chapter 3 morphology

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英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案

Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。

语言学复习重点Chapter 3

Chapter Three ——Morphology(形态学）Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed.Word is a minimal free form with a unity of sound and meaning.The classification of words ：1、variableand invariable words（可变化词和不变词）Variable words are those words which can take inflective endings;E.g write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.invariable words are those that cannot.E.g since, when, seldom, through, etc.2、grammatical and lexical words(语法词和词汇词)词汇词也即实词，又译作notional/content word ;语法词也即虚词，又称function/form word 功能词/形式词3、c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)According to their membership:c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)An close class is one whose membership is in principle fixed or limited. （封闭类：连介代冠）An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited. (开放类：名动形副数叹)一、Morph Morpheme AllomorphMorph:The phonological and orthographic forms that represent morpheme are called morphs.[swi:t]{sweet}SweetMorpheme：The smallest unit of language.It can be represented as1-morpheme un-,-ish,-s.-ed1-morpheme word boy,desire2-morpheme wordboy+ish, desir(e)+ableAllomorphA morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.im possible{in} in convenientir regular tax.il logical-s [-s] book books{plural} -es [-iz] box boxes-i [-ai] mouse miceConclusion:All the allomorphs should have the same meaning.All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.The allomorphs with the same meaning should function the same in the language grammar structure.二、Classification of morpheme1、Free vs. Bound morphemesFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves,e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone,e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e. it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.e.g. Dislike, impolite, production,Membership, carelessnessfriend as in unfriendliness.Root may befree: those that can stand by themselves,e.g. black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix (-en, -ify).Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added,e.g.friend root > basefriendly root/base + suffix > baseunfriendly prefix + base > baseStem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g. friend+-s;friendship swrite+-ing,possibility+-es.Note:A stem can be equivalent to a root.A stem may contain a root and aderivational affix.2、Derivational vs Inflectional morphemeInflection indicates:case and number of nouns,tense and aspect of verbs,degree of adjectives or adverbs.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.三、Word-formationCompoundingAffixationOther formation1、CompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.✧Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill✧Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit✧Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree✧Preposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric& exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, noone2、Affixation✧Nominal forms: boys, boy’s✧Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting✧Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest3、DerivationClass-changing:✧N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard✧N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless✧V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant✧V>A: acceptable, adorable✧A>N: rapidness, rapidity✧A>V: deafen, sweeten✧Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly4、Other formations:1）Blendingtransfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smog2）Acronym①AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome②ASAP: as soon as possible3）Abbreviation/InitialismAI: artificial intelligencea.s.a.p.: as soon as possibleECU: European Currency Unit4）ClippingBack-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sFore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings: (de)tec(tive)5）Back-formationdiagnose < diagnosisenthuse < enthusiasmlaze < lazy6）Invention/CoinageMostly brand names:Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraCoca-cola, Orlon and Dacron7)BorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate,8)Conversion 转换e.g. to butter the bread, take a look, empty a box, up the price9）Eponymsare words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.e.g. Sandwich (originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling)ExerciseI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. Free morphemes can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes.4. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs.5. The word “modernizations”is made up of three morphemes.6. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attached.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with a proper word.Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the ___ ___ of words and the____ by which words are formed.[-t], [-d], and [-id] are ___of the morpheme –ed.“Careless”is the __ of the word “carelessness”.__ affixes,__affixes, and __roots are all bound morphemes.III. Questions1. Analyze and then tell how many morphemes each of the following words contain. unselfishness, justifiable, sporting2. What constitutes the internal structure of words?3. List the allomorphs of the morpheme plural.。

第三章Morphology

Bound Morpheme
I. Definition: must be attached to another morpheme. II. Derivational morpheme A. may change syntactic class B. to form new (different) words C. examples: -able, -ex, un-, re-, -ness, etc. III. Inflectional morpheme A. Different forms of the same word (no new word added) B. Not change syntactic class (nor adding lexical meaning) C. To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word D. Only 8 kinds in English: -’s, -s (plural nouns), -ing, -ed/en, -est, -er, -s (S-V agreement)
P.74
Content Word & Function Words
Content word:
These are called open-class because speakers

can add new words to this class . These words denote concepts such as objects,action and attribute.
第三章morphologymorphologymorphologyexplantmorphology古剑奇谭第三章行尸走肉第三章悲怆第三章密室逃脱2第三章16半条命2第三章第三章另类战斗力密室逃脱2第三章

Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结

Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。

第三章形态学

3．1复合词的类型
Types of compound words
• 复合法指把两个或两个以上的词结合在一起构成新词的方法。复合词可以用不同的标准来分类。根据复合词构成成分的词性来分类，复合词通常有： • 1）名词+名词:end product; efficiency expert; food chain • Noun + noun 名词＋名词如：handbook, sunshine • 2）形容词+名词: white elephant; red tape; hot line • Adjective +noun 形容词＋名词如：highway, sweetheart • 3）形容词+名词+ed: white-haired; blue-eyed;short-sighted 3 + +ed: • 4）动词+名词Verb +noun : pickpocket; call-girl; push-button • 5）副词+名词Adverb +noun :downtown; overburden • 6）名词+动词Noun +verb :daybreak;nightfall;earthquake; birth control • 7）动词+副词Verb +adverb :breakdown; handout;makeup • 8）名词+形容词Noun +adjective :knee-deep; life-long;duty-free • 9）ing+名词-ing+noun:swimming pool; sewing machine; • 10）其它形式Other forms :never-to- be-forgotten; go-between; on-the-spot;

语用学chapter3 Morphology

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英语语言学
2
1)A word can consist of one or more than one morphemes, eg, “a barking dog” 2)A morpheme is different from a phoneme(语素是语言中最小意义单位的载体，本身有意义；音位是能区别意义的最小单位，本身没有意义)eg, pan—ban; barks(-s 在这有表示复数的语法意义，故它是语素，而“p ，b”在这本身没有意义，但有区别两词意义的作用，所以它们是不同的音位。
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英语语言学
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Stem（词干）is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.eg, desks→desk(词干)→即一个词去掉屈折词缀就是词干。 A) stem may be one morpheme ,that is stem=root=word= morpheme, eg, “work” B) stem may be “root+ derivational affix”:eg, teacher→teach+er; stem>root C) stem may be “root+root”; eg. housework→house+work 下词中哪个是词干：works/workers/workshops
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英语语言学
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What is a word?
We
have three approaches to the definition of “word”.

Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。

前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table, room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。

戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320

3.2 Morphemes 1. word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.2 Morphemes Discussion: Try to study the internal structures of the following words to find out the smaller meaningful components. internationalization blackboard worked tourists
2) Bound morphemes Free root: (free morpheme) a root which has a clear and definite meaning and which can be used as a word; All the root words are free roots.
3.1 Introduction Morphology: a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. predict: pre: before dict: speak Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
Alter the meaning or derivational affixes: grammatical category of the base

戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第三章课件 Morphology

Phoneme, morpheme and allomorph
Phoneme /p/ [p] Morpheme
{-s} plural marker of nouns Allomorphs:
[s] [z] [is]
3.4 Analyzing word structure
Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of
Stem
A stem is a form to which affixes can be attached.
Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached.
-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, ion, etc.
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
boy, girl, table, nation.
Bound morpheme: the morpheme that cannot occur alone as a word, e.g "s" in"dogs", "al" in "national" "dis" in disclosed",

第三章Morphology

P.77
Ⅱ What’s morpheme?
Morpheme is the minimal distinctive unit of sound and meaning. It is the most elemental unit of grammatical form, and the central concern of morphology. It is also considered as ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. It is the minimal linguistic signs in all language.
P.79
Affix
An AFFIX is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language and are generally classified into three subtypes.depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
For example: Unusable contains three pieces: un-, use, -able
P.81
Root, base, stem
Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes(inflectional & derivational) are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and-ism, what is left is the root -nation.

Chapter 3 Morphology

root forms
base for aﬃxes to attach to; cannot be analyzed into smaller parts
stem
formed
when a root is combined with an aﬃx (that other aﬃxes can continue to be attached to)
Chapter 3 Morphology
Grace Tan
Previewing questions:

1. What is the smallest significant unit of speech? 语言的最小意义单位是什么？ 2.What is the difference between bound morphemes and free morphemes?自由词素和粘着词素的区别是什么？ 3. What is the difference among base, stem and root?词基，词干和词根如何区分？ 4.What is morph and allomorph?什么是行素/词素和行素变体？ 5.What is inflectional affixes?何为曲折词缀？

Free morphemes

Lexical morphemes

Functional morphemes
Free morphemes

Lexical morphemes
open class of words book house love look long happy
1.
If a man’s wife is beautiful, two eyes are not enough for him. 2. Take time to deliberate; but when the time for action arrives, stop thinking and go in. 3. The writer liked joking and has taken things seriously. 4. One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse.

chapter 3 Morphology 英语专业语言学PPT

Derivational and inflectional morphemes (p.55)
Some derivational morphemes change the grammatical category of words (or grammatical class of words) and others
➢ the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,
➢ a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
When the root of the word is a free morpheme, we say the word has a free root, such as e.g. hopeful, interpersonal
When it is a bound morpheme, we say the word has a bound root, such as e.g. precede, receive, submit, retain, recur
The identification of words
(2) Relative uninterruptibility(相对的不可隔断性 ): new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in the word. (i.e. outlaws, touch-me-not)

Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology

the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
B. bound morpheme粘着语素 Morphemes which cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme.

Free morpheme & bound morpheme
Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.
Open class word & closed class word
Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese. Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.

unit 3 Morphology

• Affixes are of two types: inflectional 曲折词缀and derivational派生词缀.
• 3.3 Derivational and inflectional morphemes
• Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. -(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns. -(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense. -(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons. -ing, indicating progressive aspect. -er, indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs. -est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs. -‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns.
• 3.5 Morphological rules of word formation
• 3.5.1 Compounds
• Compounding is to join two separate words to produce a single form.
• It is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.

新编英语语言学教程课件chapter 3 morphology

boychecktwosets词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的
Chapter 3 Lexicon
范雪菲
3.1 What is word?
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
＊A physically definable unit (自然的有界限的单位）
• 3.1.3 classification of words
• Variable and invariable words
variable words----one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. “ follow-followsfollowing”
※some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic
analysis: particles, auxiliaries, pro-form(代词形式“So
do I “), determiners
Determiners
• It refers to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has: definite (the) or indefinite( an ), partitive ( some ), or universal (all).

chapter 3 morphology

英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案

语言学复习重点Chapter 3

第三章Morphology

Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结

第三章 形态学

语用学chapter3 Morphology

Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)

戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320

戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第三章课件 Morphology

第三章Morphology

Chapter 3 Morphology

chapter 3 Morphology 英语专业语言学PPT

Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology

unit 3 Morphology

新编英语语言学教程课件chapter 3 morphology

第三章形态学