. In some cases, only one choice is correct while in others more than one should be chosen. Choose ALL the correct ones.1 ABD2 B3 D4 B5 D6 B7 D8 AC D9 A 10 B11 D 12 B 13 C 14 A 15 B 16 C 17 D 18 C 19 B20.C 21.D 22.C 23.B 24.A 25.C 26.B 27.AII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. knowledge2. abstract3. Duality4. arbitrary5. syntax6.genetic7. Parole8. applied9. productive 10. scientificIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1 T2 T3 F4 F5 T6 T7 F8 F9 F 10 T11.T 12.F 13.F 14.T 15.F 16.T 17.F 18.T 19.T 20.T21.T 22.T 23F 24T 25.F 26.F 27.FⅣ. Choose Four of the following questions and answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:1. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages , and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response toimmediate changes of situation.2. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language, And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts, Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited, It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g, words, which are distinct in meaning. 3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written?First, the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language; Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes; Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.6. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7 Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distincti on between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 8. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whoseconnections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.9. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things, Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.10.如何理解“鹦鹉能言，不离于禽；猩猩能言，不离于兽”？两句话都有问题。
（完整版）语言学练习题（附答案）Chapter1Language
（完整版）语⾔学练习题（附答案）Chapter1Language Chapter One Language1. Define the following terms1) discreteness 2) design features3) arbitrariness 4) duality5) displacement 6) cultural transmission7) the imaginative function of language 8) the personal function of language9) the heuristic function of language 10) language2. Multiple ChoiceDirections: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete the sentence best.1) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative3) In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling theforces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does itperform?A. Interpersonal.B. Emotive. C Performative. D. Recreational.4) Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome thebarriers causedby time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a languageare free to talk about anything in any situation?A. interchangeability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness.5) Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions oflanguage?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. Phatic.C. Peformative.D. Interpersonal.6) Unlike animal communication systems, human language is .A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.7) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function8) In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal “狗”, this shows the nature of --- of human language.A arbitrarinessB cultural transmissionC displacementD discreteness9) Which of the following disciplines are related to applied linguistics?A. statisticsB. psycholinguisticsC. physicsD. philosophy10) has been widely accepted as the father of modem linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons3. Word CompletionDirections: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words.1) Design features, a framework proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett, referto the ________ properties of human language that distinguishes it from any animalsystem of communication.2) ________ refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfullydistinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually verygreat, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such away that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.3) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usuallytermed p_______ or c________.4) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about language itself. Thisfunction is m________ function.5) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is c________ transmitted. It ispassed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than byi_________.6) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.7) The ________ function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge aboutthe world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on.8) The ________ function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phaticcommunion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologistBronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere ormaintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts.9) Language is a system of arbitrary symbols used for human Communication.10) Language has two levels. They are ______ level and ______ level.11) Language is a ________ because every language consists of a set of rules whichunderlie people’s actual speech or writing.12) The _function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once theyhappen.13) The design features of language are (1) (2) (3)(4) (5) (6) and (7) _______.14) By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection be tweenmeaning and .15) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)and (4) .4. True or False QuestionsDirections: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them.1) ( ) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.2) ( ) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informative function.3) ( ) The reason for French to use cheval and for English to use horse to refer to the same animal is inexplicable.4) ( ) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.5) ( ) Language change is universal,ongoing and arbitrary.6) ( ) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.7) ( ) In theory, the length of sentences is limited.8) ( ) The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.9) ( ) Linguistic symbols are a kind of visual symbols, which include vocal symbols.10) ( ) Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs.11) ( ) Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.12) ( ) Such features of language as being creative, vocal, and arbitrary can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems.13) ( ) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.14) ( ) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.15) ( ) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5. Glossary translation1)personal function2)heauristic function3)ideational function4)interchangeability5)控制功能6)表现功能7)⽂化传递性8)分离性9)区别性特征10)不受时空限制的属性11)Interactional function12)instrumentational function13)imaginative function14)寒暄功能15)元语⾔功能16)Personal function17)performative function18)娱乐功能19)信息功能20)⼈际功能6. Short Essay Questions1)What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.2)Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.3)Is language productive or not? Why?4)What is language?5)What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of them withexamples.Key to Chapter One1. Define the followina terms1) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pad and bad leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds/p/ and /b/in English. Each sound in the language is thought of as discrete. It is possible to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the sounds /p/ and /b/.2) “Design features” refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. (3分)3) “Arbitrariness” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because there are cases where there are or at least seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo Words, like “bang”, “crash”,”roar”,’ which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary eit her. “Snow” and “storm” are arbitrary or unmotivated words, while “snowstorm” is less so. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4) Linguists refer “duality” of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (For example, we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary ofsentences!) Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.5) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. People can use language’ to d escribe something that had occurred, is occurring, or is to occur. But a dog could not bark for a bone to be lost. The bee’s System has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.6) Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geneticbasis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one rather than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The wolf-child reared by the wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. And it was difficult for him to acquire human language.7) The imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. It is also language used for sheer joy of using language, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, a poet’s pleasuring.8) The personal function refers to language used to express the indi vidual’s feelings, emotions and personality.9) The heuristic function of language refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world they live in and to construct possible answers.10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Multiple Choice1) – 5): A C C C B 6) – 10): A C C B B3. Word Completion.1) defining 2) Descreteness 3）productivity or creativity 4) metalingual 5) culturally, instinct or inheritance 6) speech 7) representational 8) interactional; 9) vocal;10) gramatically meaningful, sound meaningless; 11) system; 12) regulatory 13) arbitrariness, duality, productivity, cultural transmission, interchangeability, discreteness, displacement. 14) sound; 15) exhaustiveness, economy, objectivity, consistency4. True or False Questions1 – 5: FFTFF 6 – 10: FFTFT 11 – 15: FFTFT5. Glossary Translation1)personal function: ⼈际功能2)heauristic function：启发功能3)ideational function：概念功能4)interchangeability：互换性5)控制功能：regulatory function6)表现功能: representational functin7)⽂化传递性: cultural transmisssion8)分离性: discreteness9)区别性特征: design features10)不受时空限制的属性: displacement11)Interactional function: 互动功能12)instrumentational function：⼯具功能13)imaginative function：想象功能14)寒暄功能：phatic function15)元语⾔功能: metalingual function or metafunction of language16)personal function: ⾃指性功能17)performative function: 表达功能18)娱乐功能: recreational function19)信息功能: informative function20)⼈际功能: interpersonal function6. Short Essay Questions1) What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.According to Wang Gang (1988: 11), the functions of language can be mainly embodied in three aspects. i) Language is a tool of human communication; ii) Language is a tool whereby people learn about the world; iii) Language is a tool by which people create art.As a matter of fact, different linguists have different terms for the various functions of language. The British linguist M. A. K. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:(1) InstrumentalThe instrumental function of language refers to the fact that language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to control things in the environment. People can cause things to be done and to happen through the use of words alone. An immediate contrast here is with the animal world in which sounds are hardly used in this way, and, when they are, they are used in an extremely limited degree. The instrumental function can be primitive too in human interaction. Performative utterances such as the words which name a ship at a launching ceremony clearly have instrumental functions if the right circumstances exist；they are acts, e.g. I name this ship Liberty Bell.(2) RegulatoryThe regulatory function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others. People do try to control themselves through language, e.g. Why did I say that?/ Steady! / And Let me think about that again. Language helps to regulate encounters among people. Language provides devices for regulating specific kinds of encounters and contains words for approving or disapproving and for controlling or disrupting the behavior of others. It allows us to establish complex patterns of organization in order to try to regulate behavior, from game playing to political organization, from answering the telephone to addressing in foreign affairs. It is the regulatory function of language that allows people some measure of control over events that occur in their lives.(3)RepresentationalThe representational function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, scientific reports, government acts, and public data banks. It is an essential domain of language use, for the availability of this material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations, which is a prerequisite of social development.(4) InteractionalThe interactional function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phatic communion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts. A greeting such as how are you?is relatively empty of content, and answers like fine or very well, thank you are equally empty, because the speaker is not interested in the hearer’s health, but rather to demonstrate his politeness and general attitude toward the other person when he gives a conversational greeting.(5) PersonalThe personal function refers to language used to express the individual’s feelings, emotions and personali ty. A person’s individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of personal function of communication. Each individual has a “voice” in what happens to him. He is free to speak or not to speak, to say, as much or as little as he pleases, and to choose how to say what he says. The use of language can tell the listener or reader a great deal about the speaker or writer — in particular, about his regional origin, social background, level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.Language also provides the individual with a means to express feelings, whether outright in the form of exclamations, endorsements, or curse, or much more subtly through a careful choice of words. Many social situations display language used to foster a sense of identity: the shouting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the reactions of the audience to television game shows, the shouts of affirmation at some religious meetings. For example, the crowds attending Pres ident Regan’s pre-election meetings in 1984 repeatedly shouted “Four more years!”which united among those who shared the same political views.(6) HeuristicThe heuristic function refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the different disciplines. Insofar as the inquiry into language itself, a necessary result is the creation of a metalanguage, i.e. a language used to refer to language, containing terms such as sound, syllable, word, structure, sentence, meaning and so on.(7) ImaginativeThe imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether these are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand. The imaginative function also allows people to consider not just the real world but all possible worlds — and many impossible ones. Much literature is the most obvious example to serve this function as an account of Robinson Crusoe in the deserted island. The imaginative function enables life to be lived vicariously and helps satisfy numerous deep artistic urges.2) Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.Language is organized at two levels or layers-- sounds and meaning-- simultaneously. This property is called duality, or “double articulation”. In terms of speech production, we have the physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b, and i. As individual sound, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in a particular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning, which is differentfrom the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact,: one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (relatively finite words and infinite number of sentences) which are distinct in meaning. No animal communication system has duality, or ever comes near to possessing it.3) Is language productive or not? Why?(1) Language is productive or creative. (233) This means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Every day we send messages that have never been sent before, and we understand novel messages. Much of them we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. For example, the sentence” A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” must be new to you and it does not describe a common happening in the world. Nevertheless, nobody has any difficulty in understanding it.(2) Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for they draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) The productivity or creativity of language partially. originates from its duality, because of which the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. It is the recursive nature of language that provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.4) What is language?(1) It is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. However, most linguists would accept a tentative definition like this: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (2) Language must be a system,since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently. (3) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it (钢笔in Chinese for instance) speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language. (4) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. (5) We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper (6) The term “human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human.specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.5) What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of themwith examples.(1) Displacement is one of the defining properties of human language, which refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are present or not present, real or not real, and about matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of its users. This phenomenon is thought of as “displacement”, which can provide its users with an opportunity to communicate about a wide range of subjects, free from any barriers caused by separation in time and space. That is, the feature of displacement can enable us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies, angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as superman. This feature is unique to human language. No animal communication system possesses it. Some animal calls are often uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. For instance, during the mating season, in the present of danger or pain, animals will make calls. Once the danger or pain is missing, their calls stop.(2) Discreteness The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between the sounds b andp is actually not very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds p and b in English. This property of language is described as discreteness. Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. It is possible; in fact, to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like the p and b sounds. However, that continuous stream will only be interpreted as being either a p sound, or a b sound (or, possibly, as a non-sound) in the language. We have a very discrete view of the sounds of our language and wherever a pronunciation falls within the physically possible range of sounds, it will be interpreted as a linguistically specific and meaningfully distinct sound(3) Language is a system. It is organized into two levels simultaneously. We have distinct sounds at the lower level (sound level), which is seen as a sequence of segments which have no meaning in themselves. At the higher level, we have distinct meanings (meaningful level). Language is analyzed in terms of combination of meaningful units. Then the meaningful units (such as morphemes, words, etc.) at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. The organization of language into levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality or double articulation. This unique feature of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system possesses the feature of duality.。
语言学概论 作业
导论第一章练习题一、单项选择题1、关于口语和书面语的关系，下列说法中正确的一项是（C ）。
A.口语和书面是各自独立的两个系统，彼此间没有任何关系。
B.书面语是对口语的忠实记录，是口语的复制品。
C.与书面语相比，省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是口语的一大特点。
D.与口语相比，省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是书面语的一大特点。
2、普通语言学指的是（ C ）。
A.语言学研究中的初级阶段。
B.语言学研究的低级对象。
C.对人类语言进行一般性研究的科学。
D.对某一种语言进行普遍而适用的研究的学问。
3、对人类语言而言，声音四要素中最重要的一个是（D ）。
A.音高B.音强C.音长D.音质4、在下列四个部位中，（A ）是声道中最重要的。
A.口腔B.鼻腔C.咽腔D.喉头5、下列关于语音的表述中，不正确的一项是（D ）。
A.语音是语言的物质外壳B.语音与一般声音有本质的区别C.语音本质上是一种社会现象D.语音本质上是一种生理和物理现象6、下列各组元音中，都是低元音的一组是（B ）。
A.[ ][ ]B.[A.][ ]C.[ ][ ]D.[ ][ ]7、同样是指“会说话，能制造和使用工具的社会性动物”，汉语用“rén”去表示，而英语用“man”来表示，这说明了语言具有（ D ）。
A．强制性 B．可变性C．系统性 D．任意性8、一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征是（ D ）。
A．音高 B．音强 C．音质 D．音长9、语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人类社会中人与人之间的（ C ）行为。
A．书面 B．文字 C．口头 D．体式10、语言单位之间构成的横向结构关系，就是（ A ）。
A．组合关系 B．聚合关系 C．同义关系 D．同音词关系二、多项选择题（每题有2－5个正确答案可选）1、（AD ）的建立标志着语言学的诞生。
A.十八世纪B.十九世纪C.二十世纪D.历史比较语言学E结构主义语言学2、关于语言起源的学说有（ABC ）。
语言学第1章练习
Exercises for Chapter OneI. Spell the terms according to their definitions and the initial letters given.1.A_______ refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no naturalrelationship to their meaning.2.D_______ means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.The p___________ function of language is primarily to change the social status ofpersons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.4.P_________ is the study of meaning in context.5. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic c__________. And p__________ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.II. Judge whether the following statements are true or false.1.Onomatopoeic words are not arbitrary at all.2.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes learning a language laborious.3.By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its displacement.4.For most people the interpersonal function is predominantly the major role oflanguage.5.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. III. Multiple choice.1. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of language?A. arbitrarinessB. dualityC. conventionalityD. displacement2. When someone says “Nice day”in a conversation, he is using language for __________.A. informative functionB. performative functionC. Phatic communionD. metalingual function.3. _________ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. semanticsD. syntax4. The distinction between langue and parole is proposed by _________.A. Naom ChomskyB. Ferdinand de SaussureC. Michel HallidayD. Leonard Bloomfield5.IV. Define the following terms:linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, displacement, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, synchronic linguistics, diachronic linguistics, langue, competence.IV. Answer the following questions:1.In what ways is human language different from animal means of communication?2.What’s the difference between descriptive linguistics and prescriptive linguistics?。
语言学教程第四版 练习 第一章
Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.languages’have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaningof the following words is entirely arbitrary?function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play?(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t it?B : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonalrefers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.C. LangueD. Parolea dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorro wful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. Displacementanswers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguisticsdeals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies,namely, qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things andcan be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?can we use language to do things? Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________,_____________.the opposite side of arbitrariness.fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________. is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.Jakobso n’s version,there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function.people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version. functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________.Halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.of language is primary to change the social status of persons.name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,_________ _________, _____________________and ____________________.,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wavethe minimal unit of meaning.study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand aninfinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance,but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageA.PhoneticsB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.B. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.Chomsky D. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.B. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.experientialB. referentialC. metalingualD.Interpersonal16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the study of_____.B. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.B. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.illogical B. has grammatical genderbiological gender D. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.skill B. intuitive knowledge of languageknowledge of language skill D. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.3., is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language?5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs? What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence?V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.1. Match the linguistic items in Column A with one relevant item in Column2. Match the sentences in Column B with the language functions in Column。
英语专业语言学第一章练习
英语专业语言学第一章练习Chapter 1 IntroductionI. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which oneof the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, Cor D.1. deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by aprocess of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to asA. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence3. made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. SapirD. Hall4. Modern linguistics, i, e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostlythat is, it describes and analyses language.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic5. Writing is a secondary language form based upon .A. speechB. gestureC. emotionD. sounds6. deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics7. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not tolay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to beA. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic8. Many modern linguists have criticized grammarians for adopting a approachto language study.A. analyticalB. descriptiveC. prescriptiveD. pedagogical9. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”, the famous quotation from Shakespeare’splay “Romeo and Juliet” well illustrates .A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication10. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof thathuman language is .A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive11. Linguistics is the scientific study of .A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular languageII. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. Language is a system of a vocal symbols used for human communication.2. S is concerned with the diversity of language as it relates to various sociological factors.3. The description of a language as it changes through time is a d study.4. L refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.5. Language is p in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.6. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what d means.7. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed .8. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k of the rules of his language.9. Language is v because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter howwell developed their writing systems are.10. In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close links with otherbranches of s studies, such as sociology and psychology.11. Language exists in time and changes through tine. The description of language at some pointof time is called a s study of language.12. As the first step of their scientific investigation of language, linguists have to observe andcollect linguistic f before they can do anything else.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.( ) 1. Competence means the actual saying of something, or the act of speech itself.( ) 2. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive.( ) 3.Writing is the quickest and the most efficient of the three human communication systems. ( ) 4. Language is a system of arbitrary written symbols used for human communication. ( ) 5. In modern linguistics, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.( ) 6. Language is a purely human and instinctive method of communicating ideas by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.( ) 7. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.( ) 8. In modern linguistics, diachronic study seems to enjoy priority over synchronic study. ( ) 9. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( ) 10. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i. e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and details of a language system are genetically transmitted.( ) 11. An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in theirstudy of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form oflanguage and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage.IV. Explain the following linguistic terms or notions in English.1．design features2．langue and parole3．competence and performance4.duality5.displacement6.synchronic descriptionV. Revision Exercises : 2, 3, 6, 8。
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语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech c ommunity, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing howthings are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.Thegrammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle thedisputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts ofThe nature of linguistics as ausage count more than the authority-made “standards”．science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actuallysynchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances in concrete situations.competence is stable while his performance is often influenced byA speaker’spsychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set ofconventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as aproperty of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system ofgenerative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studyingthe varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge ofgrammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea ofcompetence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” i n Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a language—laborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [? ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [e] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [b?i t]bide [baid]tie [tai]rice [r?i s]rise [raiz]by [bai]type [t?i p]bribe [braib] sigh [sai]wife [w?i f]wives [wa ivz]die [dai]tyke [t?i k]time [taim]why [wai]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [?i] and [ai] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。